RESISTANCE OF EXPERIMENT NO.

9
GALVANOMETER! BY KELVIN'S METHOD
Aim : To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by Kelvin's method using Whatstone's
meter bridge.
Apparatus: Wheatstone's meter bridge, a rheostat, a cell, a galvanometer, aresistance box, a
jockey, connecting wires, a cell or battery,a plug key, etc.
Formula :
G=R
where , = length of the bridge wire corresponding tò
tR= length of the bridge wire corresponding to R
G.= resistance of Galvanometer
R = resistance introduced in R.B
Circuit Diagram :

R
B

IG IR
D
A

O(cm) Metre scale 100

E K
R,
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. The galvanometer, whose resistance Gis to be determined is connected in one arm and
resistance box is connectedin the other arm of the Wheatstone's meterbridge. Ajockey is
directly connected from point B. A suitable resIstance is introduced in the resistance box.
3. The cireuit is closed and the galvanometer deflection is noted. The rheostat is adjusted so that
deflection.
the galvanometer shows nearly half the full scale
4, When the iockey is touched on the wire, the galvanometer deflection either increases or
decreases. Move the jockey alongthe wire till the galvanometer deflection is restored to the
original value. This is the null pont or balance point. Thus in this position, the null point is
constant when the jockey is touched or removed from the wire. Adjust R so that the balance
point is between 30 cm and 70 cm, preterably one reading near or in the middle of the bridoe
wire. Measure , G and .
S. Take three more readings by changing the values of R.
6. Interchange the position ofG and Rand take four readings by adjusting R. calculate the value
of G in each case. Find mean G.
71
 Observation table :
1) Galvanometer in left gap
Obs. No. R ohm ta cm cm
G=R G ohm Mean Gohm

50 6|· l2 ohm
55 ohn 55772
2 70 56
80 34 5116 ohm
4
2) Galvanometer in rightgap
Obs. No. R ohm t cm l, cm G=R ohm
Mean Gohm

50 47 53 4439 ohm
70 55 57-27 ohm 51:50 ohm
3 37 63 52- 85 ohm
4

Calculations :
Log calculation table : G = R
1) Galvanometer in left gap
Obs. No. 3
log R=a
log =b
(a+ b) =c
log , =d
(c-d) =e
antilog e =G
2) Galvanometer in right gap
Obs. No. 1 2 3 4
log R= a
log =b
(a + b) c
log , = d
(c - d) =e
antilog e=G
.:. the resistance of the galvanometer

G=
mean G (of left gap) + mean G (of right gap)
2

72
 Use the values of G and value of full scale deflection current and
find the value of
resistance required to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter of suitable range. Verifyshunt Mean 6 ohm
value ofone reading for 0. Also find the value of series the
= AALl- oq l672& -log
in avoltmeter of suitable range.
Verify the value for one reading of 0.
resistance required to covert galvanometer
A[2:2232
AEI:746]
.:.5.:5 7? ×10i
o-417 Meono ohm .
..AAL21898 -o477]
Calulationg S5:77
let.9p Rig kt Mean G
en lef ohm 55: T72
S|:

-Jae. . .***** Mean Gohm

G-50 X 9) ....

Rrghtgap. -................

6: A [loq So+ lo5s5 - loq 4s] Mean Ruistance galvanoneter

46534] GAL[:6790 + |: 6 r:
21-:7243) 5577 t S) 6
2
lo1:21 I07-2
G 6||2 ohnd G 4iy 34 Xlo' 2
2

G AL 2
S6 2 G: 70 x 45
.........
o306 - o30)0]
36..

G: A [g45) + G AL [loq 70 +loq 45 - log S5 G: 53 63

****.***:
2
G: A4:7909] 16435 - 7482J G A!L| 845) + 65 32- 32 Yo4)
6:5Go0 x1o' AEN579] .

55 ohms G: 5 727 10'

G: S1: 27 oh
..00X37
G: A2 [tog80+log 39- loy6] G: A4[log90 +
G- A [l:9s42 log 37 log 62
+1s 682 -|7993]
6:5||6 x1o G: A[ 72 31]
G 5): /6 ohmm G: 5:285 xIo'
S2: 85 ohm
Mean o
Mean Goh t=gop6l Meon RIgh Gap
2 t 55 +SI 16
Mean G *.**...
********.... ohm 4439 +57-2) +52-85
Mean Goho
..

