EG2202

Mechatronics and
Systems
Sensors and Transducers

Dr Mohsen Ghavami
2024-25

1
Contents of this
session
• Sensors and transducers
• Performance terminology
• Position, movement and force
• Thermo-fluids
• Optics

2
Learning outcomes
After this session, you should be able to:

Describe terms such as range, span, error, accuracy, sensitivity,

hysteresis and non-linearity error and repeatability.

Evaluate sensors used for measurement of displacement, position

and proximity, velocity and motion, force, fluid pressure, liquid flow,
liquid level, temperature, and light intensity.

Explain the problem of bouncing when mechanical switches are

used for inputting data and how it might be overcome.

3
Sensors and Transducers
Sensor:
An element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured.
Transducer:
An element that when subject to some physical change experience a related
change.
Analogue/Digital:
Whether the output signal of the transducer is analogue or digital.

4
Performance Terminology
Accuracy
error ±
actual value measured value

Transducer
quantity output
signal

Range & Span

Range and span

The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.
The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum value. Thus, for
example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range of 0 to 50
kN and a span of 50 kN.

Error: It is important to note that no sensor is able to provide the measured value
exactly equal to the actual value. The difference is called error and obviously, can
be negative or positive.

5
Performance Terminology
Accuracy
error ±
actual value measured value

• sensitivity
Transducer • hysteresis
quantity output • non-linearity
signal • repeatability
• dead band • stability
• Resolution
• output
impedance

Range & Span

Sensitivity: either to represent how much output is there per unit input for
example, a resistance thermometer might have a sensitivity of 0.5 Ω/°C. or
sensitivity of the sensor to the external changes (environmental changes). For
example, a transducer for the measurement of pressure might be quoted as
having a temperature sensitivity of ±0.1% of the reading per °C change in
temperature.

Hysteresis: maximum difference in output for increasing and decreasing trends.

Non-linearity: expresses the error caused by assuming a linear relationship

between the input and output. The error can be defined in three methods, but
overall, the non-linearity error is given as the percentage of the full range.

Repeatability (reproducibility): The ability of the sensor to give the same

output for a repeated measurement of the same input and is normally given a
percentage of full scale (range).

Stability (drift): the ability of the sensor to give the same output for the same
input after a period of time. It is more commonly called drift. The zero shift or
zero-drift is used for the changes in the output when there is zero input.
Represented as the percentage of the full scale.

6
Examples
Pressure transducer
Ranges: 70 to 1000 kPa, 2000 to 70 000 kPa
Supply voltage: 10 V d.c. or a.c. r.m.s.
Full range output: 40 mV
Non-linearity and hysteresis: ±0.5% of full range output
Temperature range: −54°C to +120°C when operating
Thermal zero shift: 0.030% of full range output/°C

The range indicates that the transducer can be used to measure pressures
between 70 and 1000 kPa or 2000 and 70 000 kPa. It requires a supply of 10 V
d.c. or a.c. r.m.s. for its operation and will give an output of 40 mV when the
pressure on the lower range is 1000 kPa, and on the upper range 70 000 kPa.
Non-linearity and hysteresis will lead to errors of ±0.5% of 1000 kPa, i.e. ±5
kPa on the lower range and ±0.5% of 70 000 kPa, namely ±350 kPa, on the
upper range.
The transducer can be used between the temperatures of −54 and +120°C.
When the temperature changes by 1°C the output of the transducer for zero
input will change by 0.030% of 1000 = 0.3 kPa on the lower range and 0.030% of
70 000 = 21 kPa on the upper range.

7
Examples
Flowmeter
Ranges: 2 to 100 l/min
Supply voltage: 12 to 24 VDC
Temperature compensated within (15 to 35 °C), otherwise: ±2 % F.S.
Non-linearity and hysteresis: ±0.5% of full range output
Full range output: 4 to 20 mA
Response time: 0.5 s
Temperature range: 0°C to +50°C
Repeatability: ±1 % F.S.

