Rapid Prototyping (RP)

Rapid Prototyping Technologies – Two Basic Categories

1. Material Removal RP: Involves machining, primarily through milling and drilling.
The starting material is often wax, which is easy to machine, melt, and resolidify for
reuse. CNC machines used for this are often small, referred to as desktop milling or
desktop machining.
2. Material Addition RP: Adds layers of material, one at a time, to build a solid part
from the bottom up.

Steps of Rapid Prototyping

Step 3: Generation
Step-1: Solid
of Laser Scanning Step 4: Post
Modeling and Step-2: Slicing
Paths or Material Processing
Tessellation
Deposition Paths
Surfaces of the CAD After selecting the Layer Deposition The object may
model are part deposition Technologies: require further
tessellated, and the orientation, the →Liquid-Based: curing after the
STL file is exported. tessellated model is Stereolithography initial build.
sliced. (SLA) Any support
→Powder-Based: structures added
Selective Laser during the build
Sintering (SLS) process are
→Solid-Based: removed.
Fused Deposition The prototype
Modeling (FDM) and undergoes finishing
Laminated Object processes such as
Manufacturing sanding, polishing,
(LOM) or painting to
achieve the desired
surface quality.

Tessellation: It’s the The sliced Typical Layer

piecewise information is saved Thickness: Ranges
approximation of in standard formats from 0.05 to 0.15
the surfaces of the like SLC or CLI. mm, depending on
CAD model using a the process.
series of triangles.
STL File: The program may
→STL approximates generate auxiliary
the shape of the structures to
part using triangular support the model
facets. during the build
→Smaller facets process, ensuring
result in a higher- stability and
quality surface. accuracy.

RP data flow and aspects

RP Uses, Limitations, Advantages , Disadvantages

USES Limitations Advantages Disadvantages

Prototypes are Part volume is generally Faster Product Limited Material
excellent visual aids limited to 0.125 cubic Development Variety
for communicating meters or less, depending
design concepts with on the RP machine used.
co-workers or clients.
Can be used for Metal Prototypes are Improved Poor Surface Finish
functional or form difficult to manufacture, as Communication
testing before most RP technologies are
committing to the optimized for plastic and
final design. resin materials
Most prototypes take For metal parts and large Functional Size Limitations
anywhere from 3 to 72 production runs, traditional Testing
hours to build, manufacturing methods are
depending on the size typically more cost-
and complexity effective than RP.
Classification of Rapid Prototyping Processes
Liquid-Based Solid-Based Powder-Based
Solidification through Material in the form of wire, Material in the form of
curing roll, laminates, pellets, etc. grains that join/bind
through lasers or binders.
Stereolithography (SLA) Fused Deposition Modeling Selective Laser Sintering
(FDM) (SLS)
Solid Ground Curing (SGC) Multi-Jet Modeling System Three-Dimensional Printing
(MJM) (3DP)
Solid Object Ultraviolet- Paper Lamination Direct Shell Production
Laser Printer (SOUP) Technology (PLT) Casting (DSPC)

Solid Modeling
Bounded: A solid is enclosed by "well-behaved" boundaries. For instance, a sphere of finite
radius encloses the solid.

Closed and Regular: Both the interior and boundary of the solid are non-null, and there are
no dangling portions. This ensures regularity.

Semi-Analytic: The solid can be expressed as a finite number of Boolean operations (such
as union, difference, or intersection).

User-Friendly Interface: Solid modeling is user-level friendly, especially using

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) and feature-based approaches. However, it remains
internally complex.

Spatial Addressability: Solid modeling deals with spatial positioning (whether a part is
inside, on, or outside an object), which wireframe and surface models cannot handle
effectively.

Geometry: Refers to the actual size and Topology: Describes connectivity and
location of the object. relationships, showing how different parts
are associated.

