SS ONE REVISED

FIRST TERM
CHEMISTRY NOTE

Ogbonna Anselm (Mr.)

The note simplified basic topics in chemistry such as the
need to study chemistry, separation techniques,
elements, compounds and mixtures, the concept of
atoms and molecules, relative atomic mass, relative
molecular mass, chemical formulae, balancing of
chemical equations, mole concepts, balancing of
chemical equations , etc.

Loyola Jesuit College, Abuja

 SS I scheme of work (First Term)
Weeks Topic/content Objectives
1 Introduction to chemistry: Students should be able to:
Scientific method, chemistry in 1. define the term chemistry
everyday activities, applications of 2. outline scientific methods of
chemistry. Hazardous and adverse investigation
effect of chemistry. Career 3. outline applications of chemistry in our
prospects in chemistry daily lives
4. state disadvantages of chemistry
5. state career prospects in chemistry
2 Nature of matter: states or classes of Students should be able to:
matter. Elements, chemical symbols 1. define the terms elements, compounds
of elements, compounds and and mixtures
mixtures. Classes of mixture, 2. write chemical symbols of elements
differences between compounds and 3. state properties of elements, compounds
mixtures,. Physical and chemical and mixtures
change 4. state their differences
5. explain physical and chemical changes
with examples
3 Separation techniques: common
separation techniques. Procedure for Students should be to:
separation of mixtures. Simple 1. define and explain separation techniques
distillation, filtration, sublimation, listed
crystallization, fractional 2. explain the bases for using each of them
distillation, chromatography, 3. demonstrate various separation
sieving, froth floatation , etc. techniques

4 Particulate nature of matter: concept Students should be able to:

of atoms and molecules. Dalton‘s 1. define the terms atoms, molecules and
atomic theory, concept of relative ions
atomic mass and relative molecular 2. explain the term atomicity and give
mass. Composition of atoms. examples.
Concept of isotopy, electronic 3. mention sub-atomic particles and state
configuration their properties
4. state Dalton‘s atomic theory and their
modifications
5. explain the concept: relative atomic mass
and relative molecular mass
6. calculate relative molecular mass of
compounds.
7. define the term isotopy and calculate
relative atomic mass based on percentage
abundance
 8. write electronic configuration
9. explain the term isoelectronic species.
5 The periodic table: basic features of Students should be able to:
periodic table. Blocks of elements 1. give brief historical development of
in the periodic table. General trends periodic table
and atomic properties. 2. state periodic law
3. explain periods and groups/families
4. state and explain periodic properties and
their trends

6 Chemical combination: Valence

electrons, octet rule. Types of Students should be able to:
chemical combinations 1. state octet rule
.Electrovalent/ionic bonding, 2. mention types of chemical bonding and
covalent bonding, coordinate explain each
covalent/dative covalent bonding, 3. outline properties of ionic, covalent, and
metallic bonding and intermolecular metallic bonds
forces 4. explain hydrogen bonding and Van der
Waals forces ( London dispersion forces
and dipole-dipole interaction) and their
effects

7 Chemical formulae of binary Students should be able to:

compounds, common ions and
charges. Formula of complex ionic 1. write formulae of ionic compounds
compounds/ IUPAC nomenclature 2. explain the concept, valency
of inorganic compounds. 3. name simple ionic compound using
Calculations involving formulae, oxidation number
empirical and molecular formulae. 4. define empirical and molecular formulae
5. determine empirical and molecular
formula based on percentage/mass
composition
6. calculate the % of elements in
compounds
8 The mole concept: using grains to Students should be able to:
introduce mole concept. Application 1. Define the term mole and explain
of mole concept. mole concept using grains
Calculations using mole concept. 2. do simple calculations on mole
Chemical equation and types of concept
chemical reactions: Balancing of 3. define chemical reaction and state
chemical equations. Types of types of chemical reaction
chemical reactions, laws of 4. state laws of chemical combinations
chemical combinations, calculations 5. explain how each law can be verified
and do calculations on each law
 from equations (mass-mole 6. do simple calculations from
relationship, mass-volume equations (mass-mole relationship,
relationship) mass-volume relationship)

What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is a branch of physical science that deals with the composition, properties and uses
of matter. It looks into the chemical changes that occur between different substances and
from the knowledge of the properties of the substances involved, it can explain what
happened.

Also, from the knowledge of chemical properties of substances, it is possible to predict the
kind of chemical reactions that will occur between different substances under certain
conditions, and the new substances that will be formed from such reactions.

Chemistry, therefore does not only allow us to understand the properties of matter, but it also
gives us the ability to manipulate matter to get the desired outcome or products.

Chemistry has no doubt helped to create countless diverse and valuable products upon which
great industries have been established in many countries, providing jobs to millions of
people. Some of such industries include the petrochemical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, food
processing, and fragrance industries.

For the fact that chemistry studies the composition and properties of matter, it is therefore a
fundamental subject in science. You will not be able to take a degree in biological courses,
medicine, physics, engineering, geology, and earth science without studying chemistry. This
is why chemistry is usually referred to as the "central science" - it connects biology and
medicine, physics and mathematics, and the earth and environmental sciences.

It provides explanations to many physical and biological phenomena. Therefore, the

knowledge of chemistry is important because it helps us to better understand our physical
world.

Why Study Chemistry?

The study of chemistry helps us to understand our world better and to make the right
decisions in almost all our daily activities.

When you are cooking, you are actually carrying out a chemical reaction. The ingredients are
mixed up in certain proportions and cooked together to produce the tasty food. Your
understanding of the chemical composition and properties of the ingredients will definitely
make you a better cook. In fact, this is the reason you will have to take chemistry courses if
you are studying to be a cook.

Everything around us is a chemical substance which can undergo reactions or change with
others. For instance, apples, potatoes, pears, peaches, and bananas when cut or bruised will
form a brown color on the surface in a few minutes. You may have been observing this, but
may not have known that the cause of the brown color is a chemical reaction which takes
place between the oxygen of the air and some chemical substances in the apple and the other
produce

Applications of chemistry
Chemistry is applied in all field of human endeavor such as:
 Medicine- drugs are chemicals used to cure various illnesses. Also all the medical
equipment is products of chemistry.
 Energy – fuels are chemical products used to power various engines especially the
automobiles.
 Housing- materials for housing such as zinc. Iron rods, cements, sand, paints, etc are
chemical products.
 Road construction- In the area of road construction, asphalt for tarring road, stones,
etc are all chemical products.
 Education- All the materials that enhance learning such as biros, board markers,
boards, papers, computer hard-wares, etc are all products of chemistry.
 Agriculture- Agrochemicals such as herbicides, fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, etc
are all chemical products.
 Transportation – cars, lorries, trucks, airplanes, Ship , etc are all chemical products.

Disadvantages of chemistry
Chemistry as we have studied is very important as human beings are even products of
chemistry. Human being is mainly water which is a chemical product and other important
compound and elements. Despite this, chemistry has some disadvantages such as:
 Pollution- chemical products pollute our environment and cause various hazards to
man and other animals. Chlorofluorocarbon depletes ozone layer
 Rusting of iron- Rusting is an electrochemical process that weakens iron used for
different construction such as roads, bridges, houses, etc.
 Chemical weapon- chemical weapon which is lethal has been used for warfare in
various war-turn countries of the world such as Iraq, Syria, Yemen, etc.
 Drug abuse- drugs are chemical products used to treat various illnesses. These drugs
are abused by some people by taking them without doctor‘s prescription. Drug abuse
has escalated crime, prostitution and other social vices in our society.

 Careers in Chemistry

The chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, food processing, breweries, and other

industries are areas where most chemists usually seek for employment after completing their
studies. There are wide varieties of careers for chemists there, including working in the
business side of the firm, such as sales and customer support departments. Here are some of
them.

Research and Development Chemist: Research and development chemists help their
companies to research and discover ways to improve on their products so as to provide more
and better value for the customer and thereby remain competitive in the market. They also
discover new marketable products which brings more revenue to their companies.

For instance, chemists in the cosmetics industry use their knowledge of chemistry to research
and develop new fragrances, skin treatment solution, dyes, and other formulations that the
company can market. Research and development chemists usually have PhD in chemistry
fields; however, there are still numerous opportunities for BS or MS degree holders to work
in the research and development department as technicians performing researches under the
supervision of the chemist.

Quality Control Chemist: Quality control chemists in the industry help to check that the
quality of their company‘s products is up to the desired standard before they are released into
the market.

Production Chemist: Production chemists are responsible for translating the new products
developed by the research chemists into something that can be mass produced by a
manufacturing process. In performing their job, production chemists work closely with plant
engineers in coming up with the right design of plant equipment to use for better productivity
and costs.
Production chemists supervise production and make sure production process complies with
environmental protection policies. They also check quality control.

Food Chemist: In the food processing industry, food chemists use their knowledge of
chemistry to create foods with desirable qualities, such as better taste, longer shelf life,
improved nutrition, healthy and safe to consume.
Chemical Sales Career: Chemists can pursue sales careers in the chemical industry.
Chemical manufacturing companies need people with chemistry background to sell their
products directly to target customers. Chemists are able to work with customers and to
determine the type of products that would best enable the customer to realize their goal.

This job involves one-on-one dealings with customers and so requires a great degree of
interpersonal relationship skills.
Chemical Marketing Career: Chemists can also be involved in the marketing of chemical
products. In addition to their chemistry background, chemists who wish to pursue a career in
marketing will need to take some training in marketing.

As a marketing professional, you will be involved in all processes that adequately publicize
and compel target customers to buy your products. The job entails identifying and
understanding your target customers and designing effective marketing strategies to reach
and make them buy from you. It also involves studying sales and trends to predict the future.

Technical Service Career: The technical service professional‘s job involves helping
customers to solve problems relating to the workability of the product and troubleshooting for
customers with problems, questions or challenges. It also involves generating new
applications for the products and creating instructional manuals to guide customers on how to
use the products.

 Chemistry Careers in Schools

Schools offer the second largest places after the industries where graduates of chemistry can
work. Chemistry teachers are needed to impart chemistry knowledge to students in high
school, community college, college or university.

High School Teacher: All high schools need chemistry teachers to teach the subject. To
teach in a public school you will also be required to have an additional qualification in
education. Private schools may not however demand education qualification; with a B.S.
degree in chemistry you can be hired directly.

Community College Teacher: Graduates with MS or PhD degrees in chemistry are qualified
to teach general and organic chemistry in community colleges.

Undergraduate College or University Teacher: To be faculty member in a primarily

undergraduate institution, you will almost need a PhD in chemistry. Your work will include
to teach classes and labs, and to direct students‘ research projects.

Teacher at Research Universities: You will need to have PhD and some years of post-
doctoral experience may be required to be faculty in research universities, which offer BS,
MS, and PhD degree programs. You will be involved in teaching undergraduate and graduate
courses, and directing research projects for groups of undergraduate and graduate students.

Careers in Support Positions: With background in chemistry, you can work in a number of
support positions that require technical background in colleges and universities. These job
positions include lab technician and staff scientist, safety officer, and stockroom manager.
The lab technician and staff scientist operates research equipment and performs support
duties for teaching and research. The safety officer is responsible for handling and disposing
of harmful waste, and to ensure that all safety guidelines, including EPA are enforced. The
storeroom manager is responsible for ordering and maintaining inventories of chemicals and
supplies to support the schools research and teaching programs.

 Chemistry Careers in Government

A variety of job opportunities are available for graduates of chemistry in all levels of
government – federal, state, and local government. For instance, the federal government runs
national research laboratories across the country, which employs BS, MS and PhD graduates,
including those with chemistry degrees, to research on a wide range of issues.

Other places that chemistry graduates can find employment with government are in
government‘s regulatory agencies, such as the , Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ,
Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI) and Food and Drug Administration ( FDA). These
agencies employ chemists to carry out research and analysis so as to be able to effectively
perform their role.

Also, chemists can build careers in forensic science and work with local, state, or national
forensic science laboratories. This is because forensic science is based mainly on analytical
chemistry and biochemistry.

 Careers in Related Fields

Graduates of chemistry can also build career in non-core chemistry fields based on their
training, which makes them suitable for such jobs. Some of these areas include:

Biotechnology: Chemistry and biochemistry graduates are qualified to pursue further training
and career in biotechnology if they so desired.