Non-linearity and hysteresis will lead to errors of ±0.5% of 100 l/min, i.e. ±0.5
l/min.
The measurement out of temperature compensated range (15 to 35 °C), will
incur ±2 % of 100 l/min, i.e. ±2 l/min.
The repeatability error is ±1 % of the full range (100 l/min), ±1 l/min.
So, a total error of ±1.5 l/min within the compensated range and ±3.5 l/min out
of the compensated range.

8
Static & Dynamic Responses
Static characteristics: sensor values in steady state conditions
Dynamic characteristics: sensor performance when the input value changes

A step
change
in input

9
Static & Dynamic
Responses
• Terminology:
• Response time: the time takes for the transducer to
give certain percentage (usually 95%) of the steady
state response.
• Time constant: The 63.2% of the full steady state
response time (sensor inertia). Why 63.2%?
• Rise time
• Settling time

Rise time and settling time are defined bearing the same concept as the
response time in mind. Find their differences with the defined parameters.

10
Application

• The main sensor types based on the

measurement application:
• Displacement & position
• Velocity
• Force
• Pressure
• Fluid flow
• Liquid level
• Temperature
• Light intensity

11
Displacement & position sensors
Potentiometer to measure rotary or linear movements.

𝑉 constant input voltage

𝑉 output voltage
One can say:
And the output voltage will be proportional
to the angular rotary movement.
However, we have to consider the impact of
load resistance

12
Displacement & position sensors
The actual resistances applied on VL and Vs sides are:

What happens if RL is infinity?

Error in real condition:

Potential divider circuit

Example: calculate the error for a potentiometer with 500 Ω and load resistance of 10 kΩ, 4V
supply voltage when the slider is halfway through its maximum travelling length.
i.e. 0.625% of full scale

13
Displacement & position sensors
Strain gauges
When subject to strain, their resistance change

∆𝑅
𝐺𝜀
𝑅
G is called gauge factor.
Impact of temperature. a) metal wire, b) metal foil, c) semiconductor

Examples of measuring displacement

a) cantilever beam, b) ring, c) U-shape

For metals, G is about 2 and R around 100 Ω.

G for the semiconductor strain gauges:
Silicon p-type: +100 or higher
Silicon n-type: -100 or lower
Resistance is between 1000 Ω to 5000 Ω

A problem with all strain gauges is that their resistance changes not only with
strain but also with temperature. Ways of eliminating the temperature effect have
to be used and we will discuss them later. Semiconductor strain gauges have a
much greater sensitivity to temperature than metal strain gauges.

When the flexible element is bent or deformed as a result of forces being applied
by a contact point being displaced, then the electrical resistance strain gauges
mounted on the element are strained and so give a resistance change which can
be monitored. The change in resistance is thus a measure of the displacement or
deformation of the flexible element. Such arrangements are typically used for
linear displacements of the order of 1 to 30 mm and have a non-linearity error of
about ±1% of full range.

14
Displacement & position sensors
Capacitive element
When subject to displacement the capacitance changes.

𝜀 𝜀 𝐴
𝐶
𝑑

Where:
𝜀 is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between plates.
𝜀 is the permittivity of the free space
𝐴 is overlap area between plates
𝑑 is the distance between plates

For the case of moving plate (a):

𝐶 − Δ𝐶 (𝑥 is the added distance between plates), therefore:
/
− −1 − ⁄
(Non-linear relation between Δ𝐶 and 𝑥)

Capacitive sensors for the monitoring of linear displacements might take the
forms shown. In (a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the
plate separation changes; in (b) the displacement causes the area of overlap to
change; in (c) the displacement causes the dielectric between the plates to
change.