Complete Representation: Provides information about location, dimension, geometry,

and orientation, which ensures it is complete, valid, and unambiguous.
 Complete Solid: A Valid Solid: A solid model Unambiguous Solid: The
complete solid means the without any dangling edges model has only one
model can address whether or faces. The boundaries interpretation, eliminating
any point is inside, on, or are continuous, ensuring no any confusion about the
outside the object. This is incomplete parts. shape or structure.
called spatial
addressability

Properties of a Geometric Solid

• Rigidity: The shape and size of a geometric solid remain unchanged despite
variations in location and orientation.
• Solidity: A valid solid must have its boundary in contact with the interior, with no
dangling or isolated boundaries.
• Finiteness: A solid must be finite, occupying a specific, defined portion of space.
• Closure Under Rigid Motion or Boolean Operations: When transformations like
translation, rotation, or Boolean operations (e.g., union, intersection) are applied to
a solid, the result must be a valid solid.
• Finite Describability: A finite amount of information should be enough to describe
the solid entirely.
• Boundary Determinism: The boundary of a solid must fully contain the solid,
encompassing its interior completely.

Boolean Operations
Available Boolean operators
– Union: used to combine or add together two objects
– Intersection: Gives a shape equal to their common value
– Difference: Used to subtract one object from the other and results in a shape equal to the
difference in their volumes
Regularized Set Operations
Set Operations (∪, ∩, -) are foundational in solid modeling. To ensure the resulting model is
valid and meaningful, set operations must be regularized.

Key Regularized Set Operations

With Regularization Without Regularization

Homogeneity (no dangling parts should Resulting models lacking geometric
result from using these operators) closure
Spatial Dimensionality (two 3D objects
combined by one of the operators, resulting User inconvenience
object should not be of lower dimension)
Regularization of set operators is
particularly useful when users deal with Difficult validation of models
overlapping faces of different objects
Inadequacy for applications

Set Membership Classification

Set membership classification deals with determining the relationship between points,
lines, or segments relative to a solid model.

Set S: The reference solid, with a well-defined interior and boundary.

Set X: The geometric entity being classified (point, line segment, or another solid).
Neighborhood Function
• The neighborhood function N [P, S] provides information about the local geometry
around a point P relative to a solid S.
• It determines whether a point is inside, on, or outside the solid.
o Output of N [P, S]
▪ −1: Point is outside.
▪ 0: Point is on the boundary.
▪ 1: Point is inside the solid.
This function helps in understanding the geometric neighborhood of a solid and is useful
for proximity checking.

Data Representation Schemes

Pure Primitive Instancing
This method involves the use of predefined, simple geometric shapes (primitives) such as
cubes, spheres, cylinders, etc., to construct more complex objects.

Half Spaces
A half-space is an unbounded geometric entity that divides space into two infinite portions.
One side is filled with material, and the other side is empty.

Spatial Occupancy Enumeration

This method divides the space occupied by
a solid object into a grid of small cubes or
cells (called voxels). Each voxel is either
filled or empty, depending on whether it
intersects with the solid.

Cell Decomposition
Like Spatial Occupancy Enumeration, but objects are broken down into smaller cells,
where each cell is filled, partially filled, or empty. This is often used for more detailed or
complex geometries like a coffee mug, which might be broken down into parts (body,
handle, etc.)

Octree Encoding
This is a hierarchical version of Spatial Occupancy
Enumeration, where the 3D space is recursively
subdivided into smaller cubes (voxels) as needed. Only
those regions that contain part of the object are further
subdivided, reducing the storage requirement.

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

Uses Boolean operations (union, intersection, difference) to combine simple geometric
shapes (primitives) like cubes, cylinders, and spheres to form complex objects.

The steps to combine primitives in CSG are represented as a graph, where nodes represent
operations or primitives, and edges represent the relationships between them.

Primitives: Building blocks in CSG. Common primitives include blocks, cylinders, cones,
spheres, wedges, and toruses. Each primitive is defined by geometric parameters, such as
size and orientation. Each primitive should have a valid configuration domain.
Mathematically, each primitive is defined as a regular point set of ordered triplets (x, y, z) .

Boundary Representation (B-Rep)

Represents a solid using its boundary surfaces. Surfaces form the exterior of the object,
defining the geometry and topology. The database of a B-Rep model contains both its
topology and geometry. Topology is created by Euler Operations and Geometry by
Euclidean Calculations.
Loop:

• A loop is an ordered sequence of vertices and edges that define a face in a 3D

object.

o Inner Loops: Also called rings, these are loops that define holes inside a
face.

o Handles: These are through holes in an object (e.g., a donut has a handle).

o Genus: This refers to the number of handles in an object. For example, a

sphere has a genus of 0, and a donut has a genus of 1.

