Metal Forming Technology

Mr. Kshirsagar N. G.

Assistant Professor
Fr. C. Rodrigues Institute of Technology,Vashi
Contents
 Contents :
 Course Objectives and Outcomes
 Syllabus
 Evaluation System
 Text Books and References
 Classification of Metal Forming Processes.
 Course Objectives
1. Learner will be able to interpret the metallurgical aspects
in metal forming processes.
2. Learner will be able to differentiate different metal
forming processes.
3. Learner will be able to analyze forces involved in the
different metal forming processes.
4. Learner will be able to identify appropriate metal forming
processes for a particular application
5. Learner will be able to identify appropriate sheet metal
forming processes for a particular application.
 Course Outcomes
 Learner will be able to………….
- understand the Metallurgical aspects of metal forming
processes.
- differentiate different metal forming processes.
- analyze forces involved in the different metal forming
processes.
- identify appropriate metal forming processes for a
particular application.
- identify appropriate sheet metal forming processes for a
particular application.
Evaluation System
Text Books & References
 1. Amitabha Ghosh and Asok Kumar Mallick, Manufacturing
Science, Affiliated East-West Press

 2. P.C.Sharma , A Text Book on Production Engineering,

S.Chand Publications

 Links for online NPTEL/SWAYAM courses:

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/107/112107250/
Principles of Metal Forming Technology,

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/106/112106153/
- Forming, IIT Madras
Syllabus
 Module: 1 Introduction to Metal Forming
 Module : 2 Rolling
 Module:3 Forging
 Module 4 Extrusion
 Module: 5 Drawing
 Module : 6 Sheet Metal Forming
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Metal forming processes, also known as mechanical working
processes, are primary shaping processes in which a mass of
metal or alloy is subjected to mechanical forces.
 Under the action of such forces, the shape and size of metal piece
undergo a change.
 By mechanical working processes, the given shape and size
of a machine part can be achieved with great economy in
material and time.
 Metal forming is possible in case of such metals or alloys which
are sufficiently malleable and ductile.
Introduction to Metal Forming
Introduction to Metal Forming
Classification of Forming Process

 Typically, metal forming processes can be classified into two broad

groups.
 One is bulk forming and the other is sheet metal forming.

 Bulk deformation refers to

 raw materials which have low surface area to volume ratio.
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing.
 In bulk deformation processing methods, the nature of force applied
may be compressive, compressive and tensile, shear or a combination
of these forces.
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Bulk forming is accomplished in forming presses with
the help of a set of tool and die.
 Examples for products produced by bulk forming are:
 gears, bushed, valves,
 engine parts such as valves, connecting rods,
 hydraulic valves, etc

 Sheet metal forming involves application of tensile or

shear forces predominantly.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Classification of Forming Process
 Working upon sheets, plates
and strips
 mainly constitutes sheet forming.
 sheet metal operations are mostly
 bending,
carried out in presses –
 Drawing,
 hydraulic or pneumatic. a set of  shearing,
tools called die and punch are used  blanking,
for the sheet working operations.  punching.
Introduction to Metal Forming
Classification of Forming Process
- Based on the nature of deformation force applied on
the material, during forming
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Classification of Forming Process
 Rolling is a compressive deformation process, which is
used for producing semi-finished products such as bars,
sheets, plates and finished products such as angles,
channels, sections.
 Rolling can be carried out both in hot and cold conditions.
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Classification of Forming Process
 Forging
 Forging is a bulk forming process in which the work piece or
billet is shaped into finished part by the application of
compressive and tensile forces with the help of a pair of tools
called die and punch.
 Forging can be done in open dies or closed dies.
 Open die forging is usually used for preliminary shaping of raw
materials into a form suitable for subsequent forming or
machining.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
 Classification of Forming Process
 Open die forming is done using a
pair of flat faced dies for operations
such as drawing out, thinning, etc.
 Closed die forming is performed by
squeezing the raw material called
billet inside the cavity formed
between a pair of shaped dies. formed
products attain the shape of the die
cavity.
 Valve parts, pump parts, small gears,
connecting rods, spanners, etc are
produced by closed die forming.
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Direct Extrusion Process
 Extrusion involves forcing the raw material through a narrow
opening of constant cross section or varying cross-section in
order to reduce the diameter and increase the length.
 Extrusion can be done hot or cold.
 Extruded products include shafts, tubes, cans, cups, gears
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Classification of Forming Process
 Basically there are two methods of extrusion, forward and
backward extrusions.
 In forward extrusion the work and the extrusion punch move
along the same direction.
 In backward extrusion the punch moves opposite to the direction
of movement of the work piece.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
 Wire drawing
 used for producing small diameter
wires from rods
 by reducing their diameter and
stretching their length
 through the application of tensile
force.