15
Displacement & position sensors
Differential Capacitive element (push-pull displacement sensor)

𝜀 𝜀 𝐴 𝜀 𝜀 𝐴
𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑−𝑥

This makes an a.c. bridge and it can be shown that the output
voltage will be of the form V = a + bx (Show how).
Non-linearity and hysteresis: around 0.01% full scale
Accelerometers to trigger airbags (e).
Accelerometers to detect change of
orientation in mobile phones (f).
Capacitive sensor for touch screens

Link

Differential capacitive sensor is typically used for monitoring displacements from

a few millimetres to hundreds of millimetres. Non-linearity and hysteresis are
about ±0.01% of full range.
This same principle is used for accelerometers. Figure (e) shows an
accelerometer used in automobiles to trigger airbags. It has a cell composed of
fixed plates attached to the substrate and movable plates attached to the cell
frame. When the frame is displaced, as when the car crashes, the differential
capacitance between the capacitors in a unit capacitor cell changes and is
detected by on-chip circuity and used to trigger airbag deployment.
A similar principle is used with accelerometer microchips, e.g. Bosch BMA422 (2
× 2 × 0.95) mm, which have capacitor plates mounted on a cantilever that
deflects when subject to acceleration (f) and so changes the capacitances with
fixed capacitor plates. Such an accelerometer is used to detect accelerations
resulting from situations such as rotation of a mobile phone and so adjust the
picture accordingly, or the dropping of a laptop to switch off the hard drive.

A capacitive sensor which can be used to determine when and where a finger
touches or is close to a screen also uses capacitive detection principle. It
consists of a dielectric such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) between electrodes
in the form of an array of strips overlapping at right angles to each other. The
result is an array of capacitor elements formed at each point where the
electrodes overlap. By selectively scanning a single row and column, the
capacitance at the location can be measured. The capacitance of such a parallel-

16
plate capacitor element depends on whether a grounded conductive object such
as a finger is touching it or close to it., e.g. within 10 cm. The earthed finger
effectively connects another capacitor in series with the element and so changes
the overall capacitance at that point and the voltage on the element at that point.
Such a form of capacitor also finds a use in detecting the presence of a finger
close to a screen, the screen involving the capacitor matrix, and so in applications
with smartphone screens.

16
Displacement & position sensors
LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer, consists of three
symmetrically positioned coils along an insulated tube.
The central coil is the primary coil receiving fixed a.c. voltage.
e.m.f will be generated in the other two coils.
𝑑𝑖
𝑒 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
The rod is primarily positioned central to the tube.
It receives displacement.
When central, the e.m.f from other two coils are equal and
opposite. Hence, the output voltage will be zero.
When rod moves either way, an output voltage is generated.
For a sinusoidal input current to primary coil, induced e.m.fs are:
𝜐 𝑘 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 and 𝜐 𝑘 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
Output voltage = 𝜐 − 𝜐 𝑘 − 𝑘 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙

The reference book (Bolton) uses M for inductance of the coli (self). However, it
is much more common in electrical engineering to use L.

When the core is more in 2 than in 1 we have k1 < k2. A consequence of k1 being
less than k2 is that there is a phase change of 180° in the output when the core
moves from more in 1 to more in 2. Thus
Output voltage = 𝜐 − 𝜐 = 𝑘 − 𝑘 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 = 𝑘 − 𝑘 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋 − 𝜙

17
Displacement & position sensors
The output voltage will be given the same for two different
displacements.
A phase sensitive demodulator and a low-pass filter can help.

General characteristics:
Range about ± 2 to ± 400 mm
Non-linearity errors about ± 0.25%
Some of the applications:
Civil/Structural monitoring, seafloor wellheads, oil & gas
platforms, desalination systems and satellite controls.

Typically, LVDTs have operating ranges from about ± 2 to ± 400 mm with non-
linearity errors of about ± 0.25%. LVDTs are very widely used as primary
transducers for monitoring displacements. The free end of the core may be
spring loaded for contact with the surface being monitored, or threaded for
mechanical connection. They are also used as secondary transducers in the
measurement of force, weight and pressure; these variables are transformed into
displacements which can then be monitored by LVDTs.

A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the

measurement of rotation (Figure 2.14); it operates on the same principle as the
LVDT. The core is a cardioid-shaped piece of magnetic material and rotation
causes more of it to pass into one secondary coil than the other. The range of
operation is typically ± 40° with a linearity error of about ± 0.5% of the range.

18
Proximity Sensors
Inductive proximity sensors.
Coil supplied with a.c. when a metallic object gets close, the current
through the coil changes. Inductive
Non-metallic objects are not detected. Detection range: 8mm

Sensing range: 3 – 10 mm.