Toxicology: This is an area interested chemists can get further training and build a career.
Toxicologists study toxic substances to find out how they produce their effects and so create
solutions for dealing with them. Some industries, including manufacturers of therapeutic
drugs, cosmetics, food additives, and agriculture chemicals are often required by federal laws
to perform thorough testing on their products before they are released into the market.

These industries therefore are compelled to employ toxicologists to perform the required tests
and confirmation of the safety of their products.

Environmental Science: This is an area open to chemistry graduates to make a career. This
is because chemistry is central to the study of the environment. As environmental scientists,
you can work in the industries, with government, not-for-profit organizations, and in the
colleges.

Dietary Science: With chemistry background, you can build a career in dietary science after
taking some courses to properly integrate you into the profession. Dietary science is the study
of how what we eat affects our health and well-being.
Career in the Medical Professions: If you are interested in pursuing medical careers such as
being a medical doctor, pharmacist, dentist, veterinarian, and nursing, your degree in
chemistry can qualify you to be admitted into the training program for the particular course.

Medical Laboratory: Chemistry background can enable you to work as laboratory

technician in medical offices and hospitals. Medical lab technicians analyze patient samples
for doctors to be able to effectively diagnose diseases. They may also be required to prepare
drugs and other materials used in treating patients.

Technical Writing: If you have writing skill and are interested in combining it with your
chemical training, technical or scientific writing is a good career path you can take. There are
opportunities for technical writers to work for trade magazines and technical journals. You
can also work as a writer in the industries to produce product manuals and other
informational materials that enable the company to inform its customers about its products in
the way that they will understand. A course in English and/or Journalism would help to
achieve success in this profession.

Scientific Libraries: With a background in chemistry and some training in library science,
you can work in science libraries. If you did a graduate study in library science, you could
work as research librarian with government libraries and university research libraries. You
could also work with large companies as a research librarian.

Museums: A background in chemistry combined with training in information technology can

qualify you to work in museums. Your work may involve researching and producing
materials for exhibits, making presentations, and procuring materials for the museum.

Patent Agency: A degree in chemistry can enable you to work as a patent agent with the
federal government. The job involves analyzing patent applications to confirm if they are
actually novel and worthy to be awarded a patent. The analytical skill which you gain from
studying chemistry makes you suitable for the job.

Patent Law: You can become a patent lawyer after your chemistry degree by going to law
school. The job of patent lawyers include helping scientists to prepare patents that are legally
enforceable; helping their clients or employers to ensure that their patents rights are not
infringed on; and going after those who infringe on their clients or employers patents.

Branches of Chemistry

Chemistry can be grouped into five major branches. These are Organic Chemistry, Inorganic
Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry, and Biochemistry.

Organic Chemistry

This is the branch of chemistry that studies chemical compounds that contain the element
carbon, and carbon-hydrogen bonds (C-H). Organic chemists (chemists who specialize in
organic chemistry) seek to understand the structure, properties, and the kind of reactions such
compounds undergo. With this understanding, they can identify and classify the various
naturally occurring organic compounds and also create organic compounds with desired
properties and functions.

Organic chemistry is in the heart of such industries as the pharmaceutical, rubber, fuel,
plastic, cosmetics, detergent, dyestuffs, agrichemicals, and coatings industries.

Inorganic Chemistry

This branch of chemistry studies the reactions and properties of all chemical compounds that
do not have the C-H bonds. In other words, inorganic chemistry studies compounds that are
not organic. Inorganic compounds include minerals found in the earth's crust and non-living
matter.

Physical Chemistry

This branch of chemistry studies the physical properties of chemical compounds using laws
and concepts of physics, such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum
chemistry, statistical mechanics and dynamics.

Physical properties of chemical compounds include, temperature, pressure, volume, electrical

conductivity, plasticity, tensile strength, surface tension in liquids, solubility, viscosity,
boiling point, melting point, and color.

Using mathematical models and formulas, physical chemists (specialists in physical

chemistry) are able to quantify the physical properties of chemical substances, and are also
able to determine the effect certain phenomena would have on the physical properties of
chemical substances.

Analytical Chemistry

This branch of chemistry deals with the separation, identification and quantification of
chemical substances (analytes) in a given sample. In a simple way, the knowledge of
analytical chemistry enables chemists to determine the chemical substances that could be
present in a given material.

Analytical chemistry involves two aspects: qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis.
Qualitative analysis involves processes that are carried out to identify a chemical substance in
a given sample; while quantitative analysis involves finding out the concentration or the
amount of the substance in the sample.

To effectively carry out the identification and quantification of chemical substances to a high
degree of accuracy, several chemical and physical methods have been developed.

Purely chemical methods were developed in the nineteenth century and are known as
classical methods (also called wet chemistry methods). Chemical or classical methods
involve the use of chemical substances of known composition to identify the analyte
(chemical substance being investigated). Analytes can also be identified by odor, color,
boiling point, or melting point.
Quantitative analyses using classical methods include titrimetry, where the concentration of
the analyte is determined by the volume of a reagent required to completely react with it, and
gravimetry, where the amount of the analyte present is determined by the mass of product
obtained from a chemical reaction involving the chemical sample and a suitable chemical
compound.

Classical methods are precise and highly accurate; however, they have some serious
shortcomings. They require adequate quantity of the sample and the concentration of the
analyte in the sample must not be lower than 0.1 percent. They also require trained chemists
to carry them out, who may have to prepare the standard solutions to be used.

Physical methods for identifying and quantifying chemical substances are based on the
amount of light absorbed or emitted by the analyte, or on the strength of an electrical signal
produced by the analyte at an electrode. Physical methods are also called instrumental
methods because they rely on the use of machines to determine the physical quantities of
analytes.

Physical methods are not as accurate or precise as classical methods, but they require little
sample and can determine concentration of analytes that are below 0.1 percent of the sample.
They also produce faster results than classical methods. Instrumental methods are gradually
replacing many classical methods in today‘s analytical chemistry as more powerful analytical
machines are being invented.

Analytical chemistry has wide applications in environmental analysis, forensics, clinical

analysis, materials analysis, and bioanalysis.

Biochemistry

This is the branch of chemistry that studies the structure, composition, and chemical reactions
of chemical components of living systems (plants, insects, viruses, microorganisms, and
mammals) to understand how and why chemical reactions occur in them.

Biochemistry combines biology with organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry and deals
with issues such as the fundamental changes that take place in diseases, the chemical basis of
heredity, and how living things derive energy from foods.

Biochemistry has wide applications in medicine, veterinary medicine, dentistry, food science,
and agriculture. It also finds application in physiology, pharmacology, clinical chemistry, and
microbiology where biochemists (scientists that study biochemistry) may study the
mechanism of a drug action; research viral activities; study the mechanism of organ
functioning; or apply chemical concepts, procedures, and techniques to investigate the
diagnosis and treatment of disease and evaluation of health.

Elements, compounds and mixtures

Elements
Element is a substance which cannot be split/broken down into simpler units by an
ordinary chemical process or a substance that is made up of only one type of atom.
Over a hundred elements have been discovered which include substances like
hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, etc. These
 elements constitute the building block of other substances. Those substances that are
made of elements are called compounds.

It is important to understand the terms "element", "mixture" and "compound", because these
convey useful information.
Another useful term is the word "substance", which can be used to refer to either an element
or a compound - but not to a mixture because a "substance" always has a definite
composition. The most general term is "matter" which can be used to refer to any of
"substances", "elements", "mixtures" or "compounds".

The categories of elements, mixtures and compounds are described in words below:

Elements 1. consist of only one type of atom - which may, or may

not join together to form molecules or large structures,
therefore:
2. can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules
(e.g., nitrogen)
3. cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by
either physical or chemical techniques - though some
larger elements break-down spontaneously due to
being radioactive.

Elements are listed in the periodic table.

Many elements are found in nature and so may be called

"naturally occurring elements". Other elements have not been
found in nature but can be produced in the laboratory. A few
more elements are thought to exist but are very rare and even if
produced would only exist for a very short time because they
are radioactive and would quickly decompose into other
elements whose atoms are smaller.

Scientists have adopted certain conventions regarding the

chemical symbols for various elements. The symbol is the
short form or abbreviated name of the element. Each element
has a chemical symbol that is unique to it. An atom of an
element is denoted by this symbol. For example, the symbol
for Carbon is C. This method was devised by Jacob Berzelius
in 1814.

1 - H - Hydrogen
2 - He - Helium
3 - Li - Lithium
4 - Be - Beryllium
5 - B - Boron
6 - C - Carbon
7 - N - Nitrogen
8 - O - Oxygen
9 - F - Fluorine
10 - Ne - Neon
[11 - Na - Sodium
12 - Mg - Magnesium
13 - Al - Aluminum
14 - Si - Silicon
15 - P - Phosphorus
16 - S - Sulfur
17 - Cl - Chlorine
18 - Ar - Argon
19 - K - Potassium
20 - Ca - Calcium

Many elements have their symbol derived from either the first
letter [e.g., H for Hydrogen] or the first two letters [e.g., He for
Helium] of their names. A few elements have symbols derived
from their Latin names as given in the table below.

Element Symbol Latin Name

Antimony Sb Stibium
Copper Cu Cuprum
Gold Au Aurum
Iron Fe Ferrum
Lead Pb Plumbum
Mercury Hg Hydragyrum
Potassium K Kalium
Silver Ag Argentum
Sodium Na Natrium
Tin Sn Stannum
Tungsten W Wolfram

Elements are divided into metals, non-metals and metalloid

(semi-metals like boron, silicon, arsenic, etc.).

Metals are elements that ionize by losing electrons while non-

metals are elements that ionize by gaining electrons.

Characteristics of metals:

 Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity

 Metals have shiny appearance
 Metals are malleable
  Metals are ductile
 Metals are hard
 Metals are sonorous ie they out sound when hit
 Metals have high melting and boiling points.
Characteristics of non-metals
 Non-metals are not good conductors of heat and
electricity.
 They are soft or even gases
 They are not ductile
 They are not sonorous
 They have low boiling and melting points
 They are not malleable
 They do not have shiny appearance

Mixtures It is an impure substance that consists of two or more

substances physically combined together.

Characteristics of mixtures

1. It can be separated into their constituent parts by

physical means (e.g., distillation of liquids or
separating magnetic and non-magnetic solids using a
magnet), and
2. It has many of the properties of their constituent parts
(e.g., the element "oxygen" is part of the mixture "air"
and some of the properties of air are due to the oxygen,
albeit somewhat reduced compared with pure oxygen
due to the presence of the other constituents of the
mixture called "air").
3. It cannot be represented by a chemical formula. That
means that it is not combined in a fixed
4. It can be homogenous or heterogeneous
5. It does not have sharp melting and boiling points

There are many different types of mixtures, some of which

have special names. These include:

 Homogeneous Mixtures - in which the two or more

substances that form the mixture are evenly distributed
throughout the mixture, e.g. vinegar is a homogeneous
mixture of ethanoic acid and water.
 Heterogeneous Mixtures - in which the two or more
substances that form the mixture are not evenly
distributed throughout the mixture, e.g. oil and water.
  Solutions - a special type of homogeneous mixtures in
which one substance (called the "solute") is dissolved
in another substance (called the "solvent"), e.g. salt
water is salt dissolved in water - in such a way that the
salt no-longer exists as solid particles within the water.
 Suspensions - heterogeneous fluid mixtures
containing solid particles large enough for
sedimentation, which means that the particles (compare
with the "solute" part of a solution) will eventually
settle to the bottom of the container (unlike in the case
of colloids, below), e.g. particles of sand in water.
 Colloids - heterogeneous mixtures in which one is
substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout
another substance (for comparison, the size of the
particles of "solute" are greater than in the case of a
solution, but much smaller than in the case of a
suspension). There are many naturally occurring
colloids, e.g. milk. Colloids are very important in
biology and medicine.

Compounds A compound is a pure substance that consists of

two or more dissimilar elements chemically
combined. It is in a fixed proportion and can be
further subdivided into simpler substances by
chemical (not physical) means only, So, if a
quantity of a material consists of atoms of two or
more elements joined together, always in the same
ratio, then the matter forming that material is a
compound.

Characteristics of compounds

1. It can be broken down into a simpler type of matter

(elements) by chemical means; but not by physical
means
2. It always contains the same ratio of component
atoms and so, can be represented by a chemical
formula
3. They have properties different from their
component elements (e.g. the compound water
(H2O) is a liquid at room temperature and pressure
and has different chemical properties from those of
the two elements, hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2),
from which it is formed).
4. Compounds have sharp melting and boiling points
when they are pure.
 5. They are homogenous

Chemical and Physical Change

There are two kinds of change matter may undergo: These are chemical and physical change.