 Musical strings are produced by

wire drawing process.
 Seamless tubes can be produced by
tube drawing process.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Sheet metal operations:
 Deep drawing is a sheet metal
process the process in which a
sheet metal is forced into cup of
hollow shape without altering its
thickness – using tensile and
compressive forces.
 Complex shapes can be
produced by deep drawing of
blanks in stages – redrawing,
multiple draw deep drawing etc.
Introduction to Metal Forming
Sheet metal operations:
 Bending of sheets includes rotary bending, swivel bending,
roll bending using rotary die.
 Die bending using flat die or shaped die is used for
bending of sheets, or die coining of sheets:
Introduction to Metal Forming
Sheet metal operations
Introduction to Metal Forming
Sheet metal operations
Introduction to Metal Forming
Metallurgical aspects of metal forming
Engineering materials are often found to posses good mechanical
properties
--so then they are suitable for applications.

Mechanical properties referred here are:-

- tensile strength,
- ductility,
- toughness,
- fatigue
- strength,
- hardness etc.
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Stresses – types: suppose a certain force Δf is acting on an
area Δa. Then the stress acting along an arbitrary direction
is given as

 This stress can be resolved along a direction perpendicular

to the given surface called normal stress, σ.
 It is resolved along tangential direction to the given surface,
called shear stress, τ.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
 Normal stress can produce both normal
and shear strains in a material.
 Shear stress produces shear strain.

 Normal strain is the change in length

divided by original length.
 Shear strain is the angular change of a
right angle edge of the solid.
Introduction to Metal Forming
 A metallic material, when loaded in tension, initially
deforms elastically.
 Elastic deformation refers to material strain which can
be recovered fully.
 In elastic deformation, the nominal stress which is the
load applied divided by the initial area of cross section
of the rod, increases linearly with strain.
 Engineering strain is defined as change in length
divided by initial gage length.
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Engineering stress or nominal stress is the load applied
divided by initial cross section area of the rod.
 In the elastic region,
the linear stress – strain relation is given by hooke’s
law:
 Introduction to Metal Forming
 The modulus of elasticity, E is a
material property, which depends
on the nature of bonding in a
material.
 Poisson's ratio is the ratio of
lateral strain to longitudinal strain
when a material is elastically
deformed.
 It's a measure of how much a
material contracts laterally when it's
stretched longitudinally.
 Poisson’s ratio for steels ranges
from 0.28 to 0.33. maximum value
of poisson’s ratio is 0.
Introduction to Metal Forming
Some materials do not show yielding – materials such as copper
Introduction to Metal Forming
 From the tensile curve on can
find many properties of the
material.
 Beyond the elastic limit (linear),
the material behavior is said to be
plastic.
 The deformation in plastic
behavior is permanent.
 Plastic deformation commences
after elastic deformation, which
is represented in stress-strain
diagram by yielding.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
 The stress at yield point is called yield strength.
 Yield point stress is important in case of metal forming
operations, because, forming processes require the
metal to deform plastically.