Capacitive proximity sensors detect metallic and non-metallic

objects. (find out how do they work) Capacitive
Detection
range:
Pneumatic proximity sensors 2mm

Measures
fractions of mm
within a range of
3 to 12 mm.

Inductive proximity sensors consist of a coil which is supplied by an alternating

current and as a consequence produces an oscillating magnetic field. When a
metallic object moves close to the end of the coil, eddy currents build up in the
object and, as a consequence, reduce the oscillating magnetic field of the coil
and so affect the current through the coil. Non-metallic objects are not detected.
The sensor’s detection circuit monitors the current and triggers an output from
the sensor’s output circuitry when the current has dropped to a sufficient level.
Sensors typically have a sensing range of up to about 3 to 10 mm. Such a sensor
can only be used for detecting metal objects but is reliable, robust and resistant
to environmental conditions. They are used as proximity switches for such
applications as end-of-stroke sensing of pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders and
open and closed indication of power clamps and grippers.

Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed air, displacement or the

proximity of an object being transformed into a change in air pressure. The basic
principle of such sensors is shown in the slide.. Low-pressure air is allowed to
escape through a port in the front of the sensor. This air, in the absence of any
nearby object, escapes and in doing so also reduces the pressure in the nearby
sensor output port. However, if there is a nearby object, the air cannot escape as
readily and the result is that the pressure increases in the sensor output port. The
output pressure from the sensor thus depends on the proximity of objects. This
pressure signal can then be used to actuate a directional control pneumatic
valve.

19
The sensors are used in monitoring the positions of edges of sheets in industrial
processes, detecting the presence of objects on conveyor belts, and can be used
with transparent objects.

19
Encoders
Overall, there are two types; Incremental and absolute encoders.

Incremental encoders:
Pulses are generated using an LED beam light and a photodetector.
Two tracks are used to detect the direction of rotation.
An additional inner track with just one hole may also be used to
locate the “home” position.
The number of slots determine the resolution. For example, 60 slots
means the resolution is 360/60 = 6°

20
Encoders
Absolute encoders:
Used for the measurement of angular displacement. The output is in form of a binary number of
several digits, each such number representing a particular angular position.
Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks. The
number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the
number of tracks. Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits
and so the number of positions that can be detected is 210,
i.e. 1024, a resolution of 360 = 1024/0.35°.
Require a decoder, hence more complex.

Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks. The number of bits in the

binary number will be equal to the number of tracks. Thus with 10 tracks there
will be 10 bits and so the number of positions that can be detected is 210, i.e.
1024, a resolution of 360 = 1024/0.35°.

Optical encoders are sensitive to dust, smoke and contamination.

A rotary magnetic encoder will be more suitable in such situations.

21
Limit switches
Limit switches are mechanical switches that include an actuator with electrical contacts.

Reed switch consists of two magnetic switch contacts sealed in a glass tube. When a magnet is
brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds are attracted to each other and close the switch
contacts. It is a non-contact proximity switch.

When an object comes into contact with the actuator, electrical contacts are
opened or closed, so making or breaking electrical circuits. They can thus be
used to determine whether an object is passing the actuator and contacting it,
and hence at a particular time is in a particular position. They can also be used to
determine whether an object has at the end of its travel reached the actuator.
They were first used to determine the limit of travel of an object, hence the name
‘limit switch’. They are primarily used where the switch actuation and wear are
minimal, otherwise other sensors are used.

Typically, a limit switch consists of a switch body containing the electrical

contacts and an operating head generally incorporating a lever arm or plunger
(see the figure in the slide). When the target object applies force to the lever arm
or plunger its resulting movement causes the electrical contacts in the switch
body to make or break. The roller type is best suited to applications where a
sliding contact causes the rotary part to rotate. The plunger type is best suited
where short controlled movements are required.

22
Choosing a Proximity Switch
The choice of proximity sensor is determined by the range required and the type of object being
sensed and can be summarised as follows:

1 If contact with the target is possible and acceptable then a limit switch can be used.

If the sensing distance is less than 65 mm and the target is metal then an inductive sensor
2 can be used, otherwise if the target is non-metal a capacitive or photoelectric sensor.