Chemical change is a change that is easily reversed and in which no mew substance is
formed. Eg melting of ice, melting of candle wax, sublimation, magnetization of iron while a
chemical change is the type of change in which a new substance is formed and not easily
reversed. Eg rusting of iron, fermentation of sugar, slaking of lime, reaction between acid and
base, reaction between sodium metal and water, digestion of food, etc.

Differences between chemical and physical changes

CHEMICAL CHANGE PHYSICAL CHANGE

1. Always produces new kind Produces no new kind of

of matter with a different mass matter, mass of matter
from the original substance. remains the same.
2. Usually accompanied by Is not accompanied by great
considerable heat change. heat change.
3. Is generally not reversible. Is generally reversible.

Examples of Chemical and Physical Change:

Chemical and physical change includes the following in the table below:

EXAMPLES OF EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL

CHEMICAL CHANGE CHANGE
 1. The burning of any
1. sublimation of iodine
substance in air, including
crystals
candle.
2. The addition of water to 2. melting of ice, candles, etc
calcium oxide/ slaking of freezing, evaporation,
lime. condensation
3. All explosions, including 3. magnetization of iron.
that of natural gas or
hydrogen with air;
dynamites and bombs.
4. The rusting of iron. 4. All cases of vaporization
of a liquid (or the
condensation of a gas to
liquid).
5. Magnetization of iron, as
well as the demagnetization of
iron.

Change of State

When substances undergo physical change, there are 3 distinct states upon which they can
transform – solid, liquid and gaseous. When solid substances gain heat, the tendency is for
them to change to the liquid state. This change is known as fusion or melting.

However, some solid substances when heated change directly to the gaseous state, without
passing through the liquid state. This change is called sublimation. Liquid substances when
heated change their state to gaseous. This is called vaporization.

Remember that these changes are reversible: when heat is taken from a gaseous substance, it
eventually becomes liquid. This is known as condensation. The same goes for a solid
substance that had sublimed - when the gas is cooled, it changes back to solid. A liquid
substance changes to solid when heat is taken from it. This is known as solidification,
freezing or crystallization.

Note: when a substance undergoes a change of state, its temperature remains the same. This
is because the heat required for the change is latent heat; the substance will contain
equilibrium mixture of both states (i.e. initial state and final state).

To separate the components of a mixture using the following techniques:

 Separating funnel
 Chromatography
 Centrifugation
 Simple distillation
 Fractional distillation
The Theory
How is a homogeneous mixture different from a heterogeneous mixture?

Most materials in our surroundings are mixtures of two or more components. Mixtures are
either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous mixtures are uniform in composition,
but heterogeneous mixtures are not uniform in composition.

Air is a homogeneous mixture and oil in water is a heterogeneous mixture. Homogeneous and
heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their components by several physical methods.
The choice of separation techniques is based on the type of mixture and difference in the
chemical properties of the constituents of a mixture.

What are types of separation techniques?

Various types of separation processes are:

 Crystallization
 Filtration
 Decantation
 Sublimation
 Evaporation
 Simple distillation
 Fractional distillation
 Chromatography
 Centrifugation
 Separating funnel
 Magnetic separation
 Precipitation

Using a separating funnel:

A separating funnel is used for the separation of components of a mixture between two
immiscible liquid phases. One phase is the aqueous phase and the other phase is an organic
solvent. This separation is based on the differences in the densities of the liquids. The liquid
having more density forms the lower layer and the liquid having less density forms the upper
layer.

Applications:

 To separate a mixture of oil and water.

 To separate a mixture of kerosene oil and water.

Chromatography:

Chromatography is a separation technique used to separate the different components in a

liquid mixture. It was introduced by a Russian Scientist Michael Tswett. Chromatography
involves the sample being dissolved in a particular solvent called mobile phase. The
mobile phase may be a gas or liquid. The mobile phase is then passed through another phase
called stationary phase. The stationary phase may be a solid packed in a glass plate or a piece
of chromatography paper.

The various components of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate.
There are different types of chromatographic techniques such as column chromatography,
TLC, paper chromatography, and gas chromatography.

Paper chromatography is one of the important chromatographic methods. Paper

chromatography uses paper as the stationary phase and a liquid solvent as the mobile phase.
In paper chromatography, the sample is placed on a spot on the paper and the paper is
carefully dipped into a solvent. The solvent rises up the paper due to capillary action and the
components of the mixture rise up at different rates and thus are separated from one another.

Applications:

 To separate colors in a dye.

 To separate pigments from natural colors.
 To separate drugs from blood.

Centrifugation:
Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and can pass through a filter paper.
For such particles, the filtration technique cannot be used for separation. Such mixtures are
separated by centrifugation. So, centrifugation is the process of separation of insoluble
materials from a liquid where normal filtration does not work well. The centrifugation is
based on the size, shape, and density of the particles, viscosity of the medium, and the speed
of rotation. The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter
particles stay at the top when spun rapidly.

The apparatus used for centrifugation is called a centrifuge. The centrifuge consists of a
centrifuge tube holder called rotor. The rotor holds balanced centrifugal tubes of equal
amounts of the solid-liquid mixture. On rapid rotation of the rotor, the centrifuge tubes rotate
horizontally and due to the centrifugal force, the denser insoluble particles separate from the
liquid. When the rotation stops, the solid particles end up at the bottom of the centrifuge tube
with liquid at the top.

Applications:

 Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.

 Used in dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
 Used in washing machines to squeeze water from wet clothes.

Simple distillation:

Simple distillation is a method used for the separation of components of a mixture containing
two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their
boiling points.

The distillation process involves heating a liquid to its boiling points, and transferring the
vapors into the cold portion of the apparatus, then condensing the vapors and collecting the
condensed liquid in a container. In this process, when the temperature of a liquid rises, the
vapor pressure of the liquid increases. When the vapor pressure of the liquid and the
atmospheric pressure reach the same level, the liquid passes into its vapor state. The vapors
pass over the heated portion of the apparatus until they come into contact with the cold
surface of the water-cooled condenser. When the vapor cools, it condenses and passes down
the condenser and is collected into a receiver through the vacuum adapter.
Applications:

 Separation of acetone and water.

 Distillation of alcohol.

Fractional distillation: Fractional distillation is used for the separation of a mixture of two
or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is small. The apparatus for
fractional distillation is similar to that of simple distillation, except that a fractionating
column is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser.

A simple fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface
for the vapors to cool and condense repeatedly. When vapors of a mixture are passed through
the fractionating column, because of the repeated condensation and evaporation, the vapors of
the liquid with the lower boiling point first pass out of the fractionating column, condense
and are collected in the receiver flask. The other liquid, with a slightly higher boiling point,
can be collected in similar fashion in another receiver flask.

Applications:

 Separation of different fractions from petroleum products.

 Purification of ethanol
 Industrial preparation of nitrogen and oxygen gas from air

Learning outcomes

1. Student understands the following terms: solvent extraction, chromatography, RF ,

centrifugation, simple distillation, fractional distillation, etc.
 2. Student acquires skills to perform experiments using the following techniques in the
chemistry lab:
 Solvent extraction using separating funnel
 Paper Chromatography
 Centrifuge machine
 Simple distillation & fractional distillation
3. Student can identify the components in the mixture based on the knowledge of Rf
value, boiling point, density, etc.
4. Student is able to select & design the above techniques based on the chemical and
physical properties of the components in the mixture.
5. Students acquire the skill to arrange the requirements for each technique through the
animations, simulators and videos.
6. Students will be able to select and perform suitable separation techniques based on the
available information about the nature of the components in the mixture.

Sublimation

Sublimation is suitable for solid mixtures containing solid substances that can vaporize
directly when heated. Examples of such substances are iodine crystals, ammonium chloride,
anhydrous aluminium chloride, anhydrous iron(III) chloride and benzoic acid. The vapor is
cooled away from the other component(s) and collected as solid.

Dissolution

The principle behind this technique is that some solid substances are soluble in certain kind
of solvent, while others are not. Hence, it is used generally to separate soluble substances
from insoluble ones. For example, a mixture of sodium chloride crystals and sand – the
sodium chloride is soluble in water while sand is not. Therefore, water is added to the mixture
to dissolve sodium chloride while leaving the sand to settle.

Note: organic solvents generally dissolve organic substances, e.g. kerosene dissolves wax,
grease, fats and oils. Inorganic solvents dissolve inorganic substances, and ionic solvents
dissolve ionic substances. Common solvents for sulphur are: carbon(IV) sulphide, CS2 and
methylbenzene (toluene). Common solvents for iodine are: ether (ethoxyethane), alcohol,
carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 and potassium iodide.

Water soluble salts includes: All common trioxonitrates(V) of metals. All common salts of
sodium, potassium and ammonium. All common tetraoxosulphates(VI), except: barium
tetraoxosulphate(VI) and lead(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI). Notice that calcium
tetraoxosulphate(VI) is sparingly soluble. All common chlorides except those of silver,
mercury(I) and lead.

Filtration: This is used to separate liquid components of mixtures from the solid components
(which are in suspension). The principle of this technique is that the particles of liquid are
small enough to pass through the filter material while those of solids are not. Notice that the
solid particles are in suspension.

If they were settled at the bottom, then the process would be decantation and not filtration.
Decantation does not involve the use of filter materials; it is the run-off of the liquid
component, leaving the solid behind. Decantation will come before filtration (depending on
whether the mixture contains solid components which are large and heavy enough to settle).

Both filtration and decantation usually follow the process of dissolution. E.g. after the sodium
chloride component of a mixture of sodium chloride and sand is dissolved in water, the liquid
component (sodium chloride solution) is decanted (separation from sand), and then filtered to
obtain clear sodium chloride solution.

Crystallization

The principle of this method is based on the fact that soluble salts are only soluble to certain
concentrations at a given temperature. Decrease in the temperature of their saturated solutions
will see the salts forming out of the solution. It is used to obtain a soluble salt from its
solution, and it involves heating the solution up to the point of saturation (for salts which
crystallize with water of crystallization, e.g., ZnSO4 . 7H2O).

Cooling the solution below this point results in the formation of the crystals from the
solution. For salts which do not crystallize with water, e.g., NaCl, their solutions are heated to
dryness to produce them. Notice that salts which crystallize with water are not heated to
dryness, otherwise, their crystalline nature will be lost. To purify further, the salt can be
recrystallized. I.e., the crystals obtained is dissolved in hot distill water and the process of
crystallization is repeated.
Notice that crystallization needs evaporation (by heating) for the solution to become
saturated. It is possible to separate a mixture of more than one water-soluble salt by
crystallization. This is because the solutions of different substances attain saturation at
different temperatures. A solution containing a mixture of different substances therefore
crystallizes its components separately when cooled below the saturated points of the different
components in solution - this is known as fractional crystallization

Evaporation

This method is used to separate components of soluble solid/liquid mixtures and volatile/non-
volatile liquid mixtures. The principle governing this method is the fact that molecules of
liquid substances when they gain heat, become gaseous and are lost from the surface. Notice
that the liquid, haven vaporized is not collected but lost to the atmosphere. The other
component (which is required), is then collected. Example – a mixture of sodium chloride
and water.

Precipitation
 Precipitation is used to separate a salt which is soluble in one solvent, forming a mixture with
that solvent, but become insoluble when another liquid which mixes well with the mixture
but which does not dissolve the salt is added. The salt will therefore be precipitated from the
solution and collected by filtration. For example, iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) is soluble in
water to form a mixture (i.e. a solution). When ethanol is added to the solution (ethanol is
miscible with water), the iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI) will be precipitated from the solution
as it is insoluble in ethanol.

Sieving

Sieving is used to separate solid mixtures whose components‘ particle size differ greatly. A
sieve is used to make the separation. The particles of one component are small enough to pass
through the sieve, while those of the other are not, and are therefore held onto the sieve,
separated from the first. Notice that the principle of separation used here is the large
difference in the particle size of the components of the mixture.

ATOM

The concept of atoms was once again introduced to the scientific world by John Dalton in his 1808 book, A
New System of Chemical Philosophy. Dalton put forth the concept of all matter being composed of small
particles, atoms, which varied in weight and size. An element was a substance that contained only one
particular type of atom. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of any other element. The atoms
of elements combine in small whole number ratios to form the many chemical compounds found on earth and
in the rest of the universe.