 Resilience : capability of a body to consume energy

 The area under the stress-strain curve up to yielding is
called modulus of resilience [mr].

 The plastic portion of the stress-strain curve is non-

linear.

 As the specimen gets loaded beyond yield point, the

curve reaches a maximum. the stress corresponding to
this maximum point – known as ultimate tensile
strength [ uts]
Introduction to Metal Forming
 Until this point there is uniform reduction in area of cross
section of the specimen.
 After the point of maximum engineering stress, with
continued loading, the specimen forms a neck – which has
low area of cross-section – due to concentration of stress
locally.
 Necking is localized deformation.
 After necking begins, the deformation is restricted to
necked region alone.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
 With further loading, the
engineering stress drops beyond
necking point, till the point of
fracture.
 Fracture essentially occurs at the
necked region, due to triaxial state
of stress in the neck region.
 Ductility of a material is defined
as percentage elongation or
percentage reduction in area of
cross-section.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Factors affecting the
stress-strain behavior
 Temperature influence
greatly the stress-strain
behavior of materials.
 Increasing the
temperature…..
 reduces the tensile
strength, yield strength,
 increases ductility.
Introduction to Metal Forming

 True stress is defined as

ratio of load applied to instantaneous cross-section area,
σ= p/a.
 True strain is defined as
change in gage length divided by instantaneous gage
length. it is given as
 Introduction to Metal Forming

 For small strains….

engineering strains = trues strains

 However, true strains are more consistent with real phenomena.

 Advantage of using true strain is apparent from the fact that total true
strain is equal to sum of incremental true strains.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
 Deformation and
Mechanical Properties of
Materials
 Most conventional
manufacturing processes
involve the deformation of
the work material.
 Such a deformation caused
by the work load is
dependent on the mechanical
properties of the material.
Elastic and plastic
deformation
 In the absence of any external force
the distance between a pair of atoms
is dc
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Structural Features
of solids
 Crystalline solids have well
defined shapes because their
particles, for examples,
atoms, molecules, or ions
occur in an orderly
arrangement.
 Amorphous solids have
poorly defined shapes
because their particles lack
an orderly arrangement
throughout the sample. For
examples rubber and glass.
Examples
of
crystalline
solids
Quartz,
Natural
Snow flakes,
Diamond,
Diamond saw
blade
 Diamond-
coated
2 mm bits,
used for
drilling
materials
such as
glass
 Difference between kitchen salt & Table salt
 kitchen salt (also called cooking salt, flake salt, rock
salt) is coarse edible salt without common additives such
as iodine
---Typically used in cooking and not at the table

 Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table

salt which usually iodised to prevent iodine deficiency.

 Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to

99 percent sodium chloride. Usually, anticaking
agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium
carbonate are added to make it free-flowing.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Crystalline solids
 The particles in a crystal are packed
tightly in an orderly, three-dimensional
array.
 The arrangement of particles in a
crystal is called the crystal lattice.
 The lattice consists of all points with
identical surroundings; that is, there
would be no variation in the structure if
you moved from one lattice point to
another.
 Crystal lattices have a regular
structure, made up of a number of
repeating parts called unit cells
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation of crystalline solids

 Application of external force on a crystalline solid results in

distortion of the lattice structure.
 --- If the applied force is small, the distortion called elastic deformation can take
place.
--- At the removal of the force, the crystal structure comes to original
shape.
---If the applied force exceeds a certain limit, the deformation
undergone by the solid is called plastic deformation – as the
deformation remains even after removal of load or force :
Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation of Crystalline Solids
 Permanent deformation is called plastic deformation
 Maximum theoretical shear strength of a perfect crystal – stress causing plastic
deformation – is given to be:

where G is shear yield strength of the material

 Similarly, it can be shown that the maximum theoretical tensile strength of a

perfect crystalline solid is given by:

where E is elastic modulus.Theoretical strength is of the order of Gpa

However, actual shear strength and tensile strength of crystals is much less than
that predicted by the above expressions because of crystal defect.
Polycrystalline materials
 Polycrystalline materials have defects in the crystal
structure, which considerably reduce their strength. Most
inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including all
common metals, many ceramics, rocks, and ice.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Basic mechanisms causing plastic deformation

crystalline solids deform with slip and twinning. (Twinned crystals)