3 If the target is transparent an ultrasonic or photoelectric sensor can be used.

If the target is a solid object a photoelectric sensor or ultrasonic sensor can be used. If the
4 sensing distance is greater than about 6 m the photoelectric sensor is used.

If the target is a liquid and can be sensed from its top surface an ultrasonic sensor can be
5 used, otherwise a capacitive sensor.

23
Hall effect sensor
Charged particles deflected because of the magnetic field.
A negative charge applies on one side of the plane.
A transverse potential difference is generated at equilibrium.
𝐵𝐼
𝑉=𝐾
𝑡
B is the magnetic flux density at right angles to the plate, I is
the current through it, t is the plate thickness and KH is a
constant called the Hall coefficient.
Analogue and digital forms.

24
Speed
Incremental encoders
Hall effect sensors
Tachogenerators
1. Variable reluctance tachogenerator
Pick-up coil and toothed wheel
Output signal:
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
The output signal turns to a sequence of pulses using a
pulse-shaping signal conditioner.

Tachogenerators are in two forms; Variable Reluctance (VR) and a.c. Generators

1. Variable reluctance tachogenerator

Pick-up coil and toothed wheel make a periodically changing flux:
Φ = Φ + Φ cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡
Φ is the mean value of the flux and Φ the amplitude of the flux variation. The
induced e.m.f. 𝑒 in the 𝑁 turns of the pick-up coil is −𝑁 𝑑Φ⁄𝑑𝑡 . Therefore:
𝑒 = 𝑁Φ 𝑛𝜔 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
and
𝑒=𝐸 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡
The output signal turns to a sequence of pulses using a pulse-shaping signal
conditioner.

25
Speed
Tachogenerators
2. a.c. generator
A coil rotating with the shaft inside a magnetic of a permanent
magnet.
The alternating e.m.f. can be used to measure the speed.
Non-linearity: around ±0.15% and full range up to 10,000 rpm. Kollsman
electric
Robust, used in helicopters.

Aerosystems GEU7/A

• Conform to: MIL-PRF-26611 (ex

MIL-G-26611)
• Volts: 21 +/- 0,5 VAC
• Hz: 70
• RPM: 1000-4200
• Weight: 480 gr
• Temperature Range: -65°
+230°C

Tachogenerators are in two forms; Variable Reluctance (VR) and a.c. Generators

2. a.c. generator
A coil rotating with the shaft inside a magnetic of a permanent magnet.
The alternating e.m.f. can be used to measure the speed.
Non-linearity: around ±0.15% and full range up to 10,000 rpm.

26
Force
• The same as a balancing spring,
force is commonly measured by
measurement of displacement.
• Load Cell
• Load cells use electrical
resistance strain gauges to
measure the applied force.
• Similarly, they are also prone to
temperature impacts.

Load cells are used for forces up to about 10 MN, the non-linearity error being
about ±0.03% of full range, hysteresis error ±0.02% of full range and
repeatability error ±0.02% of full range. Strain gauge load cells based on the
bending of a strain-gauged metal element tend to be used for smaller forces, e.g.
with ranges varying from 0 to 5 N up to 0 to 50 kN. Errors are typically a non-
linearity error of about ±0.03% of full range, hysteresis error ±0.02% of full
range and repeatability error ±0.02% of full range.

27
Pressure
Measurement of absolute, relative or differential pressures.
Measurement mechanisms:
Diaphragm, Capsules, bellows, tubes
Strain gauge, LVDT (displacement)

28
Vibration
Piezoelectric sensors
Working principle of Piezoelectric materials
Piezoelectric accelerometers
Reverse operation

In most crystals the positive and negative ions are symmetrically distributed.
However, in piezoelectric materials this is not the case. Although the ions are not
symmetrically arranged, their electric charges balance out, there being equal
numbers of positive and negative charges. However, if you squeeze or stretch a
piezoelectric crystal, the structure becomes deformed and some of the atoms are
pushed closer together and others further apart. This upsets the balance of
positive and negative charge and, as a consequence, net positive and negative
charges appear on opposite, outer faces of the crystal. Thus, piezoelectric
materials generate an e.m.f. between electrodes placed on opposite crystal faces
proportional to the force applied to the element.