All atoms are composed of a given set of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These particles
have definite arrangements for any given element. The important thing to remember is that the protons,
electrons, and neutrons of one element are exactly the same as the protons, electrons, and neutrons of any other
element. It is their number and arrangement that make the elements different.
The basics of atomic structure are as follows:

 Protons are positively charged particles, weighing 1 atomic mass unit (1.67x10-24
grams) and located in the nucleus.
 Neutrons are neutrally charged particles, weighing approximately 1 atomic mass unit
and located in the nucleus.

Electrons are negatively charged particles, weighing atomic mass units and
located in the various orbitals of the energy levels outside the atomic nucleus. The
electron actually weighs 9.11x10-28 grams. This means it would take about 1,830
electrons to equal the mass of one proton. Since the heaviest naturally occurring
element has only 92 electrons in its normal state, we do not count the mass of the
electrons in calculating the mass of the atom.

Atomic Number (Z): This is the number of protons in an atom

Mass Number (A): This is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom. This is also called Nucleon number
Isotopy: This is a phenomenon whereby two or more atoms of the same element have
the same atomic number but different mass number due to the difference in the
number of neutrons. Examples 126C and 146C, 3517Cl and 3717Cl
 Postulates of Dalton's atomic theory

John Dalton, a British school teacher, published his theory about atoms in 1808. His
findings were based on experiments and the laws of chemical combination.

Postulates

1. All matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass, but differ from the atoms of
other elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, simple, whole
number ratio to form compound atoms.
5. Chemical reaction is as a result of combination or separation of atoms.

Drawbacks of Dalton's atomic theory of matter

 The indivisibility of an atom was proved wrong: an atom can be further subdivided
into protons, neutrons and electrons. However an atom is the smallest particle that
takes part in chemical reactions.
 According to Dalton, the atoms of same element are similar in all respects. However,
atoms of some elements vary in their masses and densities. These atoms of different
masses are called isotopes. For example, chlorine has two isotopes with mass numbers
35 and 37. The theory fails to explain the existence of allotropes; it does not account
for differences in properties of charcoal, graphite, diamond.
 Dalton also claimed that atoms of different elements are different in all respects. This
has been proven wrong in certain cases: argon and calcium atoms each have an atomic
mass of 40 amu. These atoms are known as isobars.
 According to Dalton, atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number
ratios to form compounds. This is not observed in complex organic compounds like
sugar (C12H22O11).
 In spite of the incorrectness in some aspects of Dalton‘s atomic theory, the
explanation that chemical reaction involves the separation and combination of atoms,
and that these atoms possess characteristic properties has remained relevant in today‘s
study of chemistry.

Merits of Dalton's atomic theory

 The atomic theory explains the laws of chemical combination.

 Dalton was the first person to recognize a workable distinction between the
fundamental particle of an element (atom) and that of a compound (molecule).

The Atomic Number of an Element

The atomic number of an element, i.e., the number of protons present in the atom was
determined by H.G. Moseley. He compared the wavelengths of the characteristic X-ray
emitted by a number of elements and thus arrived at values for the nuclear charges (produced
by the protons contained) of the atoms.

These values became the atomic number of the respective element. Moseley‘s discovery
provided proof that there is in the atom a fundamental quantity which increases by regular
steps as we pass from one element in the periodic system to the next. This quantity is the
charge of the nucleus, i.e., the number of protons in the nucleus.

The Discovery of Electrons

From series of experiments conducted by J.J. Thomson using the discharge tube (crook‘s tube
or cathode ray tube), he found that when a gas (e.g., neon, air, mercury vapor, helium or any
other less reactive gas) is placed in the tube at lower pressures and a high voltage applied, the
gas is ionized and it conducts electricity, with the observation of a greenish glow at the
cathode.

The glow consists of particles which were called cathode rays - because they were produced
at the cathode.

Note: - Gases conduct electricity at low pressure. At high pressures they don‘t.

- The ionization of gases faults Dalton‘s idea of atoms being the smallest and indestructible
particles of matter. The explanation of the above observation: at low pressures, and with the
application of high voltage, gas molecules ionize, and since they are few, the distance
between the ions is very great; hence the force of attraction between these ions is
considerably low.

Therefore, the positive ions will cause a great deal of impact when they strike the cathode.
This causes the emission of the greenish glow from the cathode. The nature of the cathode
rays were examined and found to be the following:

- They travel in straight lines.

- They are deflected to the positive end of an electric or magnetic field, indicating them to be
negatively charged particles.

- The mass of an electron is 0.000548 amu.

Cathode rays were found regardless of what gas is used in the discharge tube. For this, it was
believed that they were not one particular type of electrified particles, but a fundamental
particle of matter – they were later named electrons. J.J. Thomson went further to determine
the charge to mass ratio (e/m) for the cathode rays. He hoped that this would help in
identifying them either as ions or as some other charged fragment.

He found this ratio to be -1.76 x 108 coulombs per gram (the negative sign indicates electrons
to be negatively charged particles). Determination of Charge On An Electron by Millikan The
actual charge on an electron was found by R.A. Millikan (1907). He observed that in the
presence of ionized air, tiny oil droplets would pick up an electric charge and become
attracted to an electrode.

The amount of charge on individual droplet can be found from measurements of how fast the
droplet falls to the plate by gravity (in the absence of an electric field), and how fast it rises
(in the presence of an electric field). He found that although the charge on different droplets
were not the same, the total charge was always some integral multiple of the same unit of
charge, -1.6 x 10-19 coulombs. Hence, the smallest possible charge any one oil droplet can
pick up is -1.6 x 10-19 coulomb - this is the charge on an electron.

The Discovery of Neutrons

Observing that a helium atom, with atomic number 2 (containing 2 protons) actually have an
atomic weight of approximately 4 amu instead of 2 amu expected of a 2 proton atom. It was
believed that there must be some other fundamental unit in the atom whose weight must be
adding to the total atomic weight of the element, but do not contribute anything to the electric
charge.

Rutherford suggested it to be an electron/proton pair in the nucleus that is very much joined
together that it acts like a single particle of no charge – the particle was called a neutron.

However, James Chadwick, a young scientist working in Rutherford‘s laboratory, later

showed neutrons not to be as described by Rutherford, but as single discrete particles with no
charge, but with a mass of 1.0087 amu, almost equal to that of the proton. Therefore, the
mass of an atom is the sum of its number of protons and its number of neutrons.

The Discovery of Protons

After it was found that all atoms contain one or more electrons, which are negatively charged,
scientist naturally searched for a positively charged particle. Toward the end of the nineteenth
century, a number of physicists studied positively charged rays in discharge tubes containing
hydrogen.

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford, a student of J.J. Thomson announced his discovery of certain
charged particles behind the cathode. These particles were called canal rays. On analysis,
they were found to be:

 positively charged.
 heavy.
 of the same mass order as the atoms or molecules of the gas in the tube.
 not all identical, unlike electrons. - of mass or e/m ratio varying with the gas used.
 On the measurements of e/m ratio for different gases, and assuming that they all have
the same charge on the various ions, the hydrogen ion was discovered to be the
smallest possible positive ion. Hence, the hydrogen ion was believed to be a
fundamental particle of matter, and was called the proton.

The proton has the following properties:

 it is a positively charged particle.

 its charge is equal to that of an electron, but opposite in sign.
 it‘s mass is 1.0073 amu, which is approximately 1840 times greater than that of an
electron.
 It produces mechanical motion
 The objects hit by cathode rays get heated
 They cast shadow of objects placed in their path

Relative Atomic Mass

Relative Atomic Mass In chemistry, it is important to quantify particles. For the fact that the
size of an atom is too small to be weighed practically, relative atomic mass is therefore used
to represent the mass or weight of an atom of an element.

Definition: The relative atomic mass (symbol: Ar) of an element is the number of times
an average mass of an atom of an element is heavier than 1/12 th of the mass of one
atom of carbon 12- isotope

For naturally occurring elements with isotopes, the above definition is a little bit adjusted to
accommodate the fact that each isotope of the element has a different mass.

Relative atomic mass is a dimensionless quantity and so does not have a unit. It is measured
using an instrument called mass spectrometer.

Isotopes of an element are atoms of the element with different masses. The atoms have the
same number of protons but different neutrons.
Relative atomic mass is also called atomic weight.

The carbon-12 isotope is also known as the unified atomic mass unit - its atomic mass is
exactly 12.

The relative atomic masses of elements are usually published by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and are reprinted in a wide varieties of materials,
including textbooks, commercial catalogues, periodic table, and wall charts.

Calculating Relative Atomic Mass of Elements with Isotopes

Some elements have been found to contain isotopes. The relative atomic mass of such
element is determined by the masses of all the isotopes, and is closer to the mass of the more
abundant isotope.

The relative atomic mass of these elements can be calculated using the formula:

Relative atomic mass = (A/100 x a) + (B/100 x b) + (C/100 x c)

Where A/100 (or A%) is the abundance of one of the isotopes with relative atomic mass a;
B/100 is the abundance of another isotope with relative atomic mass b; C/100 is the
abundance of the third isotope with relative atomic mass c.

Example 1: Oxygen has three isotopes 16O, 17O, and 18O with relative abundance 99.76%,
0.04%, and 0.20% respectively, calculate the relative atomic mass of oxygen.

Solution:

Relative atomic mass of 16O is 16 and its relative abundance is 99.76%; 17O – atomic mass
17, abundance 0.04%; 18O – atomic mass 18, abundance 0.20%.

Relative atomic mass of oxygen = (99.76/100 x 16) + (0.04/100 x 17) + (0.20/100 x 18)

= 15.9616 + 0.0068 + 0.036 = 16.0044

By tweaking the formula above you can also calculate the relative abundance of the isotopes
if the relative atomic mass of the element and the atomic masses of the respective isotopes are
known.

Example 2: Chlorine with relative atomic mass of 35.5 contains two isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl,
what is the relative abundance of each isotope in a sample of chlorine?

Solution:

35.5 = (A/100 x 35) + ((100 – A)/100 x 37)

Note that if the abundance of the isotope of atomic mass 35 is A%, the abundance of the
isotope of mass 37 will be (100 – A)%.

35.5 = 0.35A + (100 – A) x 0.37 35.5

= 0.35A + 37 – 0.37A 0.37A – 0.35A

= 37 – 35.5 0.02A = 1.5 A

= 1.5/0.02 = 75

Therefore, the abundance of the isotope of relative atomic mass 35.5 is 75% while that for the
isotope 17Cl is 100 – 75 = 25%.

Relative Molecular mass

It is the number of times, an average mass of one molecule of the element or compound
is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of one atom of carbon-12 isotope

The molar mass of a substance (chemical element or compound) is the mass of one mole of
the substance. It is a physical quantity that is measured and expressed in g/mol.

How to Calculate Molar Mass

The molar mass of a substance is calculated by summing up the product of the relative atomic
mass and number of atoms of all the elements that make up the substance as expressed in its
chemical formula. For an element, the molar mass is the atomic mass of the element.

For example: calculate the molar mass of the following substances:

1. Water, H2O

The relative atomic masses of the elements in water, H2O are: H = 1, O = 16.

Therefore, the molar mass is: relative atomic mass of hydrogen x number of atoms of
hydrogen + relative atomic mass of oxygen x number of atoms of hydrogen.

This is expressed as 1x2 + 16x1 = 2 + 16 = 18

The molar mass of water, H2O is therefore 18g/mol

2. Hydrochloric acid, HCl

The relative atomic masses of the elements in hydrochloric acid, HCl are H = 1, Cl = 35.5.

The molar mass is calculated as follows: relative atomic mass of H + relative atomic mass of
chlorine, which is 1 + 35.5 = 36.5g/mol

3. Tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid, H2SO4

The relative atomic masses of the elements in H2SO4 are: H = 1, S = 32, O = 16.

Calculating the molar mass, we have: 1x2 + 32 + 16x4

= 2 + 32 + 64 = 98

The molar mass of H2SO4 is 98g/mol

4. Glucose, C6H12O6

The relative atomic masses of elements in C6H12O6 are: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16.