l6728 Mean Gohm

74
(75)
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1 0 A connections are wrong or
E/E2 USING POTENTIOMETER jockey on the wire e.m.f, of the cell used is less). Starting from the point Atouch the
atvarious points and obtain the null pont P,. Note the length L, of the
potentiometer.
notentiometer wire between the
4. Now disconncct the cell E. bypoint A and P.,
the two given cclls using a onening kev K ond
Obtain the hull point P, and note the lenath ofthe connect
Aim: To comparec. m. f. of key, batter. the cell E,by closing key y
key, a rhcostat, twvo cells, jockey, four way notentiometer wire between the poinis
Apparatus: Apotentiomter, a plug Aand P,. Make sure that
galvanometer. connccting wires ctc. 5. Repeat the observations
rhcostat position is same as in step 2.
Diogram: positions.
alternately for egch cell gggin by adjusting the rheostat at ame
E
E, K, K Part -II (Sum and difference
E 1 Care has to be taken method)
that E, > E, & E> E, + E,
2. Connect the circuit as shown in digaram (ii) such that the positive terminal of E, is conneeted
unn00 to the negative terminal of E.. In this cose both cells assist each other i.e. sum method. Close
200 the' key K to bringthe circuit in working., gs current will start flowing. Adjust the rheostat at
E, minimum resistance for maximum current in the circuit.
300
400 Rh 3. Touch the jockey at one end of the potentiometer wire and note the direction of deflection
Eo(Sum) n the galvanometer. Touch the jockeyat the other end of the potentiometer wire. Ifthe direction
of deflection is opposite to that in the first case, the connections are correct. (If the deflection
R} O(E,-E,)
O (Difference) is in the same direction then either connections are wrong or e.m.f. of the cell used is less).
Starting from the point Atouch the jockey on the wire at various points and obtain the null
point P,. Note the length L, of the potentiometer wire between the point Aand P,
Formula: 4. Now connect cells, such that the negative terminal of E, is connected to the negative terminal
1}Individual cell method or Separate cell method of E,. Inthis case both cells oppose each other i.e. difference method. Obtain the null point P,
and note the length L, of the potentiometer wire between the points Aand P,. Make sure that
E, L, rheostat position is same as in step 2.
Where. L, is the balancing length when cell E, is in the circuit and L, is the balancing length when 5. Repeat the observations for each sum anddifference method by adjusting the rheostat at
cell E, is in the circuit.
different positions.
2) Sum and difference method -
Observations :
ie.
E, -E, L, E, L -L E.M.F. of battery, Es
Where, L, is the balancing length when both cells assist each other i.e. E,+ E, (sum E.M.F. of cell, E, =
L, is the balancing length when both cells oppose each other i.e. E,-E, method) and
(difference method). E.M.F. of cell, E,
Procedure:
Part - I(Individual cellmethod or Separate cell Part -I (Individual cell method or Separate cell method)
1. Care has to be taken that E, > E,, &E method)
>E, &E> E, Balancing length when Balancing length when
Conneet the circuit as shown in diagram (i). Close the keyK to Obs. No. E, is in the circuit E, is in the circuit EL
as current will start flowing. Adjust the bring the circuit in working, E, L,
rheostat at minimum resistance for maximum current L, cm L, cm
in the circuit.
1 180 122 1·44 ) V
Take the cell E, in the circuit by closing key K,. 221 49 |·529 V
Then touch the jockey at zero end of the 2
potentionmeter wire and note the direction of deflection in the |3 249 J6 S |501 V
at the other end of the
the first case, the potentiometer wire. If the direction of galvanometer. Touch the jockey
deflection is opposite to that in 4 219
connections are correct. (If the deflection is in the same Mean -50y
direction then either

(76

VGIN B0
For EducatiU
MRP 199/- Office Use
incl.of alltaxes
 /ROUGHWORK
NOTES /CALCULATIONS

Kal culaties
3]L.:.249o...l2 l6Sm

AAg249- loqr65]
=AA Lloq )80...og12 . .A[23962 - 2 21157
AA 2:2Ss3-2: o8641 AACO1747
AA.Lo.: l6 841 AL Lo7840
ALo l6811
..E...I 491 EL'So9

Li 219 n ,L2 cm
2 y: 227 un ,l2 l49 cn

AA [log.2.2.2..log1.1443 AALlog279.log19]
AL 23660- 21732 A24456 - 2 2765]
Ae Co1328] AA Co691
|S24
.E.:..)S24
E2