Body (or Shell):

• A Body or Shell is the set of faces that form the boundaries of a single connected
closed volume. It encloses the object’s space.

Building Operations
Sweep Representation
Sweep Representation is a method used in 3D modeling to create solid models by
"sweeping" a 2D shape along a path or around an axis. This technique is especially useful
for creating two-and-a-half dimensional components, which are objects with uniform
thickness or axisymmetric solids.

Analytical Solid Modeling

Relies on mathematical equations (such as implicit equations) to represent surfaces and
volumes of solids

Rapid Prototyping Data Formats

STL Format (STereoLithography)
STL is a widely used file format for 3D models, particularly in Rapid Prototyping (RP) and 3D
printing systems. It describes the surface geometry of a 3D object using triangular facets.

• Any 3D form (polyhedral or curved) can be approximated by a triangulated

surfaces/facets
• Polygons of 4 or more sides can be divided into triangles

• Two formats of STL file

o – ASCII format
 o – Binary format (ASCII STL files are LARGE and human readable, Binary
format is more compact)

STL format rules

1. Facet Orientation Rule: The vertices of each triangle are defined in a
counterclockwise order, ensuring proper orientation.
2. Adjacency Rule: Each triangular facet shares two vertices with its adjacent
triangles.
3. Mobius Rule: Since the vertices are ordered, the direction of an edge in one triangle
is opposite to that of an adjacent triangle sharing the same edge.

Disadvantages of STL File

Large File Size, Redundant Information, Geometry Flaws, Need for Repair Software

STL File Problems

Missing facets or Degenerate Facets Overlapping Facets Nonmanifold
Gaps Topology Conditions
• Occurs during • A geometrically • Generated due to Nonmanifold Edge
tessellation of degeneracy of a facet numerical round off
surfaces with large occurs when all the facet errors occurring
curvature edges are collinear during tessellation
At the intersection • This may be caused by
between such stitching algorithms that
surfaces attempt to avoid shell
punctures
Tessellated Model
Valid Tessellated Model Invalid Tessellated Model
A tessellated model is said to be valid if The missing facet in the geometrical model
there are no missing facets, degenerate would cause the RP system to have no pre-
facets, overlapping facets, or any other defined stopping boundary on the
abnormalities particular slice

STL File Repair

Solving the Missing Facets problem

Detection of Gaps
check for approved Sorting of Erroneous use file D to make
(store edges without
edges (store in a Edges into a closed facets and store it in
adjacent facets in file
temporary file B) loop (File D) file E
B1)

Given Diagram

File B1

File C

(opposite of File B1 , with * at some random places I don’t know

 File D
Opposite of
B1

Process of
Facet
Generation
Using file D

SOLID BASED RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESSES

Fused Deposition Modeling is based on extrusion process. At present, two series of
machines – the FDM Series and the Concept Modeler

FDM Series of Machines Concept Modeler Series of Machines

Capable of producing Functional It uses a heated head and pump assembly
Prototypes and hence works as a to deposit model plastics onto the build
production unit layers
Old machines use (Software): Quickslice Dimension is a low cost concept modeler
, SupportWorksTM
New machines use (Software): Insight Prodigy Plus – a networked machine, and
builds 3D conceptual model from any CAD
workstation
INSIGHT automatically generates Both Dimension and Prodigy Plus have the
supports, optimizes part orientation, same build volume, but the two systems
increases build speed, improves efficiency, differ in many ways
and is user-friendly.

Machine Name : Titan Machine Name : Dimension

Qualities: allows a wide choice of Qualities: builds support structures with
materials (ABS, Polycarbonate and the Break Away Support System (BASS)
Polyphenylsulfone
Machine Name : Maxum Machine Name : Prodigy Plus
Qualities: builds models with ABS only Qualities: uses the WaterWorks automated
support system
Process of Solid Based RP
{"Set", "Generate", "Heat", "Extrude", "Solidify", "Move", "Build", "Support", "Remove"}

In 3D printing, let's say you're printing a simple phone stand. The printer first sets the layer
thickness (between 0.172 and 0.356 mm) depending on how detailed you want the print to
be. The printer then calculates a tool path, which is like a roadmap for where the printer’s
head will move to lay down material.