Calculating the molar mass, we have: 12x6 + 1x12 + 16x6

= 72 + 12 + 96 = 180

Therefore, the molar mass of glucose is 180g/mol

5. Calcium trioxocarbonate (IV), CaCO3

The relative atomic masses of elements in CaCO3 are Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16

Calculating the molar mass, we have: 40 + 12 + 16x3

= 40 + 12 + 48 = 100

Therefore, the molar mass of CaCO3 is 100g/mol

6. Sucrose, C12H22O11

The relative atomic masses of elements in C12H22O11 are: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16

Calculating the molar mass, we have 12x12 + 1x22 + 16x11

= 144 + 22 + 176 = 342

Therefore, the molar mass of sucrose is 342g/mol

7. Methane, CH4

The relative atomic masses of the elements in CH4 are: C = 12, H = 1

Calculating the molar mass gives 12 + 1x4

= 12 + 4 = 16

The molar mass of methane is 16g/mol

8. Acetic acid, CH3COOH

The relative atomic masses of elements in CH3COOH: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16

Calculating the molar mass of CH3COOH, we have 12x2 + 1x4 + 16x2

= 24 + 4 + 32 = 60

Therefore, the molar mass of acetic acid is 60g/mol

9. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

The relative atomic masses of the elements in NaOH are: Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1

Calculating the molar mass of NaOH: 23 + 16 + 1 = 40

Therefore, the molar mass of sodium hydroxide is 40g/mol

10. Ammonia, NH3 The relative atomic masses of the elements in NH3 are: N = 14, H = 1

Calculating its molar mass: 14 + 1x3

= 14 + 3 = 17

Therefore, the molar mass of NH3 is 17g/mol

11. Butane, C4H10 The relative atomic masses of elements in C4H10 are: C = 12, H = 1

Calculating its molar mass: 12x4 + 1x10

= 48 + 10 = 58

Therefore, the molar mass of butane is 58g/mol

12. Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 The relative atomic masses of the elements in CuSO4 are: Cu
= 64, S = 32, O = 16

Calculating the molar mass, we have: 64 + 32 + 16x4

= 64 + 32 + 64 = 160

Therefore, the molar mass of CuSO4 is 160g/mol

13. Potassium chloride, KCl

The relative atomic masses of elements in KCl are: K = 39, Cl = 35.5

Calculating its molar mass, 39 + 35.5 = 74.5

The molar mass of KCl is therefore 74.5g/mol

14. Calcium chloride, CaCl2 Relative atomic masses of elements in CaCl2 are: Ca = 40, Cl =
35.5

Calculating its molar mass, we have, 40 + 35.5x2

= 40 + 71 = 111

Therefore, the molar mass of CaCl2 is 111g/mol

15. Methanol, CH3OH

Relative atomic masses of elements in CH3OH are: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16

Calculating the molar mass, we have, 12 + 1x4 + 16

= 12 + 4 + 16 = 32

The molar mass of methanol is 32g/mol

16. Ethanol, C2H5OH

The relative atomic masses of elements in C2H5OH are: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16

Calculating its molar mass = 12x2 + 1x6 + 16

= 24 + 6 + 16 = 46

The molar mass of ethanol is therefore 46g/mol

17. Carbon(IV) oxide, also called carbon dioxide, CO2

The relative atomic masses of the elements in CO2: C = 12, O = 16

Calculating its molar mass, we have 12 + 16x2

= 12 + 32 = 44

Therefore, the molar mass of carbon(IV) oxide is 44g/mol

18. Sodium chloride, NaCl

The relative atomic masses of elements in NaCl: Na = 23, Cl = 35.5

Calculating its molar mass, we have 23 + 35.5 = 58.5

The molar mass of NaCl is 58.5g/mol

19. Acetone, C3H6O The elements in C3H6O and their relative atomic masses are: C = 12, H
= 1, O = 16

Calculating its molar mass: 12x3 + 1x6 + 16

= 36 + 6 + 16 = 58

Therefore, the molar mass of acetone is 58g/mol

20. Salicylic acid, C7H6O3

The elements in C7H6O3 and their relative atomic masses are: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16

Calculating its molar mass: 12x7 + 1x6 + 16x3

= 84 + 6 + 48 = 138

Therefore, the molar mass of salicylic acid is 138g/mol

21. Benzene, C6H6 The elements in C6H6 and their relative atomic masses are: C = 12, H = 1

Calculating the molar mass: 12x6 + 1x6

= 72 + 6 = 78

The molar mass of benzene is therefore 78g/mol

22. Aspirin, C9H8O4

The relative atomic masses of elements in C9H8O4 are: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16

Calculating its molar mass: 12x9 + 1x8 + 16x4

= 108 + 8 + 64 = 180

Therefore, the molar mass of aspirin is 180g/mol

22. Calculate the molecular mass of (NH4)2SO4 . H = 1, N = 14, S = 32, O = 16

23. Calculate the relative molecular mass of Na2CO3.10H2O. Na = 23, C =12, O =16, H =1

23x2+12+16x3 + 10(1x2+16)

46+12+48+ 180 = 286

24. Calculate the relative molecular mass of CuSO4.5H2O. Cu = 63.5, S = 32, O =16, H =1

63.5+32+16x4 + 5(1x2+16)

63.5+ 32+64+90 = 249.5

How to Determine the Molar Mass of Air

Air is a mixture of gases; therefore, its molar mass can be determined by summing up the
molar masses of all the constituent gases.

The gases that make up air are: oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide (or carbon(IV) oxide),
hydrogen, argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon. The actual molar mass of each gas present in
the mixture can be found out by multiplying the mass of one molecule of the gas by its
volume ratio to dry air (or the percentage of the gas in dry air).

The volume ratio of the gases to dry air (or the percentage of the gases in dry air) are given
as: oxygen (0.2095 or 20.95%); nitrogen (0.7809 or 78.09%); carbon dioxide (0.0003 or
0.03%); hydrogen (0.0000005 or 0.00005%); argon (0.00933 or 0.933%); neon (0.000018 or
0.0018%); helium (0.000005 or 0.0005%); krypton (0.000001 or 0.0001%); xenon (0.09 x
10-6 or 0.09 x 10-4 %).

Calculating the molar mass of each gas in air: Oxygen, O2, molecular mass = 16 x 2 = 32.
Molar mass of oxygen in air = 32 x 0.2095 = 6.704g/mol

Nitrogen, N2, molecular mass = 14 x 2 = 28. Molar mass of nitrogen in air = 28 x 0.7809 =
21.88g/mol

Carbon dioxide, CO2, molecular mass = 12 + 16x2 = 12 + 32 = 44. Molar mass of carbon
dioxide in air = 44 x 0.0003 = 0.0132g/mol

Hydrogen, H2, molecular mass = 1 x 2 = 2. Molar mass of hydrogen in air = 2 x 0.0000005 =

0.000001g/mol

Argon, Ar, atomic mass = 40. Molar mass of argon in air = 40 x 0.00933 = 0.3732g/mol

Neon, Ne, atomic mass = 20. Molar mass of neon in air = 20 x 0.000018 = 0.00036g/mol

Helium, He, atomic mass = 4. Molar mass of helium in air = 4 x 0.000005 = 0.00002g/mol

Krypton, Kr, atomic mass = 84. Molar mass of krypton in air = 84 x 0.000001 =
0.000084g/mol

Xenon, Xe, atomic mass = 131. Molar mass of xenon in air = 131 x 0.09 x 10-6 = 0.1179 x 10-
4

Molar mass of dry air = 6.704 + 21.88 + 0.0132 + 0.3732 = 28.97g/mol

Notice that we didn‘t include the molar masses of hydrogen, neon, helium, krypton, and
xenon because they are too small to significantly affect the overall molar mass of air.

The Molar Mass of Diatomic or Polyatomic Molecule

The molar mass of a diatomic or polyatomic molecule is same as the atomic mass of its
element multiplied by the number of atoms contained.
Examples: Determine the molar mass of the following:

1. Nitrogen, N2

The relative atomic mass of nitrogen is 14. The molar mass of nitrogen molecule, N2 is 14 x 2
= 28g/mol

2. Oxygen, O2

The relative atomic mass of Oxygen is 16, therefore, the molar mass of oxygen, O2 is 16 x 2
= 32g/mol

3. Chlorine, Cl2

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5. The molar mass of chlorine molecule Cl2 is 35.5
x 2 = 71g/mol

4. Hydrogen, H2

The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1, therefore, its molar mass is 1 x 2 = 2g/mol

5. Sulphur, S8 The relative atomic mass of sulphur is 32, therefore, the molar mass of S8 is 32
x 8 = 256g/mol.

Isotopes

The isotopes of an element are atoms of the element having the same atomic number but
different atomic masses – the phenomenon is known as isotopy. The difference in their
atomic masses is due to differences in their number of neutrons.

Having same number of protons, the isotopes of an element, except those of hydrogen all
exhibit similar chemical properties.

The expressed atomic masses are actually the average mass of all the isotopes. Many
elements exhibit isotopy. A very common one is chlorine – 35Cl and 37Cl.

Atoms of 35Cl are most abundant, consisting of about 75% of the total isotopes, while the
abundance of the 37Cl atoms is about 25%. The average atomic mass of an element exhibiting
isotopy can be deduced by taking the sum of the products of relative abundance and the
masses of the different isotopes. I.e., the average atomic mass of chlorine is:
75
/100 x 35 + 25/100 x 37 = 26.25 + 9.25 = 35.5 where 75/100 is the relative abundance of the
isotope of mass 35 and 25/100 is the relative abundance of the isotope of mass 37.

Note: the discovery of isotopy has faulted the idea in the Dalton‘s atomic theory which states
that all atoms of the same element are similar in every respect. Because of the presence of
isotopes in some elements, their relative atomic masses will not be whole numbers, since they
are not present in the same proportions.

Electronic Configuration

Electronic configuration is the distribution of electrons in the shells and subshells of atoms of
elements.

Each nth shell contains n subshells which consist of a total of n2 orbitals in which electrons
are actually accommodated. For example, the first shell (K), n=1 contains one subshell which
consists of one orbital. This orbital is the s orbital and is designated 1s (the 1 represents the
value of n, which is the shell number or the principal quantum number).

Strictly speaking, the K shell is not divided into subshells. I.e., there is only one type of
orbital, hence, the electrons in this shell are of the same energy. The 2nd shell (L), n=2
contains two subshells. One consists of one s orbital (designated as 2s), while the other
consists of three p orbitals (each designated as 2p).

This brings the total number of orbitals in this shell to four. The 3rd shell (M), n=3 contains
three subshells. The first consists of one s orbital (designated as 3s), the second consists of
three p orbitals (each designated as 3p), and the third consists of five d orbitals (each
designated as 3d). Thus , the total number of orbitals in this shell is nine. The 4th shell (N),
n=4 contains for subshells.

The first consists of one s orbital (designated 4s), the second three p orbitals (each designated
4p), the third five d orbitals (each designated 4d), and the fourth seven f orbitals (each
designated 4f). Thus the total number of orbitals in this shell is 16. Since each orbital can take
a maximum of two electrons, and also for the fact that the number of orbitals in an nth shell is
n2, the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is given as 2n2.

For example, the 1st shell (K), n= 1 can take a maximum of 2 electrons, the 2nd shell (L),
n=2 can take 8, the 3rd shell (M), n=3 can take a maximum of 18 and the 4th shell (N) can
take a maximum of 32 electrons.

Note: Within a given shell the electrons in the s orbital have the lowest energy, and the
electrons in the f orbital have the highest energy, i.e., s< p< d < f.

In filling a set of energy levels (main energy or the orbitals), the lowest in energy is always
filled first before the next – this is the Aufbau principle. I.e., K is filled before L, which is
filled before M.

In the same way, s is filled first before p, which is filled before d.

All shells have an s orbital.

The energy of an electron in a given orbital in a particular shell is lower (i.e., the electrons are
held more tightly) than that of an electron in an orbital of the same type in a shell with a
higher number, i.e., 1s < 2s < 3s < 4s < 5s < 6s < 7s.

When filling a subshell, each orbital is first filled singly before pairing - this is the principle
of maximum multiplicity, sometimes called Hund‘s Rule.

For example: to fill the p subshell with 4 electrons:

Examples of Electronic Configuration

Helium (2He) – contains two electrons. The first main energy level (K) is completely filled by
the two electrons. The one‘s orbital of the shell is completely filled. Therefore, the
configuration of the electrons is : 1s2.

Lithium (3Li) – contains three electrons. From the discussion above, the first main energy
level (K) can take a maximum of two electrons, after which, the next shell (L), which can
accommodate a maximum of eight electrons are filled. Therefore, to accommodate the three
electrons of Li, two are taken into the one s orbital of K shell, while the remaining one
electron is taken into the one s orbital of L shell.

