Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-

Integrated Manufacturing

Lecture 6:
Automation and Control Technologies
(Part II)

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 1
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control
Components for computer-Process Interface to collect data from and transmit signals to the automated process.
1) Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process variables.
2) Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process parameters.
3) Devices to convert continuous analog signals into digital data and digital data into analog signals.
4) Input/output devices for discrete data.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any©2015 Pearson
form or by anyEducation, Inc., Upper
means, without Saddle
permission in River,
writingNJ 07458.
from All rights reserved.
the publisher. This material
For the exclusive is adopters
use of protected of
under all copyright
the book laws as
Automation, they currently
Production exist.and
Systems, NoComputer-Integrated
portion of this material Fourth in2
may be reproduced,
Manufacturing,
any form
Edition, or byP.any
by Mikell means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth
Groover.
 Sensors
o Sensor is a device that converts a physical stimulus or variable of interest (such as temperature, force, pressure
or displacement) into a measureable (usually an electrical quantity such as voltage).
o Classified in various ways:
• Analog sensor produces a continuous analog signal, whose value varies in an analogous manner with the
variable being measured, such as thermocouples, strain gages, and potentiometers.
• Discrete sensor produces an output that can have only certain values.
• Binary sensor produces an on/off signal.
• Digital sensor produces a digital output signal.
• Active sensor responds to the stimulus without the need for any external power, i.e. a thermocouple, which
responds to changes in temperature by generating small voltages that is functionally related to temperature.
Passive sensor requires an external source of power in order to operate, such as a thermistor, which also
measures temperature, but its operation requires an electric current to be passed through it.

o Transfer function is the relationship between the value of between the value of the physical stimulus and the
value of the signal produced by the sensor in response to the stimulus.
𝑆 = 𝑓(𝑠)
Where 𝑆 = the output signal; 𝑠 = the stimulus, and 𝑓(𝑠) = the functional relationship between them.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 3
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Few sensors achieve perfect scores in all of these criteria, and the control system engineer must decide which features
are the most important in selecting among the variety of available sensors and transducers for a given application.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 4
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Actuators

An actuator is a hardware device that converts a controller command signal into a change in a physical
parameter such as a position or velocity change.
o Actuators can be classified into three categories according to the type of amplifier:
o Electric actuators include electric motors of various kinds, solenoids, and electromechanical relays.
o Hydraulic actuators use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal.
o Pneumatic actuators use compressed air (typically “shop air” in the factory) as the driving power

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 5
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Electric Motors
An electric motor converts electrical power into mechanical power, and most electric motors are rotational.
o DC motors: are powered by a constant current and voltage. The continuously switching magnetic field is
achieved by means of a rotary switching device, called a commutator.
o AC Motors: a rectifier is added to convert the alternating current to direct current.
o Stepper Motors: provides rotation in the form of discrete angular displacements, called step angles. Each
angular step is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse.
o Linear Motors. A linear electric motor provides a linear motion directly; it does not require a rotary-to-linear
conversion.
Rotary-to-Linear Motion Conversion: converting the rotary motions into linear or translational motions to
achieve linear motion and the application of force.

6
 Other Types of Actuators

o Electrical Actuators Other Than Motors: a solenoid consists of a movable plunger inside a stationary wire coil.
o Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators: are powered by pressurized fluids. Oil is used in hydraulic systems, and
compressed air is used in pneumatic systems.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 7
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Analog-Digital Conversions
Continuous analog signals from a process must be converted into digital values to be used by the computer, and
digital data generated by the computer must be converted to analog signals to be used by analog actuators.
Analog-to-Digital Converters
Consists of the following steps and hardware devices: Sensor and transducer. Signal conditioning. Multiplexer.
Amplifier. Analog-to-digital converter.
Digital-to-Analog Converters
The DAC transforms the digital output of the computer into a continuous signal to drive an analog actuator or
other analog device. Consists of two steps: (1) decoding, in which the digital output of the computer is converted
into a series of analog values at discrete moments in time, and (2) data holding, in which each successive value
is changed into a continuous signal (usually electrical voltage) used to drive the analog actuator during the
sampling interval.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 8
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data
Discrete data can be processed by a digital computer without the kinds of conversion procedures required for
continuous analog signals. They can be divided into three categories: (a) binary data, (b) discrete data other than
binary, and (c) pulse data.
Contact Input/Output Interfaces:
Contact interfaces read binary data from the process into the computer and send binary signals from the computer
to the process, respectively.
o A contact input interface is a device by which binary data are read into the computer from some external
source (e.g., a process).
o The contact output interface is a device that communicates on/off signals from the computer to the process.
Pulse Counters and Generators:
o A pulse counter is a device that converts a series of pulses into a digital value. The value is then entered into
the computer through its input channel.
o A pulse generator is a device that produces a series of electrical pulses whose total number and frequency are
determined and sent by the control computer.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 9
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Numerical control (NC)

o Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the mechanical actions of a machine
tool or other equipment are controlled by a program containing coded alphanumeric data.
o The alphanumeric data represent relative positions between a work head and a work part as well as other
instructions needed to operate the machine.
o The applications divide into two categories: (1) machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning,
and other metal working; and (2) other applications, such as assembly, rapid prototyping, and inspection.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 10
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Fundamentals of NC Technology
Basic Components of an NC System
An NC system consists of three basic components:
o A part program of instructions is the set of detailed step-by-step commands that direct the actions of the
processing equipment.
o A machine control unit is a microcomputer and related control hardware that stores the program of
instructions and executes it by converting each command into mechanical actions of the processing equipment,
one command at a time.
o Processing equipment performs the actual productive work (e.g., machining).