Mean E1:491tS14 + So9 t J:476

4
E.:):Sov
E
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13
DIODE
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER

diode in reverse bias and determine its reverse

characteristics of Zener
Aim: To study the
breakdown voltage.
Milliameter, Voltmeter, Connecting wires, etc. varigtiox.
Apparafus: DC power supply, regqulate the voltage acrossa load when there are
diode is used to the bridoe
connected between the output ofresistorp
Theory: The Zener Zener requlator is
The
in the supply or load current. load.The Zener requlator consists of a current l1miting with th
rectifier with the filter and the voltage V. and the Zener diode is connected in parallel
connected inseries with the input biased. It is selected with a breakdown voltage V, equal to the
load R,. The Zener diode is reverse R =V,-V, As longas V, is greater then V, 1s the Zener
load.
desired value of output across the voltage remains constant.
region and output
diode operates in the breakdown
Circuit diagram:
V= Variable input
I voltage
Rs R, = Resistance
Variable D.C. (mA
Power Supply
V,
mA =milliameter
Z=Zener Diode
R,= Load Resistance

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. observation table.
2. Vary the voltage (Vi) of the D.C. supply as shown in the
3. Note the current through the Zenerdiode (,).
4. Measure the voltage across Zenerdiode (V,)
5. Plot a graph of I, (-veYaxis) V, against (-ve Xaxis)
6. Note the breakdown voltage (V).
Observation table:
Sr. No. Input voltage Current through Zener Output voltage
across Zener
(V) volts I, (mA)
(V)volts
1 1
2 2
3 3
4

6
66
68 2
6-8 3
10

94
 Scale : Xaxis -le V

Sign of teacher

95
For OR Gate no.1. pin nos. 1 and 2 are inputs and pin no. 3 is output.
IC7432 (OR GATE)
Logic Equation
Y=A+ B
Observation table
Truth table for 'OR'Gate OUT PUT
INPUT OUT PUT INPUT
B (V) Y (V)
A B A()

1 1
1 1

)Quad -dual - input ANDgate IC

8

VCC

7408 Quad 2 Input AND

GND

IC7408 (AND GATE)

Logic Equation
Y=AB Observation table
-Truth table for 'AND' Gate INPUT OUT PUT
OUT PUT
INPUT A (V) B(V) Y (V)
B Y
A

1
0 0
1

NAND gate IC
3)Quad- dual- input
8
2
VCC

7400 Quad 2 Input NAND

GND
6 7

103
 IC 7400(NAND GATE)
Logic Equation
Y = A.B Observation table
Truth table for 'NAND' Gate OUT PUT
INPUT
INPUT OUT PUT
A() B(V) Y (V)
A B Y
0
1
1 0
1

4) Quad-dual- input NOR gate IC

VCC

7402 Quad 2 Input NOR

GND

IC7402 (NOR GATE)

Logic Equation
Y=A+B
Truth table for NOR' Gate Observation table
INPUT OUT PUT INPUT OUT PUT
A B A (V) B(V) Y (V)
0
0 0
1 0
oo
1 1 )

5)Hex Inverter (NOT Gate)

14 13 19 8
VCC A6 Y6 |AS Y5 A4 Y4

7404 Hex inverter

A3 Y3 GND
2 3 4 5 6

104)
IC7404 (HEX
Logic Equation INVERTER) NOT GATE
Y=A

Truth table for 'NOT Gate Observation table

INPUT
OUT PUT INPUT OUT PUT
A Y (V)
A (V)
1
1

Precautions :
1. Input voltage must be 5 volts.
) Connections should be made correctly.
3. Grounding should be proper for input, zero volt.
4 Connections must be tight.
Result: The different given logic IC's are tested and their truth table is veritied.
Questions
1. Explain what are the basic logic elements.

2. What are the applications of logic gates?

Gates?
NAND gate is a combination of which two basic
3.

of which two basic Gates?

4. NOR gate is a combination
B) Outputt Characteristics
1. For output characteristic kecp input current , constant and change voltage Ve:
Initially adust , cqual to
J. Now adjust potentiometer 1OuA by using
P, so that potentiometer
the current I, cqual to l mA. Note corresponding voltage
V
Increase in steps of l mA. Note
corresponding
5. After some readings the current will remain almostvoltage Vce voltage will go on increasing.
same but
Now change voltage V in stens of one volt and Note the corresponding current e
Take readings up to
Vr=5V.
, Plot graphs for input and
output characteristics.
8. From Output characteristic graph, calculate curent amplification factor þ ror B
Observation Table :1) Input Characteristics
Obs.No. Vr=5Vat I, =0
BE

ooooo 2
3
4 03

301
7 G2 30
8 62
9 46
10
2) Output Characteristics
Obs. No.I,=10 4 I, =20 L4 I,=30 uA
I, mA VV mA VV
CE

2
3
4

6
7

10
Calculations :
graph.
From Output Characteristic
1) For I, = 20 uA
mA
109
 amplification factor B=/,
2) Curent
Graph: characteristic (Graph 1)
a graph of /, against ,, for input
) Plot
(uA)

(0,0)| Va (V)

a graph of 1 against V for output characteristic (Graph 2)

2) Plot
(mA)

30uA
20uA
10uA
OuA
624 6 8 10 V(V)
Conclusion :
The input characteristic is similar to the forward bias characteristicof PN junction diode.
Thi In put charqteniati
Result : eurrentemplification-factor f-t ohNPN Traaisto iu studed
Precautions :
1. In output characteristic while taking readings always check that the input current I, remains
constant.
2. Use device (transistor)within itscurrent and voltage limits.
3. Check polarities, positions of microammeter and milliammeter.
Questions
1. What do you mean by common emitter configuration ?