The filament, which is the raw material, is heated until it's in a semi-liquid state. The
printer then extrudes this semi-liquid plastic in thin layers. For example, the base of the
phone stand is printed first, and as the material comes out of the printer head, it quickly
solidifies because the surrounding air is cooler.

As each layer is completed, the printer head moves in the X and Y directions (side to side
and back and forth), creating new layers on top of the previous ones. The width of the
material laid down ranges from 0.250 to 0.965 mm, depending on the settings.

The printer also uses a dual tip mechanism, which dispenses two materials: one to create
the actual phone stand and another to build support structures (like under the
overhanging part where the phone rests). Once printing is finished, the support material is
removed, either by breaking it off or washing it away, leaving only the final phone stand.

This process is repeated layer by layer until the entire phone stand is built.

Principle of Solid Based RP

The principle of Fused Deposition Technology depends on surface chemistry, thermal
energy, and layer manufacturing technology
Advantages and Disadvantages of FDM
Advantages of FDM Disadvantages of FDM
Strong Prototypes: ABS material gives Low Accuracy: The filament size limits
strong parts for testing (85% strength of how precise the parts can be.
real product).
Less Waste: Only the needed material is Slow Process: It takes time to fill the whole
used, so there is very little waste, and not part with material, making the process
much cleanup is needed after. slow
Easy to Remove Supports: Extra supports Slow Material Flow: The speed is also
can be broken off or washed away easily, limited by how fast the material can come
so there's less work after printing. out of the nozzle.
Easy to Use and Maintain: FDM machines Cooling Issues: Parts cool quickly, which
are simple to operate and need little causes stress and can lead to problems.
maintenance.

Laminated Object Manufacturing

The RP component is built by joining laminations of part cross sections. The process
consists of three phases:

Pre-processing
Building
Post-processing

Pre-processing Building Post-processing

CAD model making & STL Material is adhesive coated Post-processing includes
file generation laminated sheets separation of the part from
the support material and
finishing it
 Sorting input data Thin layers of these sheets The laminated stack based
are sequentially bonded to larger and heavier RP parts
each other are removed by using a
forklift
Creating Secondary Data The true cross-sectional Finishing includes
Structure shape is generated due to traditional model-making
cutting of each layer by a techniques like sanding,
CO2 laser beam polishing, painting, etc.

System Structure
1. Computer Hardware and Software: Controls the system and processes.
2. Laser and Optics: Includes lasers used to cut the model.
3. XY Positioning Device: Moves the laser and material for accurate cuts.
4. Base Platform and Vertical Elevator: Supports the material and moves it up and
down.
5. Laminating System: Bonds material layers together.
6. Material Supply and Collection: Feeds and collects the material.

LOM Materials :- LOM materials can include any sheet material with adhesive backing,
such as plastics, metals, and ceramic tapes. The most commonly used material is Kraft
paper with a polyethylene-based adhesive, which is affordable, widely available, and
environmentally friendly. To ensure consistent lamination across the working area, it is
crucial to maintain a constant temperature. A temperature control system with closed-loop
feedback helps keep the system’s temperature stable, regardless of external conditions.

Advantages and Disadvantages of LOM

Advantages of LOM Disadvantages of LOM
Wide Range of Materials: Can use various Precise Power Adjustment: The laser
sheet materials, including paper, plastics, power must be carefully controlled to avoid
metals, composites, and ceramics. cutting into previous layers.
Material Flexibility: Users can vary the Laser Distortion Risk: Poor control of the
material type and thickness to meet laser beam can cause distortion in the
specific prototype needs prototype.
Faster Process: The laser only cuts the Limited Mechanical Strength: Parts may
periphery, speeding up the process for not withstand vigorous mechanical loading
large, bulky parts. needed for functional prototypes.
High Precision: Achievable feature Labor-Intensive Post-Processing:
accuracy is better than 0.127 mm (0.005 Removing the part from supports can be
inches). time-consuming and tedious.

With from Niazi