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 11
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 NC Coordinate Systems

To program the NC processing equipment, a part programmer must define a standard axis system by which the
position of the work head relative to the work part can be specified.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 12
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Motion Control Systems
Motion control system is to achieve the different types of movements as desired.
o Point-to-Point Versus Continuous Path Control. move the
o worktable to a programmed location without regard for the path taken to get to that location.
o Continuous path systems are capable of continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes.
o Interpolation Methods.
o Absolute Versus Incremental Positioning.
• Absolute positioning: the work head locations are always defined with respect to the origin of the
axis system.
• Incremental positioning: the next work head position is defined relative to the present location.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 13
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Computers and Numerical Control
Computer numerical control (CNC) is defined as an NC system whose MCU consists of a dedicated
microcomputer rather than a hardwired controller.

The CNC Machine Control Unit

The MCU consists of the following components and subsystems:
o Central processing unit: is the brain of the machine control unit (MCU). It manages the other components
in the MCU based on software contained in main memory.
o Memory: is required for the various programs and
o data needed to operate the CNC system.
o I/O interface: provides communication between the various components of the CNC system, other computer
systems, and the machine operator.
o Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed: are hardware components that control the position
and velocity (feed rate) of each machine axis as well as the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle.
o Sequence controls for other machine tool functions: achieve other auxiliary functions.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 14
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 CNC Software
There are three types of software programs used in CNC systems:
o Operating system software is to interpret the NC part programs and generate the corresponding control
signals to drive the machine tool axes.
o Machine interface software is used to operate the communication link between the CPU and the machine
tool to accomplish the CNC auxiliary functions.
o Application software consists of the NC part programs that are written for machining (or other)
applications in the user’s plant.

Distributed Numerical Control

The configuration of the new DNC is very similar to that

shown in Figure 7.8 except that the central computer is
connected to MCUs, which are themselves computers;

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 15
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Applications of NC

Machine Tool Applications

o Machining Operations and NC Machine Tools.

There are four common types of machining operations: (a) turning, (b) drilling, (c) milling, and (d) grinding.
o NC Application Characteristics.
Batch production. Repeat orders. Complex part geometry. Much metal needs to be removed from the work
part. Many separate machining operations on the part. The part is expensive.
o NC for Other Metalworking Processes.
Punch presses for sheet metal hole punching. Presses for sheet metal bending. Welding machines. Thermal
cutting machines, Tube bending and wire bending machines. Wire EDM.

Other NC Applications
Rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing. Water jet cutters and abrasive water jet cutters. Component
placement machines. Coordinate measuring machines. Wood routers and granite cutters. Tape laying
machines for polymer composites. Filament winding machines for polymer composites.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 16
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of NC

o Advantages:
• Nonproductive time is reduced.
• Greater accuracy and repeatability.
• Lower scrap rates.
• Inspection requirements are reduced.
• More complex part geometries are possible.
• Engineering changes can be accommodated more gracefully.
• Simpler fixtures.
• Shorter manufacturing lead times.
• Reduced parts inventory.
• Less floor space.
• Operator skill requirements are reduced.
o Disadvantages:
• Higher investment cost.
• Higher maintenance effort.
• Part programming.
• Higher utilization of NC equipment.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 17
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Analysis of Positioning Systems
o An NC positioning system converts the coordinate axis values in the NC part program into relative positions
of the tool and work part during processing.
o Two types of control systems are used in positioning systems: (a) open loop and (b) closed loop
• Open-Loop Positioning Systems
An open-loop positioning system typically uses a stepper motor to rotate the leadscrew or ball screw.
• Closed-Loop Positioning Systems
A closed-loop NC system uses servomotors and feedback measurements to ensure that the worktable is
moved to the desired position.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 18
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Precision in Positioning Systems

o To accurately machine or otherwise process a work part, an NC positioning system must possess a high
degree of precision.
o Three measures of precision can be defined for an NC positioning system:
• Control resolution is defined as the distance separating two adjacent addressable points in the axis
movement.
• Accuracy is defined under worst case conditions in which the desired target point lies in the middle
between two adjacent addressable points.
• Repeatability refers to the ability of the positioning system to return to a given addressable point that has
been previously programmed.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 19
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 NC Part Programming
o NC part programming consists of planning and documenting the sequence of processing steps to be performed
by an NC machine.
o Highly manual to highly automated methods. The methods are:
• Manual part programming: the programmer prepares the NC code using a low level machine language.
• Computer-assisted part programming: the various tasks are divided between the human part programmer
and the computer.
• CAD/CAM part programming: is a computer interactive graphics system equipped with software to
accomplish certain tasks in design and manufacturing and to integrate the design and manufacturing
functions.
• Manual data input: the operator manually enters the part geometry data and motion commands directly into
the MCU prior to running the job.

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 20
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Summary of this lecture

o We learnt about the Automation and Control Technologies (Part II).

o In the next lecture, we will learn about Automation and Control Technologies (Part III).

©2015 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist. No portion of this material may be reproduced, in
any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth 21
Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
 Multidisciplinary
The Control Systems Engineer knowledge & Skill Sets

22