2. How biasing is done for a transistor?

Renark an sign oficacher

(110)
 lemebu
Scale : Xoxy

Sign of teacher.

(111)
 frequency pan. loops
are the
scale,
WeightsPan Weights light
hammer.
keeping
unknownmetre 4-Pan
a metre.
to horizontal. distinct
rubber, Pully Pully
end
rubber
tension.
other one
deternmiSnbox,
EXPERIMENT
MELDE' e be
stable
pattern
of
the
the is
stringto pan. awith changing
weight and pulley) the
experiment.
cm
g/
gently
3NO.
ACTIVITY
and forkthe to
position.
parallel/perpendicular vibrating
string. =T80
waves pan, that and weights
tuning a
prongs
by
Strings fork that loops
Strings such well-defined.)the gwt)m
light
stationary
fomation
demonstrate the tuning adding its such of =
string. pulley throughout
number = string
of of
prongs the by onestring the 122
the on M the
flexible
experiment. (betweentension
striking be formed
vibrating different = of
of the Adjust (Weight
should constant length)
position
Parallel
position/Perpe
light of by
suitable
one pulley.
string (P) obtain =359
Melde's the vibrating the (Nodes string unit
fork, fork
Tuning to loops
the Tuning stringthe the in a
fork
in
to per
tuning fork overof under (T) string.
of vibrating
procedure M, (mass
by the length tuning tuning
forktensionnumber =
fork string pan
A of string the density
tuning end theCalculate
TP²
10.
the
ipparatus: the the the the on the the of Observations:
To
Aim: Diagram: (a) (b) one theAdjust
Procedure: Adjust Set
theAdiustformed
CountRepeat
length
of
Keep MassLincar
Tie Pass
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. 2.
 Obs.no. TP2
Weight added in the Tension Number of loops
pan, M(gwt) T
1764 Xp$
4900 6
2
6980 |:S64 xo5
Mean TP² =):66 8XIo5 47]7
Calculations:
jMean Tp?: 5 3093 o
P= 4100x 36 aTp:G60xes 5\Teq177816
97ootlg|log6%6o+ lop Alog17+logJ-AAogso43-lgo
|Tp-og 2o4 -6993 - o-4n]os
A 39go3+) AAfo
lo5
EA [O 2222)
E ALS 24 65) |: AR[S 2342] A[5-1944]
Tp 1·564x/05 Mean Tp |·668 xjoS
Tp- I:764 x/b5Tp J15x\05

Results:
TP²=66 8x105 = constant.
that
Precautions:
linear density of the strina, choose the string as long as possible so
1. In determination of the
accurately.
its mass can be determined
gently with a rubber hammer.
2. Strike the tuning fork
should be light. It should not touch the table or stand.
3. The pan
Questions
stationary waves?
1. What are the

waves in real life.

someexamples ofstatinary
2. Give

of teacher
Remark and sign

123
 ACTIVITY NO,6
CIRCUIT
HOUSEHOLD
simple housc hoBd clectrical circuit fuse. Dowe.
and deonstrote u conICctng witCS, bulbs,
Aim : lo design. buld pinsockets, flexible
Apparatus: On-0fswitches. threc
supplv. etc.
Diagram:
Tusc

Main switch S
S,
Mains live +
AC mains°
230V
L
Mains neutral
N
Black View

On-Off switches, L,, L,, L,- Live terminals, N- Neutral terminals, E- Earthing
S,. S..S,-
Procedure :
S,, S,, S, respectively.
1. Connect the live wires L,, L,, L, inseries with the switches
Conncct each set of Live wire and switch in parallel combination with each other as shown
2.
in circuit diagram.
A.C. mains.
3. Connect the fuse in series with main switch and the
terminal of the AC mains.
4. Join all neutral wires togethcr and conncct tothe neutral
connection.
5. Similarly, join allearthing wires together and give it to the earthing
6. Check the circuit once again to cnsure that household circuit is complete.
Result: Houschold circuit is verified.
Precautions :
1 Live wireand neutral wire should be well separated.
2. While making connection donot connect the wire of A.C. mains.
3. All connections should be tight.
Questions
Whotistouvethotteireuit?
when it..i,. mace r. .andi
when t . u Suithed atp.
off
1.All blbs. ano