Therefore, the configuration is written thus: 1s22s1. Note: similar orbitals of different shells
differ in energy. The lower the shell number, the lower the energies of it‘s orbitals, hence the
s orbital of the first shell is of lower energy than those of higher shells.

Boron (5B) – contains five electrons - two in the s orbital of the first shell (i.e. K), with the
configuration 1s2. The three in the second shell (i.e. L) are distributed amongst its s and p
orbitals, i.e., 2s22p1.

Notice that the s must be completely filled before the p can begin to fill. Altogether, the
electronic configuration of boron is 1s22s22p1.

Neon (10Ne) – contains ten electrons – the first shell takes up two, and the second shell takes
up the rest eight. The two in the first shell are taken up by its s orbital, i.e. 1s2. The eight in
the second shell are distributed amongst its s and p orbitals, i.e., 2s2 2p6.

Altogether, the electronic configuration of neon is : 1s22s22p6. Notice that the electronic
configuration of neon shows all the main energy levels (i.e., 1st and 2nd shells), and all the
orbitals (s and p) to be completely filled with electrons.

This type of configuration confers on neon and such atoms with this type of configuration a
perfect stability – the elements are not reactive and are regarded as noble gases.
Sodium (11Na) – contains eleven electrons. The configuration of neon above shows both the
1st and 2nd shells to be completely filled. Therefore, the eleventh electron (for Na) will be
accommodated in the 3rd shell (in the s orbital of one of the subshells).

The electronic configuration of sodium is therefore: 1s22s22p63s1.

Argon (18Ar) – contains 18 electrons. Again, from the electronic configuration of neon, we
need to account for another 8 electrons to state that of argon. These 8 electrons are to be
accommodated in the 3rd shell, which can take a maximum of 18 electrons. The s and p
orbitals of this shell accommodate these electrons, i.e., 3s23p6.

Therefore, the electronic configuration of argon is 1s22s22p63s23p6. Notice that this electronic
configuration is similar to that of Ne above. The complete filling of the available orbitals
confers on it a perfect stability.

Potassium (19K) – contains 19 electrons, just an electron more than argon. To account for the
accommodation of this extra electron, we would have expected the electron to go into the 3d-
orbital (since the 3rd shell can take a total of 18 electrons into it s, p and d orbitals). But this
is not the case, as the extra electron goes into the s orbital of the next shell (I.e., the 4s). This
is because the 4s orbital is closer to the nucleus than the 3d orbital, hence, it occupies a lower
energy and therefore is more stable.

Thus, the electronic configuration of K is 1s22s22p63s23p64s1.

Calcium (20Ca) – 1s22s22p63s23p64s2.

Note: from the electronic configuration of an element, e.g.1s22s22p63s23p4, we can deduce the
following:

1. The atomic number of the element. The sum of the superscripts (number of electrons
accommodated) by all the orbitals in an expressed electronic configuration equals the atomic
number (number of protons) of the elements. For example, the element above has a total of
2+2+6+2+4 = 16 electrons, hence the atomic number is 16.

2. The element. From the deduction of atomic number, we then know the element. For
example, the above electronic configuration is for sulphur (whose atomic number is 16).

3. The class the element belongs. To know the class (i.e., s, p, or d, etc) that the element
belongs, we look at the outermost orbital. For example, the element whose electronic
configuration is given above is a p-block element because its outermost orbital is 3p.

4. The group of the periodic table the element belongs. This is same as the number of
electrons in the outermost shell. For the above element, the configuration of the outermost
shell is 3s23p4. There are 2+4 = 6 electrons in the outermost shell; hence the element is in
group 6.

5. The period of the periodic table the element belongs. This is same as the outermost shell
number. The above element is in period 3 because its outermost shell is the third shell.
6. The chemical properties of the element. From the electronic configuration of an element,
we can deduce whether it can easily lose electrons (metallic properties) or gain electrons into
its outermost shell (nonmetallic properties). For example, the element with the configuration
1s22s22p63s1 can easily lose the one electron in its outermost shell (3s1) while the element
1s22s22p5 can easily gain one electron into its 2p orbitals to make them complete.

The element with the configuration 1s22s22p6 can neither lose nor gain electrons into its
outermost shell because all available orbitals are completely filled. Hence the element is inert
or unreactive.

Also Note: 1. The electronic configuration of hydrogen shows its only electron in the K shell,
which has one, or strictly speaking no subshells. Hence, the electron is of a definite energy.
This is why the spectrum of hydrogen is a line spectrum.

2. The electronic configuration of atoms with many electrons shows electrons in higher shells
(i.e., L and M). These shells are divided into subshells which are of different energies. Hence,
the electrons contained are of different energies. This is why a continuous spectrum, which
indicates the presence of the subenergy levels (i.e. subshells) is obtained, rather than a line
spectrum.

Electronic Configuration Table

The table below gives the summary of electronic configuration in atoms - the arrangement of
electrons in shells and subshells.
In the later part of the 19th century, the works of chemists such as Newland, Lother and most
especially Mendeleev, eventually led to what is today known as the Periodic Table. Their
work showed that there exist the occurrence at regular intervals, with increasing atomic
weights, of similar properties amongst the then known elements – this is called periodicity.

Mendeleev later designed a table of 7 rows (periods) and 8 vertical columns (groups) in
which the then discovered elements were assigned.

Spaces were left for predicted elements to be assigned when eventually they were discovered
– he was right, the spaces were filled up with elements which became known later. This table
is the periodic table.

The periodic law – the modern periodic law states that the properties of elements are periodic
function of their atomic numbers.

The periodic table can be divided into several classes based on the outermost orbitals of the
electronic configuration of its elements. Hence, groups IA and IIA are called the s - block
elements. They have 1 and 2 electrons in the s orbital, which is the outermost orbital in their
outermost shells respectively.

Groups IIIA to 0 are called the p – block elements (their electronic configurations show
their outermost orbitals to be the p – orbital). The bridge-like arrangement of elements
(elements in-between groups IIA and IIIA - i.e. the B group elements) contains the transition
metals – they are the d – block elements (their outermost orbitals are the d orbitals which are
partially filled).

Elements in the same group show similar electronic configuration, i.e., they possess the same
number of electrons (corresponding to their group number) in their outermost shells, and
contain the same number of electrons in their outermost orbitals (which are of the same kind).

For example, in group IA, hydrogen, lithium, sodium and potassium all have 1 electron in
their outermost shells, which is accommodated in their s orbitals; in group VIIA, fluorine and
chlorine contain seven electrons in their outermost shells, with five in the outermost p
orbitals.

Note: * It is because of the similarity in electronic configuration that all members of a group
possess similar chemical properties (members of the same group use equal number of
electrons from the same kind of orbital to effect chemical reactions).

* The repetition of properties of elements with increase in atomic number (i.e. periodicity) is
as a result of repetition of the same order of electronic configuration (i.e., electronic
configurations in the outer shells are repeated.

Variation in Physical Properties of Elements Across the Periodic Table

Elements of the periodic table show variation in physical properties along a period and down
a group. These physical properties are:

Ionization Energy

This is the energy required to remove an electron from the outermost shell of a free gaseous
atom to form a free gaseous ion. The energy required to remove the first electron is called the
first ionization energy; to remove the second, the energy is the second ionization energy, etc.

The greater the ease in the removal of electron, the lower the ionization energy, and vice
versa. Along a particular period, i.e., from left to right, the ionization energies of elements
increases, i.e., it becomes more difficult to ionize an atom. E.g., in period 3, the ionization
energies of the elements is in the order: Na < Mg < Al < Si < P < S < Cl < Ar

The reason for this order is that: as we go from left to right along a period, there is increase in
the nuclear charge, (resulting from the successive increase in the number of protons), but
there is no corresponding increase in number of shells (i.e. the number of shells along a
period is constant, e.g. for period 3, it is three). Hence, the force of attraction between the
protons and the outward electrons becomes progressively stronger, thereby making it more
difficult for an electron to be removed from the outermost shells of the atoms of the elements.

Along a particular group, due to increase in the number of shells down the group, the
ionization energies of the elements decrease. This is because the electrons in the outermost
shells become progressively farther away and shielded from the nucleus. Even with increase
in the number of protons, the force of attraction between the protons and the outermost
electrons are recorded to be weaker down a group and stronger up a group.

Hence, it becomes easier to remove the outermost electrons down a group. For example, in
group IA, the ionization energies are in the order: K < Na < Li < H

Atomic Sizes or Radii

Along a period, atomic radii decrease due to increase in nuclear charge without a
corresponding increase in shells. The outermost electrons become more pulled to the nucleus,
resulting in the atom shrieking and thus, smaller. For example, in period 3, an atom of sodium
is the largest in size, while an atom of Argon is the smallest.

Down a group, due to increase in shells, the outward electrons are progressively shielded
from the nucleus, thereby reducing their pull to the nucleus. The result is that the sizes or
radii of atoms of elements in the same group increase downward in the group. The atomic
size or radius of an element can be deduced by dividing the distance between the nuclei of
two atoms brought in covalency by 2.

Ionic Radii
When an atom losses an electron to form a positive ion, its radius decreases. This is because
the nuclear charge (number of protons) now acts on fewer electrons, thereby pulling them
closer to the nucleus. However, when an atom gains an electron, the nuclear charge now acts
on more electrons, pulling them less closely to the nucleus (this is further compounded by the
increase in repulsion between the electrons) – its radius increases.

From the above explanation, notice that cations are smaller than anions. For example, in
period 3 - while neutral sodium atom is of larger size or radius than chlorine atom, sodium
ion Na+ is of smaller radius than chlorine ion, Cl-. In a particular group, ionic radii is of the
same trend as the atomic radii. I.e., down a group, ionic radii as well as atomic radii increase.
For example, in group IA, the order is ; K+> Na+> Li+> H+.

This is due to progressive increase in shells.

Electron Affinity This is the energy given off when an electron is added to the outermost
shell of an atom. The greater the electron affinity, the easier it is for the atom to gain an
electron. Along a period from left to right, electron affinity increases. I.e., it is easier for a
chlorine atom to gain an electron than for a sodium atom.

This is due to increase in nuclear charge and smaller atomic radii from left to right of a
period. In a group, electron affinity decreases downwards and increases upward – the farther
the outermost shell is from the nucleus, the lower the electron affinity, and vice versa. For
example, in group VIIA, the order of electron affinity is Cl > Br > I. Notice that electron
affinity of fluorine is unexpectedly lower than that of chlorine.

The observation is due to the relatively small size of the fluorine atom, which results in
relatively high repulsion between the electrons. Hence, the order of electron affinity of the
halogens is Cl > F> Br > I. Electronegativity: This is the attraction that atom in a covalent
bond has for bond pair electrons. The variation in electronegativity across a period and along
a group is in the same order as that of electron affinity, except that in group VIIA, fluorine is
now more electronegative than chlorine, though it has less electron affinity than chlorine.

The reason for the trend in electronegativity is same as discussed above for electron affinity.
Electropositivity This is the tendency for atoms to lose electrons and become positive ions
(cation). Notice that the higher the ionization energy, the lower the electropositivity, and
vice-versa. Hence, electropositivity decreases along a period from left to right, and increases
down a group. Notice also that if an atom A has a higher electropositivity than another B,
then atom B will have a higher electronegativity than A.

For example, in period 3, Na is more electropositive than Cl, therefore Cl is more

electronegative than Na. In group IA, Fr is more electropositive than Na, therefore, Na is
more electronegative than Fr.

What is Chemical Bonding?

Chemical bonding is the union between atoms of the same element, or between atoms of
different elements to form molecules or compounds.
The reason atoms form union is that they want to attain the same type of electronic
configuration (isoelectronic) as the inert gases, in which all the available orbitals are
completely filled (so as to be stable). ―Everything in life always moves toward states of
stability.‖

Depending on their electronic structures, there are different types of union atoms can form.
The outermost electrons in the atoms (i.e. the valence electrons) are used in making these
unions or associations or bonds.

There are different types of chemical bonding, which include:

Ionic Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Co-ordinate (Dative) Bonding
Metallic Bonding
van der waal Forces
Hydrogen Bonding

Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding, also known as electrovalent bonding occurs between two atoms, such that one
of them is readily able to lose electrons (atom of low ionization energy and high
electropositivity) to form positively charged ion which is isoelectronic with the inert gases,
while the other readily accepts the lost electrons (atom of high electron affinity and high
electronegativity) to form negatively charged ion which is isoelectronic with the noble gases.