 Slip is sliding of one plane of atoms over another plane due to

application of shear force.
 It is similar to the sliding of playing cards.
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 Introduction to Metal
Forming

 Deformation of Crystalline
Solid
 A minimum shear stress
called critical resolved shear
stress is required to cause slip
in single crystals.
 Slip specifically happens
only along specific planes
called slip planes and along
specific directions called slip
directions.

 Family of slip planes and

slip directions together form
slip systems.
 Crystalline Solids
Face Centered Cubic
structure include aluminum,
copper, nickel, gamma iron,
gold, and silver

 Body centered
Cubic structure examples
include the α phase of
iron, chromium, tungsten,
tantalum, and
molybdenum.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation of Crystalline Solids
Different crystals have different slip systems.
 For example, for FCC structured metals, there are 12 slip systems,
and for BCC metals there are 48 slip systems.

 However, out of 48 slip systems only some are active.

BCC metals have higher strength than FCC metals generally.

Slip always happens along planes of maximum atomic density.

58
 Hexagonal close Pack materials
 Less number of slip systems in HCP – only three –
 makes materials with HCP more brittle.
 Examples: cobalt, cadmium, zinc, and the α phase of
titanium.
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation of Crystalline Solids
single crystals: It is material in which the crystal lattice of the entire
sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no grain
boundaries. Ex. quartz and the gemstones,
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In single crystals, the magnitude of slip produced is dependent on the

magnitude of shear stress induced by the external stress acting on the
material.

Schmid’s law: It states that Slip begins when the shear stress reaches a
critical value called critical resolver shear stress (CRSS).

It is shown that this stress, CRSS is equal to 60

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 Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation of Crystalline Solids
 Where σ is the tensile
stress applied on the
crystal,

 θ is angle between normal

to slip plane and axis of the
tensile stress,
10
 Φ is angle between slip
direction and the tensile
axis.
64
 Deformation and Mechanical Properties of
Materials

Elastic and plastic deformation

 Twinning is the other mechanism of

plastic deformation.
 Twinned structure is a mirror image of
atoms across a plane of twinning.
 In HCP and BCC materials twinning
may take place causing cracking sound
during failure.
65
Elastic deformation of
crystalline solids causes
an increase in
dislocation population.
Dislocation density – defined as
total length of dislocation per
unit volume in cold worked
materials can be as high as 1012
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation and Mechanical Properties of Materials
Elastic and plastic deformation
 Dislocation entanglements (a complicated situation) and obstruction to slip
movement of dislocations during deformation can cause increase in
strength of a metal.
 This is called strain hardening or work hardening.

 Grains of almost equal size are called equiaxed grains.

 Finer grains are formed during rapid cooling of molten metal.

10Higher the cooling rate finer the grain size.
67
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation and Mechanical Properties of Materials Elastic
and plastic deformation

10

68
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Deformation and Mechanical Properties of
Materials Elastic and plastic deformation
 Finer grains prevent easy motion of
dislocations thereby increasing the strength of crystalline
materials.