(130)
 ACTIVITY NO.7
VARIATIONOF POTENTIAL DROP WITHLENGTHOF WIRE
steady current.
Aim: Tostudy the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
Apparatus: Potentiometer, battery (or driving cell), plug key, voltmeter, rheostat, jockey
connecting wires,cte.
Circuit diagram :

A P
E

KO B

Rh

Formula : For a potentiometer wire of uniforn density and crosS-sectional area carrying a
steady current, potential drop (V) is proportional to length () of the wire.
Potential gradient k= V/P

Procedure :
1. Arrange and connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram close the key K.
2. Touch the jockey at length 60 cm of the wire from end A. Note down the voltmeter reading.
3. Touch the jockey at different length such as, 120 cm, 180 cm, 240 cm of the wire from end A
and note the voltmeter reading in each case.
Observations:
Least count of voltmeter =0:0J..y
Ob. No. Length of potentiometer Voltmeter Reading
wire cm V' volt Ratio Vlem

1
7
T 333 x|0°3
132
Calculations :

Joo 8+7+73337 xio

|FA[log7-log x/o
[16021-0 699o;xA[os45/-0-00o)xo 29-58 x1o>
2-0414- Hn6]
FA[o8653)X1oA[log2458-logj*o
A4[471o- o- 6
:0000x|0 AA [o-8689]x/03
E7333 X/0v/m
V7333 xIoV/em
Result :
xjo
Potential gradient VIL7394.=Constant,
Precautions :
1. Allthe connections should be tight.
that the voltmeter gives full scale deflection.
Z. By Closing the key K' adjust the rheostat so
Questions
1. Define potential gradient.

advantage of potentiometer over voltmeter?

2. What is

of teacher
Remark and sign

133)
 ve probe of DMM to the centre terminal of any transistor (npu o P
4) Connect the
negative
shown, it is an npn probe in turn to other two terminals. If both the
times forward bias is
transistor
5) Ifthe above condition
and the centre terminal is base'
is not satisfied, repeat with other two terminals until you findthe 'base
6) If nOne of the three terminals satisfy the test for 'basc' terminal, then this may be a pnp
transistor.

7) Conneet tne ncgativeprobe of )MM to the centre tcrminal of the transistor and
of posiu
DMM to remainingterminals in
8) Ifboth the times forward turn.
bias is shown, then the selected centre terminal is 'base'and it is the
pnp ttransistor. If the above terminals, untilyou
condition is not satisfied, repeat with other two
find the 'base',
ii) To see the unidirectional flow ofcurrent in case of adiode and an
LED.
1) Select the
diode-check range of DMM.
2) Connect the two probes of DMM to two terminals of a diode/ an L
In case of a diode -
adjacent to
wen e negatrve probe of DMM is connected to the cathode (i.e. (n) terminal
When the
Tmig maked on diode) it will show forward bias. Thus current (flows through diode.
DMM probes are interchanged. it will show reverse bias or open circuit. That is, no Current
flows through diode. Thus there isunidirectional flow of current ina diode.
In case of an LED -
negative
When positive probe of DMM is connected to anode (long terminal of LED) and
show forward bias.
probe of DMM is connected to cathode (short terminal ofLED)DMM will
LED lights up indicating flow of current.
does not light up,
When DMM probes are interchanged, DMM will show reverse bias. LED
current in LED.
indicating no flow of current. Thus, there is unidirectional flow of
transistor) is in workingorder.
iv) Tocheck whether a given electroniccomponent (diode,
procedure.
1. Test the componentusing the above in workingorder.
2.Diode/LED must satisfy both forward bias and reverse bias tests, it is
3In case of atransistor. base'identification test should be checked, so that it
is in working
in working order.
order. If base' is not identified, then transistor is not
Observation Table :
Forward bias Reverse bias
Transistor
Type of transistor
Sr. No CB BE CB BE
X NPN

2
135)
Result:
NPM type
I. Transistor is ..
2. Transistor is type
3. Diodis twovking type
tondiiorn
1.
Ens:
Precau
Tum the function knob of the DMM/Multimeter gently so as not to wear out its contact points
inside.
function knob to the OFF position) when not using.
2. Switch of the Multimeter. (i.e. turn its
Questions
1. Which type of error is present in multimeter?

2. Can we distinguish between Zener diode and rectifier diode using amultimeter?

Remark and sign of teacher

136)