In the piezoelectric accelerometer shown, when the test structure vibrates, the
resulting acceleration is transmitted to a seismic mass inside the accelerometer
and this generates a proportional force on the piezoelectric crystal which results
in electric charge separation occurring between opposite faces of the crystal. The
resulting potential difference between the faces of the crystal then becomes a
measure of the applied force and hence the acceleration of the test structure.
The frequency of the alternating voltage output matches the frequency of the
vibrations. Such accelerometers are widely used to monitor the vibrations of
structures and machines.

The reverse situation can also be used: if a voltage is applied between the
electrodes, the ions move to rebalance the charge distribution and as a result the

29
crystal faces become mechanically deformed and slightly change shape. Thus, if a
high-frequency alternating voltage is used, ultrasonic waves can be generated. A
piezoelectric crystal is thus the basic element used in the ultrasonic sensors.

29
Force-sensitive resistor

1 The top layer is an electrically insulating plastic.

2 Then there is a flexible layer coated with a conductive film.
3 Then a plastic spacer which includes an opening aligned with the active layer
so that air can escape when the conductive layer is pressed into this area.
4 Then the active resistive layer consisting of a pattern of conductors which is
connected to the connecting leads, this being mounted on a flexible, thick
polymer substrate, conductive film.

For simple force-to-voltage conversion the force-sensitive resistor can be

connected in a voltage divider circuit with a resistor of about the same resistance
and a voltage output taken across the fixed resistor. As the resistance of the FSR
decreases, the total resistance of the FSR and the fixed resistor decreases and
so the current flowing through both resistors increases, which in turn causes the
voltage across the fixed resistor to increase.

The main drawback to the FSR is a result of its plastic spacer central component.
It takes a while to re-inflate after it has been compressed and as a consequence,
after being released, the FSR resistance will come back to 95% of its initial value
almost instantly and then take a few seconds to drift the final 5%.

30
Flow
The quantity of fluid flowing through the pipe per
second is proportional to the square root of the
pressure difference.

Orifice plate

Turbine meter

31
Temperature
RTD
Resistance Temperature Detector

𝛼 is temperature coefficient of resistance

Response time: 0.5 to 5 s.
The most common RTDs are:
Pt-100, Pt-1000 and Pt-500

Three configurations:
2-, 3- and 4- wire

Further reading here

RTDs are robust and accurate. The main element used in the industry is
Platinum.
Three configurations:
2-, 3- and 4- wire
2-wire: the resistance of the extension wires are also included in the
measurement (error)
3-wire (most common): a third wire is used to measure the added resistance
because of the wires and deducted from the final measurement
4-wire: two wires added and make a bridge to keep the current through the
element fix.

32
Temperature
Thermistors
Made from mixtures of metal oxides (semiconductors).
Negative Temp. Coeff, (NTC)
Positive Temp Coeff. (PTC)
Non-linear: 𝑅 = 𝐾𝑒 ⁄
Rugged, very small, quick response
Thermal switch for motors

33
Temperature
Thermodiods
Semiconductors of p-n type.
When temperature changes, the voltage across the element changes for a
constant current.
LM35 is the most common one.
Analogue output voltage proportional to the temperature.
The sensitivity of LM35 is 10 mV/°C. Output voltage increases with
temperature (e.g. 250 mV means 25°C).
Provides linear output, typical accuracy ±1°C
Supplied as integrated circuits such as LM3911
Or combined with an ADC to give digital output.