 Single crystal has anisotropic properties,

whereas polycrystalline materials have isotropic properties.
 Isotropy refers to uniform properties along all
directions in the crystal.
 Grain size has profound effect on strength and
hardness of metals.1Large grains produce smaller strength. 69
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Flow Stress
 Metal forming operations involve plastic deformation of
materials.
 The stress required to sustain a given amount of plastic deformation
(plastic strain) is called flow stress.
 Flow stress is an important parameter in forming.
It0 depends on :
 type of material,
 temperature of working,
 conditions of friction at work piece – tool interface,
 tool and work piece geometry etc.
71
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Flow Stress
Flow stress is the stress required to sustain a certain plastic
strain on the material.
Factors such as strain rate, temperature, affect the flow stress of
materials.
A simple power law expression for flow stress of a material can be
expressed as
 σ = K en
 σ - flow stress in MPa
 10 K - strength coefficient in Mpa
e - True strain
n - strain hardening
component
72
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Flow Stress
In forming processes, such as forging, the instantaneous flow stress can be
found from the flow curve, as the stress required to cause a given strain or
deformation.
In extrusion, for example, the flow stress considerably changes during the
forming process as the material gets work hardened considerably.
In such cases, an average flow stress is determined from the flow curve.
the average flow stress is given as
10

73
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Friction in Metal Forming:
Surface asperities on two surfaces in contact get interlocked with
each other.
When a surface tends to slide against another stationary surface, say
a die surface, there is a shear stress induced at interface which opposes
the flow of material.
This condition is called sliding friction.
Condition of sliding friction or sticking friction can arise at the
interface b1e0tween the work piece and die/tool in forming operations.

74
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Friction in Metal Forming:
Sliding friction arises due to surface shear stress opposing the metal
flow.
Friction is undesirable ………..
 as it increases the deformation work required,
 leads to non-homogeneous deformation of material,

causes tool wear,

causes residual stress in the product and
may lead to cracking of surface. 75
Friction in Metal Forming:
Coefficients of friction in forming processes
are quiet high.
 If coefficient of friction becomes very high…..
 it leads to a situation called sticking friction.

In this case, the surface shear stress exceeds

shear yield strength of material, the two surfaces
adhere to each other.
FRICTION ANALYSIS IN
COLD FORGING
Metal beneath the surface undergoes shear
deformation.
76
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Strain Rate Effect
Strain rate is the rate at which material gets strained.
strain rate is expressed in s-1 .
Deformation speed of material in a
process of forming is expressed in m/s.

 10

 l - is the instantaneous length of the work

piece being deformed in mm.

78
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Strain Rate Effect……

The flow stress of a metal is a function of temperature.

At the hot working temperatures, flow stress depends on strain rate.
The effect of strain rate on the properties of strength is called strain rate
sensitivity.

79
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Strain Rate Effect 

True strain rate is dependent on velocity and
instantaneous length.

In order to maintain constant strain rate

during tensile test, velocity of the cross head
of the tensile machine has to be increased.
Increasing the strain rate increases the
tensile strength.
10
Increasing the temperature reduces the
strength.
80
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Strain Rate Effect
At higher temperatures,

the sensitivity of strength to

strain rate increases –
strength becomes more sensitive
to changes in strain rate.

 The
10 flow stress is strongly
dependent on strain rate at
elevated temperatures.

81
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Variation of flow stress with temperature and

strain rate……

Deciding factors for selection of

forming process and forming press.
Velocity of deformation and
strain rate of deformation during forming operations

There are forming processes which are carried

out at high strain rates and high velocities.
called as high velocity forming.
example : explosive forming. 82
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Explosive Forming
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 Introduction to Metal Forming
Variation of flow stress with temperature
and strain rate

C- strength
coefficient
10

86
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Friction in Metal Forming:

Relation between Friction, Heat, Internal energy

Forming process requires stress above flow stress of the material

being deformed.
The effect of external work done on work piece during forming is
converted into heat.
About 5 to 10% of the work is stored within as internal energy.
Friction can also result in heating and increase in internal energy
of work piece. 87
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Friction in Metal Forming:

Temperature increase during metal forming:-

assuming frictionless deformation,

With
10 friction

88
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Friction in Metal Forming: Temperature rise
1) For slow deformations, the temperature rise of the work piece may
be small
as the heat generated gets dissipated through the die, surrounding air,
etc.
2.) For adiabatic condition under large deformation speeds,
-- results in large rise in temperature of the work piece.
-- may cause incipient (Just begining) melting.
Therefore, strain rate also influences the temperature rise during
working.
Temperature rise for a true strain of 1 = 553 k. or 279.85°C
This is without heat lost from the billet. (for low carbon steel) 89
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Cold and Hot Forming:

Cold forming is carried out at a temperature lower than recrystallization

temperature of the work piece material.
Hot working is a process carried out at temperatures above
recrystallization (temperature, namely, 0.6 Tm.)

