Open Loop VS Closed Loop Systems

Sensors
Generally, when a Controller is designed into a machine control system, it is not
simply put into an open loop system. This would be a system in which the
Controller provides outputs, but never “looks” to see if the machine is responding
to those outputs. Instead, Controllers are generally put into a closed loop system.
This is a system in which the Controller monitors the performance of the machine
and provides the appropriate outputs at the correct times to make the machine
operate properly, efficiently, and intelligently. In order to provide the Controller
with a sense of what is happening within the machine, we use sensors.
 Sensor Classification
(by output type)
• Discrete Output Sensor
also known as the Digital or the Logic output sensor
Eg. A thermostat (output as 1 or 0 logic) activates a switch
when a certain threshold of temperature is achieved.
• Proportional Output Sensor
also known as the Analog output sensors
Eg. Digital Thermometer, Load Cell
Usually output is the in form of voltage, current or even a
digital word that may have a discrete value.
 Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors are used to sense the object
when it comes near to the sensor face
These are usually discrete output type sensor

• Inductive Proximity Sensor

• Capacitive Proximity Sensor
• Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
• Optical Proximity Sensor
 Inductive Proximity Sensor
Inductive proximity sensors operate on the principle that the
inductance of a coil and the power losses in the coil vary as a metallic
(or conductive) object is passed near to it. Because of this operating
principle, inductive proximity sensors are only used for sensing metal
objects. They will not work with non-metallic materials.
Working Principle

Eddy current is produced

in the metal target

When a metallic object (steel, iron, aluminum, tin, copper, etc.) comes near to
the face of the sensor, the alternating magnetic field in the target produces
circulating eddy currents inside the material. To the oscillator, these eddy
currents are a power loss. As the target moves nearer, the eddy current loss
increases which loads the output of oscillator. This loading effect causes the
output amplitude of the oscillator to decrease. As the output decreases, the
Trigger circuit senses the amplitude and turns on the output switching device
Working Principle

The sensing range of a proximity sensor is the maximum distance the target
object may be from the face of the sensor in order for the sensor to detect it.
One parameter affecting the sensing range is the size (diameter) of the sensing
coil in the sensor. Small diameter sensors (approximately ¼” in diameter) have
typical sensing ranges in the area of 1mm, while large diameter sensors
(approximately 3" in diameter) have sensing ranges in the order of 50mm or
more
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Capacitive proximity sensors are available in
shapes and sizes similar to the inductive
proximity sensor. However, because of the
principle upon which the capacitive proximity
sensor operates, applications for the capacitive
sensor are somewhat different.
 Working Principle

Consider the cutaway block diagram shown above. The principle of operation of the
sensor is that an internal oscillator will not oscillate until a target material is moved
close to the sensor face. The target material varies the capacitance of a capacitor in the
face of the sensor that is part of the oscillator circuit. The variation in the oscillation is
detected by the trigger circuitry which turn on the output switching device.
 Working Principle

Dielectric type capacitive proximity sensors will sense both metallic and non-metallic
objects. However, in order for the sensor to work properly, it is best if the material being
sensed has a high density. Low density materials (foam, bubble wrap, paper, etc.) do not
cause a detectable change in the dielectric and consequently will not trigger the sensor.
 Applications of Capacitive Proximity Sensors

• They can be used as a non-contact liquid level sensor. They can be place
outside a container to sense the liquid level inside. This is ideal for milk, juice,
or soda bottling operations.

• Capacitive proximity sensors can be used as replacements for pushbuttons

and palm switches. They will sense the hand and, since they have no moving
parts, they are more reliable than mechanical switches.

• Since they are hermetically sealed, they can be mounted inside liquid tanks to
sense the tank fill level.
 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
The ultrasonic proximity sensor operates using the same principle as shipboard
sonar. An ultrasonic “ping” is sent from the face of the sensor. If a target is
located in front of the sensor and is within range, the ping will be reflected by
the target and returned to the sensor. When an echo is returned, the sensor
detects that a target is present, and by measuring the time delay between the
transmitted ping and the returned echo, the sensor can calculate the distance
between the sensor and the target.
 Working Principle
The sensor is only capable of sensing a target that is within the sensing range.
Sound waves travel from the face of the sensor in a cone shaped dispersion pattern
bounded by the sensor’s beam angle. However, because the sending and receiving
transducers are both located in the face of the sensor, the receiving transducer is
“blinded” for a short period of time immediately after the ping is transmitted. These
echos will be from targets that are very close to the sensor, within what is called the
sensor’s deadband. In addition, because of the finite sensitivity of the receiving
transducer, there is a distance beyond which the returning echo cannot be
detected. This is the maximum range of the sensor.
 Application of Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic proximity sensors are useful for sensing targets that are beyond the very
short operating ranges of inductive and capacitive proximity sensors. Off the shelf
ultrasonic proximity sensor are available with sensing ranges of 6 meters or more.
They sense dense target materials best such as metals and liquids. They do not
work well with soft materials such as cloth, foam rubber, or any material that is a
good absorber of sound waves, and they operate poorly with liquids that have
surface ripple or waves.
 Optical Proximity Sensor
This sensor uses light to sense the object. It is capable of sensing any
objects that are opaque, regardless of the color or reflectivity of the
surface. They operate over long distances (as opposed to inductive or
capacitive proximity sensors), will sense in a vacuum (as opposed to
ultrasonic sensors), and can sense any type of material no matter
whether it is metallic, conductive, or porous. Since he optical
transmitters and receivers use focused beams (using lenses), they can
be operated in close proximity of other optical sensors without
crosstalk or interference.
The red LED and IR LED types of sensors generally have a light output that is
pulsed at a high frequency, and a receiver that is tuned to the frequency of the
source. By doing so, these types have a high degree of immunity to other
potentially interfering light sources.

Types Thru-Beam (Interrupted) Type

Diffused Reflective Type
Retro-Reflective Type
 Retro-Reflective Type

Retro-reflective mode is the second primary mode of photoelectric sensing.

As with diffused mode sensing, the transmitter and receiver are in the same
housing, but a reflector is used to reflect the light from the transmitter back
to the receiver. The target is detected when it blocks the beam from the
photoelectric sensor to the reflector. Retro-reflective mode typically allows
longer sensing ranges than diffused mode due to the increased efficiency of
the reflector compared with the reflectivity of most targets. The target color
and finish do not affect the sensing range in retro-reflective mode as they do
with diffused mode. Retro-reflective mode photoelectric sensors are
available with or without polarization filters. A polarization filter only allows
light at a certain phase angle back to the receiver, which allows the sensor to
see a shiny object as a target and not incorrectly as a reflector. This is
because light reflected from the reflectors shifts the phase of the light,
whereas light reflected from a shiny target does not. A polarized retro-
reflective photoelectric sensor must be used with a corner-cube reflector,
which is a type of reflector with the ability to accurately return the light
energy, on a parallel axis, back to the receiver. Polarized retro-reflective
sensors are recommended for any application with reflective targets.
Retro-Reflective Type