VCC: Supply Voltage

(4V – 30V)
Out: output voltage
GND: Ground

Specification of LM35 Temperature Sensor

•Operating Voltage: 4 V to 30 V
•Output Voltage: 10mV/°C
•Sensitivity: 10mV/°C
•Linearity Error: ±1°C (for 0°C to +100°C)
•Operating Temperature: -55°C to +150°C
•Output Impedance: 100 Ω
•Power Consumption: 60 μA (typical)
•Package Type: TO-92, TO-220, SOIC
•Output Type: Analog
•Accuracy: ±1°C (typical)

Sample code for using LM35 on Arduino UNO

const int lm35_pin = A1; /* LM35 O/P pin */
void setup(){
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop(){

34
int temp_adc_val;
float temp_val;
temp_adc_val = analogRead(lm35_pin); /* Read Temperature */
temp_val = (temp_adc_val * 4.88); /* Convert adc value to equivalent voltage
*/
temp_val = (temp_val/10); /* LM35 gives output of 10mv/°C */
Serial.print("Temperature = ");
Serial.print(temp_val);
Serial.print(" Degree Celsius\n"); delay(1000);
}

34
Temperature
Thermocouples
Potential difference across two bimetallic junctions at
different temperatures.
When cold junction is held at 0°C, the generated e.m.f. is:
𝐸 = 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 https://www.omega.com
Different types: K, J, T, N are the most common
(mV
Thermocouples colour codes Ref. Materials Range (°C) /°C)
Platinum 30%
rhodium/platinum 6%
B rhodium 0 to 1800 3
E Chromel/constantan −200 to 1000 63

J Iron/constantan −200 to 900 53

K Chromel/alumel −200 to 1300 41

N Nirosil/nisil −200 to 1300 28

Platinum/platinum
R 13% rhodium 0 to 1400 6

Platinum/platinum
S 10% rhodium 0 to 1400 6

T Copper/constantan −200 to 400 43

Commonly used thermocouples are shown in the table with the temperature
ranges over which they are generally used and typical sensitivities.

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Temperature
Thermocouples
The law of intermediate temperatures (e.m.f. for cold
junction in other temperatures):
𝐸 , =𝐸 , −𝐸,
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Example: find the e.m.f. for an E- type thermocouple
measuring 200°C with cold junction at 0°C emp. (°C) 0 20 200
e.m.f.
𝐸 , = 𝐸 , − 𝐸 , = 13.419 − 1.192 = 12.227 𝑚𝑉 (mV) 0 1.192 13.419

The base-metal thermocouples, E, J, K and T, are relatively cheap but deteriorate

with age. They have accuracies which are typically about ±1 to 3%. Noble-metal
thermocouples, e.g. R, are more expensive but are more stable with longer life.
They have accuracies of the order of ±1% or better.

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Light
Photodiods
Photodiods are p-n semiconductors connected into a circuit in reverse
bias and generate an electric current when light is shone on them.
Current is proportional to the light intensity.
Applications include light detection in cars (e.g. when passing through a
tunnel)
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The resistance of the device also decreases with light intensity.
Photoresistors (Cadmium sulphide and selenide) change resistance
with light.

Charge-coupled device (CCD) in cameras become electrically charged

when exposed to light that is turned to a digital number.

As an example, the current in the absence of light with a reverse bias of 3 V

might be 25 μA and when illuminated by 25 000 lumens/m2 the current rises to
375 μA. The resistance of the device with no light is 3/(25 × 10−6) = 120 kΩ and
with light is 3/(375 × 10−6) = 8 kΩ. A photodiode can thus be used as a variable
resistance device controlled by the light incident on it.

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Selection of sensors
There are three main factors to consider:
1 The nature of the measurement required, e.g. the variable to be measured, its nominal
value, the range of values, the accuracy required, the required speed of measurement, the
reliability required, and the environmental conditions under which the measurement is to
be made.
2 The nature of the output required from the sensor, this determining the signal conditioning
requirements to give suitable output signals from the measurement.
3 Then the identification of possible sensors, considering such factors as their range,
accuracy, linearity, speed of response, reliability, maintainability, life, power supply
requirements, ruggedness, availability and cost.

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Notes:
The images and examples used in theses slides are taken from the following book
(Chapter 2). You are advised to refer to the book for further study.

Bolton, W. “Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and Electrical

Engineering”, 7th Edition, Pearson Education, 2019.

The book is available online from the library services here.

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School of Science & Technology
City St George’s University of London
Northampton Square
London
EC1V 0HB
United Kingdom

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