Strain rate : the change in strain (deformation) of a material with respect

to time.
High strain rates = 0.5 to 500 s−1 are involved in hot working process.
In solids, higher strain rates can often cause
normally ductile materials to fail in a brittle manner. 90
Flow stress variation of the steel with
temperature
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Cold and Hot Forming:
Processes of recrystallization , recovery , and strain growth dominate in
hot working.
Energy required for hot working is low , as flow stresses decreases with
increase in temperature.
Large strains (e = 2 to 4) are possible in hot forming because of
recovery process.
10

Due to oxidation on surface during hot working , poor surface finish and
poor dimensional tolerances are inherent defects.
92
Cold and Hot Forming:

Hot shortness: Material is prone to cracking

when it is at a temperature close to its melting point.

Upper limit for hot working is hot shortness, in which the metal
becomes brittle above a certain temperature due to …..
grain boundary melting or
melting of low melting phase such as sulfur in steel.
Sulphur present in amounts greater than permissible
limit, reacts with Iron present in steel. Forms Iron
Sulphide (FeS).
This is a low melting alloy
93
 Metals with high thermal conductivity will require
higher working temperatures or rapid working.
How???
 During hot working, material softening happens due to two
mechanisms – dynamic recovery or dynamic
recrystallization.
 In dynamic recovery,
 dislocation cross-slipping,
 climbing occurs.

Cross slip is the process by which a screw dislocation moves from

one slip plane to another due to local stresses. It allows non-planar movement
of screw dislocations.
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Cold and Hot Forming:

Working on a metal at temperatures above room temperature but

below recrystallization temperature is called warm working.

Warm working may have the advantages of ….

reduced working pressures,
10reduced levels of residual stresses and oxidation,

improved surface finish and

dimensional accuracy.

95
Hot Working may have the advantages of ….
Hot working does not produce strain hardening.
Hence no increase in either yield strength or hardness occurs.
In addition yield strength decreases as temperature increases and the
ductilityimproves.
Hot working can be used to drastically alter the shape of metals without
fear of fracture
chemical
 Elevated temperatures can remove inhomogeneties;
 Pores can be welded or reduced in size during deformation.

96
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Hot Working improves large section

defects occurred during solidification

The dendritic (having a branched form) grain structure, small gas

cavities and shrinkage porosity formed during solidification in
large sections can be modified by hot working
 to produce a fine,
10 randomly oriented,

 spherical-shaped grain structure
 Which results in a net increase in strength, ductility and
toughness.
Examples: rolling, extrusion, forging, hot drawing etc. 97
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Cold WORKING

Cold working is plastic deformation of metals

below the recrystallization temperature and is generally
performed at room temperature.
Some advantages are:
No heating is required •
Better surface finish and superior dimensional control are achieved
Strength, fatigue, and wear properties are improved •
10
Directional properties can be imparted: 98
 Introduction to Metal Forming

Cold WORKING
Disadvantages:
Heavier forces are required
Strain hardening occurs
(may require intermediate annealing treatment to
relieve internal stresses)
 Residual stresses may be produced
99
 Introduction to Metal Forming
Hot Working Advantages
Residual stresses are not developed.
Stress required for deformation is less
No work hardening take pace.
Heavy deformation is possible

Dis advantages
Due to oxidation , poor surface finish is obtained
Close dimensional accuracy can't be obtained

10
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Thank you.