The two charged particles are then held together by strong electrostatic force of attraction
(this is the bond) to form the compound, which is ionic. This type of bonding is formed
between metal atoms (members of groups IA, IIA and IIIA) and atoms of non - metals
(groups VA, VIA and VIIA).

For example:

1. Formation of NaCl: An atom of Na (group IA) of electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s1 can

easily lose the one electron in its outermost shell, i.e., 3s1 to become isoelectronic with the
inert gases, i.e., 1s22s22p6 and thus be stable. Na → Na+ + e-

An atom of Cl (group VIIA) of electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s23p5 can easily gain the
electron to add to the seven already in its outermost shell, i.e., 3s23p5 to become isoelectronic
with the inert gases, i.e., 1s22s22p63s23p6 and thus be stable.

Cl + e- → Cl- Hence, the two oppositely charged particles (Na+ and Cl-) are balanced, and are
brought together by strong electrostatic force of attraction, forming the compound.

Na+ + Cl- → NaCl

2. Formation of MgCl2:
An atom of Mg (group IIA), 1s22s22p63s2 can easily lose the two electrons in its outermost
shell, i.e., 3s2 to become isoelec- tronic with the noble gases, and thus stable. Mg → Mg2+ +
2e-

The two electrons are gained by two atoms of chlorine (since one atom of Cl needed one
electron to be stable).

2Cl + 2e- → 2Cl-

Both Mg2+ and 2Cl- are balanced, and are then held together by strong electrostatic force of
attraction.

Mg2+ + 2Cl- → MgCl2

3. Formation of Na2O:

Two atoms of Na can easily lose one electron each 2Na → 2Na+ + 2e-

One atom of oxygen (group VIA), 1s22s22p4 can easily gain the two electrons to add to the
six in its outermost shell, i.e., 2s22p4 and become isoelectronic with the noble gases, i.e.,
1s22s22p6 , and thus be stable .

O + 2e- → O2-

Both ions are balanced, and are then held together by strong electrostatic force of attraction,
forming the compound.

2Na+ + O2- → Na2O

4. Formation of Al2O3

An atom of Al (group IIIA), 1s22s22p63s23p1 can lose the three electrons in its outermost
shell, i.e., 3s23p1 to be isoelectronic with the noble gases and thus be stable. Al → Al3+ + 3e-

An atom of oxygen as we have shown can take in two electrons to be stable. O + 2e- → O2-

Therefore, to balance the charges, two atoms of Al are needed to provide six electrons, which
are gained by three atoms of oxygen.

2Al → 2Al3+ + 6e- ; 3O + 6e- → 3O2-

The two oppositely charged particles are then held together by strong electrostatic force of
attraction to form the compound. 2Al3+ + 3O2- → Al2O3

Note:

* The higher the electropositivity of the metal and electronegativity of the non - metal
involved in the union, the greater the strength of the electrovalent bond between them. Hence,
the greater the ionic character of the compound formed.
* The number of electrons lost by the metal atom(s) is completely accepted by the atom(s) of
the non-metal, so that the charges are balanced.

Properties Shared by Ionic Compounds

The properties of ionic compounds relate to how strongly the positive and negative ions
attract each other in an ionic bond. Iconic compounds also exhibit the following properties:

They form crystals.

Ionic compounds form crystal lattices rather than amorphous solids. Although molecular
compounds form crystals, they frequently take other forms plus molecular crystals typically
are softer than ionic crystals. At an atomic level, an ionic crystal is a regular structure, with
the cation and anion alternating with each other and forming a three-dimensional structure
based largely on the smaller ion evenly filling in the gaps between the larger ion.

They have high melting points and high boiling points.

High temperatures are required to overcome the attraction between the positive and negative
ions in ionic compounds. Therefore, a lot of energy is required to melt ionic compounds or
cause them to boil.

They have higher enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than molecular compounds.

Just as ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, they usually have enthalpies of
fusion and vaporization that can be 10 to 100 times higher than those of most molecular
compounds. The enthalpy of fusion is the heat required melt a single mole of a solid under
constant pressure. The enthalpy of vaporization is the heat required for vaporize one mole of
a liquid compound under constant pressure.

They're hard and brittle.

Ionic crystals are hard because the positive and negative ions are strongly attracted to each
other and difficult to separate, however, when pressure is applied to an ionic crystal then ions
of like charge may be forced closer to each other. The electrostatic repulsion can be enough
to split the crystal, which is why ionic solids also are brittle.

They conduct electricity when they are dissolved in water.

When ionic compounds are dissolved in water the dissociated ions are free to conduct electric
charge through the solution. Molten ionic compounds (molten salts) also conduct electricity.

They're good insulators.

Although they conduct in molten form or in aqueous solution, ionic solids do not conduct
electricity very well because the ions are bound so tightly to each other

They made up of aggregate ions

 Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonding is a type of bonding that involves the participants contributing equal
number of electrons into a shared pair.

The electrons in the shared pair revolve round the nuclei of the atoms involved, such that
each atom assumes the electronic configuration of an inert gas and becomes electronically
stable.

Notice that the bond is the shared pair between the participating atoms. Covalent bonds are
formed between atoms of the same element; and between atoms of elements at the middle
and those at the extreme right of a period in the period table.

Here, actual molecules are formed and not ions.

Examples of Covalent Bonding

Molecules formed by covalent bonding include: Cl2, CH4, HCl, NH3, H2O and CH3CH2OH.

Covalent bonding in chlorine molecule, Cl2:

Covalent bonding in water molecule, H2O:

Covalent bonding in ethanol, CH3CH2OH:

Note: each shared pair represents a bond. Each atom in a bond becomes isoelectronic with the
inert or noble gases, thereby becoming stable.

Properties of Covalent Compounds

1. They are non-conductors of electricity.

2. Simple covalent compounds are gases or volatile liquids. This is because their molecules
are electrically neutral and have little attractive forces for each other. More complex covalent
molecules (e.g. naphthalene), which are crystalline, have van der waals forces of attraction
between the molecules – this results in the crystals having low melting points (81oC).

3. They are usually soluble in covalent organic solvents, such as benzene and carbon
disulphide.

4. They have low melting and boiling points

5. They are not crystalline

Covalent Bonding in Elements

The atoms in an element are held together by covalent bonding. The presence of this bonding
explains the hardness, strength and melting points of elements.

The variation of the melting points of elements in the periodic table shows that in period 2,
melting points gradually increase from Li (group IA), and reaches a maximum in C (grp
IVA). It then starts decreasing from nitrogen to neon (group 0).

The trend begins again from sodium (group IA), gets to maximum in Si (group IVA), and
begins to decrease again from P to Ar. The explanation of this trend is that the higher the
valency of an element , the greater the degree of covalency between its atoms.

Thus making the element harder, and therefore of higher melting point. Carbon is tetravalent
(i.e., valency of 4) – it has the greatest covalency, which is reinforced by the closeness of its
valence electrons to the nucleus. In diamond (an allotrope of carbon), each atom is covalently
held to four others, making a crystal unit. This crystal unit is repeated indefinitely, forming
interlacing buckled hexagons. The strength and uniformity of bonding makes diamond:
resistant to melting; non-volatile; and the hardest natural substance.

Co-ordinate (Dative) Bonding

Co-ordinate bonding, also known as dative bonding is a type of covalent bonding (i.e.,
electron sharing). However, the shared electron pair(s) are completely provided by one of the
participants in the union, and not by contributions from the two of them.

The contributors of these shared electrons are either neutral molecules which contain lone
pair(s) of electrons on one of their atoms, or negatively charged groups (radicals) with free
electrons to donate.
Examples of these are: H2O, NH3 and CN-.

Transition metal complexes are formed by these groups donating electrons into the vacant d
orbitals of transition metals. In this case, these donor groups are called ligands or
coordinating groups or just donors.

Examples of such complexes are: hexacyano ferrate(II) ion, [Fe(CN)6]2+; tetraammina

copper(II) ion, [Cu(NH3)4]2+; hexamine cobalt(II) ion, [Co(NH3)6]2+; silver(I) diamine ion,
[Ag(NH3)2]+ and hexaaquo copper(II) ion, [Cu(H2O)6]2+. These complexes combine with
oppositely charged particles (i.e., negative particles) by electrostatic force of attraction to
form electrovalent or ionic compounds.

Example: [Cu(NH3)4]2+ + 2Cl- → Cu(NH3)4Cl2.

Other very common associations you will find co-ordinate bonding is in

1. ammonium ion, NH4+. In this ion, ammonia molecule , NH3 combines by donating its lone
pair of electrons into the vacant s orbital of hydrogen ion, H+, forming NH4+. The ammonium
ion could then combine with a negative ion, e.g. Cl- by electrovalency to form an ionic
compound, NH4Cl.

2. Hydronium ion, H3O+. Here, water molecule, H2O donates a lone pair of electrons into the
vacant s orbital of hydrogen ion, H+. H2O(l) + H+(aq) → H3O+(aq)

Note: the complete compounds eventually formed comprises of the three types of bonding,
i.e., covalent, co-ordinate and electrovalent.

Example: in NH4Cl: formation of NH3 (covalency); formation of NH4+ (co-ordinate or dative

bonding); and formation of NH4Cl (electrovalency).

Metallic Bonding

Metallic Bonding is a special type of covalent bonding (different from the conventional
covalent bonding) that holds atoms of metals together. The atoms in a metal are closely
packed in a crystal lattice. Depending on the type of crystal structure the metal has, each atom
has eight neighbors (this is known as body centered cubic lattice) or twelve neighbors (this is
either called a hexagonal or a cubic close- packed lattice).

Metallic bonding is described thus: the valence electrons of each atom are loosely held to
their nuclei, hence, they separate from individual nucleus to move at random through the
crystal lattice. Positively charged metal ions are left, which tend to repel one another, but are
held together by the moving electron cloud.

An explanation of this bonding is thus: each metal atom has more orbitals (such as 3d)
available for bonding than there are bonding or valence electrons. Due to the atoms being
closely packed, the valence electrons are not being limited to any specific bond orbitals
between any two particular atoms (i.e. they are delocalized), but occupy one or more bonding
orbitals (which are shared mutually by each of the neighbouring atoms).
Factors which affect metallic bonding:

1. The greater the number of valence electrons - the greater the number of valence electrons
the greater the nuclear charge. This leads to greater strength of metallic bonding.

Example: comparing the strength, hardness and melting points of elements of period 4 – these
properties increase from K (1 valence electron) to a maximum in chromium (6 valence
electrons) – this is due to increase in metallic bonding. Hence, metallic bonding is strong in
some metals, example, iron and chromium, making them difficult to cut or shatter, but, it is
weak in some other metals, example, sodium and potassium which can easily be cut with a
knife.

2. Nuclei size - the smaller the nuclei size the more the outer electrons are attracted and held,
hence the greater the strength of metallic bonding. This also explains why the strength of
metallic bonding increases from K to Cr in period 4.

Generally, the properties of metals, due to the presence of metallic bonding are:

1. Fairly high melting point.

2. Hard or soft depending on the degree of covalency.

3. Malleability and ductility – due to the flexibility of the direction of the mobile electrons.

4. Good electrical and thermal conductivity – due to the mobility of the electrons.

Van der Waals Forces

Van der Waals forces are forces which hold molecules of the same substance together. They
do not depend on the bond making the particular molecules; they make it possible for gaseous
compounds like ammonia, nitrogen and carbon (IV) oxide to exist in liquid or solid state.
The presence of these forces between the molecules of a substance can be explained thus:
under suitable temperatures and pressures for molecules to be crowded close together, the
atomic nuclei of one molecule attract the electron cloud of another appreciably, causing the
two to come closer. As they come together, they experience repulsive forces between their
electrons, which tend to pull them apart.

However, the forces of attraction and repulsion are balanced, resulting in the formation of a
crystal - these forces (i.e., attraction and repulsion between molecules) are called van der
Waals forces (named after the discoverer). These forces are rather weak; hence, the crystals
have low melting points. Compounds where van der Waals forces apply strongly are large
(containing more electrons), non- polar molecular solids, such as naphthalene crystal, iodine
crystals and graphite.

What is Hydrogen Bonding?

Hydrogen Bonding is a force which holds molecules of the same substance together. It is is
found mainly in compounds in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to the highly
electronegative elements – fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, and to some extent chlorine.

Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of intermolecular force, as bonding is caused by

electrostatic attraction of the highly positive hydrogen of one molecule to the highly negative
fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen of another molecule - this is a special type of electrovalent
bonding.

Examples of compounds which exhibit hydrogen bonding include HF, H2O, NH3, H2SO4,
C2H5OH and HCOOH. Explanation of the bonding:

The electronegative element in the compound exerts a greater pull on the shared electrons,
thereby creating a partial negative charge on itself and a partial positive charge on the
hydrogen. The positive hydrogen then forms a bond with the electronegative atom of a
neighboring molecule, while its electronegative element forms another bond with positive
hydrogen of another neighboring molecule.

Example (i). (bonding electrons drift

more to the fluorine).

Therefore, several molecules combine by hydrogen bonding thus:

(ii). In H2O
(bonding electrons drift more to the more electronegative oxygen). Therefore, several
molecules combine by hydrogen bonding thus:

Factors which determine the strength of Hydrogen Bonding:

1. The electronegativity of the atom bonded to hydrogen - The greater the electronegativity of
the atom bonded to hydrogen, the stronger the hydrogen bonding (e.g. hydrogen bonding in
HF is greater than in HCl.

2. The number of possible hydrogen bonding per molecule.

Example: Hydrogen bonding is greater in H2O than in HF. This is because, even though
fluorine is more electronegative than oxygen (the difference is not much), the number of
hydrogen bonding that a molecule of water can form is 4 (i.e. two by the 2 lone pairs of
electrons on the oxygen, and another two by each hydrogen), while in HF, the number of
hydrogen bonding per molecule is 2 (one each by the hydrogen and fluorine atoms).

The following gives the order of strength of hydrogen bonding in the compounds: H2O > HF
> NH3 > HCl

Hydrogen bonding is stronger in NH3 than in HCl due to greater number of hydrogen
bonding in NH3 than in HCl. Certain organic compounds, such as alkanols, e.g. ethanol
(CH3CH2OH) and methanol (CH3OH); and alkanoic acids, e.g. ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
and methanoic acid, HCOOH exhibit hydrogen bonding.

The following is the order of strength of hydrogen bonding in the given compounds:
CH3COOH > H2O > CH3CH2OH

The above order is due to the different degree of hydrogen bonding per molecule in the
compounds.

Unusual properties of compounds with hydrogen bonding:

Compounds with hydrogen bonding show unusual properties, such as: high boiling points-
we would expect that boiling points should increase with molecular weight.

However, in comparing the boiling points of H2O, HF and NH3 ,which exhibit hydrogen
bonding with H2S, H2Se and AsH3 which do not exhibit hydrogen bonding but have greater
molecular weight, it is found that H2O, HF and NH3 have boiling points unusually greater
than the others.
Compounds with hydrogen bonding, in addition to unusual high boiling points also show
unusual high melting points, heats of vaporization, heat of fusion, and viscosity. Their
crystalline solids are usually very hard (e.g. ice – the extent of hydrogen bonding is greater
than in water).

Unusual solubility – some compounds, containing oxygen, fluorine or nitrogen are

unexpectedly soluble in hydrogen containing solvents due to hydrogen bonding. Examples
include: the solubility of CH3CH2OH, HCOOH and NH3 in water.

Valency

The valency of an element measures its ability to combine with other elements. The valency
is determined by the number of electrons in the outer shell of each atom of an element. All
atoms with two or more electron shells are most stable when they have eight electrons in their
outer shell, but only a few elements are naturally formed that way (neon, for example), and
most that just have one or two electrons in their outer shell (lithium, for example) or six or
seven (oxygen, for example) tend to react, or combine their outer-shell electrons with the
outer-shell electrons of other adjacent elements to bond and form more stable multi-element
molecules.

Calculating the Valency of an Element (or Molecule)

Step 1

Consult the periodic table of the elements to determine the valency of an element. The
periodic table is organized by groups in rows and columns, and the elements of groups I-VIII
have the same valency as others in their group. All the elements in group VIII have eight
electrons in their outer shells, and thus have a valency of zero (highly stable). Elements in
group I just have one valence electron in their outer shells and thus have a valency of one,
which means they are very reactive. Group IV/valency 4 elements like carbon are relatively
stable. Group VI and VII elements like oxygen are also reactive as they seek electron pairs to
complete their outer shell octet.

Step 2

Calculate the valency of an element using the total number of electrons. The valency of an
atom is equal to the number of electrons in the outer shell if that number is four or less.
Otherwise, the valency is equal to eight minus the number of electrons in the outer shell. The
number of electrons in each shell of an atom is regular so if you know the number of
electrons in the atom, then you can calculate the valency. All atoms (except hydrogen) have
two electrons in the first electron shell, and up to eight electrons in each succeeding electron
shell. For example, carbon has six electrons, two in the first shell, and four in the outer shell,
giving it a valency of four. Oxygen has eight electrons, two in the first shell and six in the
outer shell, giving it a valency of two (8 - 6 = 2).
 Chemical formulae

This is a formula consisting of symbols of elements in the ratio these elements combine to
form a compound. Chemical formulae can be deduced from the valences of the component
elements or radicals.

The following steps are taken in writing the formulae of compounds:

 Write the symbol for the element and radicals

 Write the valences above and to the right of the symbols
 Re-write the symbols exchanging the valences and write the number below(subscript)
and to the right of the symbol
 The sum of the positive valences of a compound must be equal to the sum of its
negative valences.
 The number of atoms of the component elements in the formula must be written as a
numerical subscript after the element concerned. It a radical occurs more than once, it
must be enclosed within a bracket.

Example: Write the formula of aluminium chloride

Aluminium Chlorine

Al3+ Cl-

They exchange valences

Al3+ Cl- = AlCl3

Calcium hydroxide

Ca2+ OH-

Ca(OH)2

valency or ionic charge = the combining power of the ion

'molecular' or ionic style of formula and compound name

1 of K+ balances 1 of Br- because 1 x 1 = 1 x 1 gives KBr or K+Br-

potassium bromide

2 of Na+ balances 1 of O2- because 2 x 1 = 1 x 2 gives Na2O or (Na+)2O2-

sodium oxide

1 of Mg2+ balances 2 of Cl- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 gives MgCl2 or

Mg2+(Cl-)2 magnesium chloride

1 of Fe3+ balances 3 of F- because 1 x 3 = 3 x 1 gives FeF3 or Fe3+(F-

 )3 iron(III) fluoride

1 of Ca2+ balances 2 of NO3- because 1 x 2 = 2 x 1 gives Ca(NO3)2 or

Ca2+(NO3-)2 calcium trioxonitrate(V)

2 of Fe3+ balances 3 of SO42- because 2 x 3 = 3 x 2 gives Fe2(SO4)3 or

(Fe3+)2(SO42-)3 iron(III) tetraoxosulphate(VI)

Oxidation Number and naming of ionic compounds

Oxidation number is the charge on an atom, group of atoms, ions possess as
determined by a set of rules.

The oxidation number of group 1 elements and group two elements are +1 and +2
respectively.
The oxidation number of oxygen is always -2 except in peroxide where it is -1
The oxidation number of an uncombined atom is always zero.
The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except in hydride where it is -1
The sum of oxidation number of atoms in a neutral compound is zero. Eg CO2, H2O,
H2SO4, KMnO4, all =0
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the
charge on the ion, eg SO42-, PO43-, NH4+ , etc are -2,-3 and +1 respectively

The Naming Of Compounds

If a given compound is multinuclear, that is, it consists of a single metal ion and a number of
ions of another element then we use prefixes in front of the different parts of the name to
denote how many of these atoms, ions or groups are present. Some of these prefixes are
presented in the table below.

Number of atoms,
Naming prefix
ions or groups
1 Mono- (optional)
2 Di-
3 Tri-
4 Tetra-
5 Penta-
6 Hexa-

In ionic compounds containing metal ions, the name is formed with the name of the metal
(with the positive oxidation number), followed by the name of the non-metal (with the
negative oxidation number) with the added suffix '-ide'. The name of a binary compound
(compounds that are made up of only two different atoms of elements) ends in the suffix –
‗ide‘.
For example: HCl - Hydrogen Chloride,

NaOH- Sodium hydroxide

NaCl - Sodium Chloride,
MgO - Magnesium oxide,
AlCl3 - Aluminium chloride,
NaH - Sodium hydride

We can also have more complex cations (positively charged) and anions (negatively charged)
which are molecules themselves, but carry an overall charge. There are a range of molecular
anions called 'oxo ions' which contain the atoms of an element bonded to several oxygen
atoms. The overall charge on these ions is the sum of the oxidation number for the central
atom and those for the oxygen present. If the central atom is in its highest oxidation state, the
names for these ions tend to end with the suffix '-ate'.

For example: CO32- -Trioxocarbonate (IV),

SO42- - TetraoxoSulphate(VI) (containing sulphur(VI)),

NO3- -Trioxonitrate (V),
PO43- - Tetraoxophosphate (V).

Empirical formula
It is the simplest ration of atoms in a mole of a compound.

To Determine Empirical Formula

To determine the empirical formula of a compound, we need to know:

1. The chemical composition of the compound - this is derived from experimental procedure,
and can be expressed as percentage.

2. The relative atomic masses of the constituent elements.

Procedure: 1. From the chemical composition of the compound, and the relative atomic
masses of the constituent elements given, convert the composition of each constituent
element to number of moles.

2. Derive the mole ratio of the constituent elements.

3. Finally, express the mole ratio as the subscripts of the symbols of their respective element.
The simplest formula obtained is the empirical formula.

Example: Analysis of carbon monoxide shows that it is 42.9% carbon and 57.1% oxygen.
What is its empirical formula? (C=12, O=16) Solution: 1. Convert the percentage
composition of each element to number of moles (consider each percentage as the mass).

Number of moles = mass (or % composition)/relative atomic mass

For carbon, 42.9/12 = 3.58

For oxygen, 57.1/16 = 3.58

2. Take the ratio of their moles:

C:O

3.58 3.58 = 1 : 1 3.

Express the above ratio as subscripts of the symbols of their respective element, we have
C1O1 which is better expressed as CO - this is the empirical formula.

Molecular formula

It is a formula that gives the actual number of atoms of different elements in a mole of a
compound.

To Determine Molecular Formula

The molecular formula of a compound is the formula expressing one mole of the compound.
It can be derived from its empirical formula if the molecular mass (or weight) is known. The
product of the mass of a compound from its empirical formula and a factor equals the
molecular mass of the compound. From this equation, its molecular formula can be deduced.

Example: Determine the molecular formula of a compound of molecular weight 30 amu

whose empirical formula is CH3 (C=12, H=1)

Solution: mass of the compound from its empirical formula = CH3 = 12+3(1) = 15

Product of mass of compound from empirical formula and a factor (x) equals the molecular
weight.

xCH3 = 30

15x = 30

x = 30/15 = 2

Thus, 2CH3

Therefore, molecular formula = C2H6

Note: - Many compounds have empirical formulas that are the same as their molecular
formulas, for example, CO2 is both the empirical and molecular formula for carbon(IV)oxide.
Others have their empirical formulas different from their molecular formulas, example, when
you see a formula like H2O2, C2H6 and C6H12O6, you are looking at a molecular formula, the
empirical formula is HO, CH3 and CH2O respectively. - Different compounds can have the
same empirical formula.
The Mole

Definition: The mole is the amount of substance, which contains as many elementary
particles as there are carbon atoms in 12.000 grams of the carbon 126C isotope.

The mole is a useful concept because it provides a standard of measurement for atoms and
other elementary particles (e.g. molecules, ions, protons and electrons). It is based on some
underlying concepts - Avogadro‘s constant, molar mass, gaseous molar volume, molarity,
molality and mole ratio.

Avogadro’s Constant

Avogadro found that in 12.000 grams of the 126C isotope of carbon are about 6.02 x1023 of
carbon atoms. The value 6.02 x1023 is the Avogadro‘s number (or constant, NA) and it
represents the number of elementary particles or basic units (i.e., atoms, molecules, ions,
protons and electrons) present in 1 mole of a substance.

Notice that Avogadro‘s number or constant is different from Avogadro‘s law. Avogadro‘s
number deals with the number of elementary particles in solids, liquids and gases, while
Avogadro‘s law deals with the chemical combination of gases only.

Number of Moles

The number of moles present in a certain quantity of a substance can be determined by

dividing the concentration or mass of the substance in grams by its molar mass. It is stated
clearer by the the formula:

Number of moles (n) = conc. (g)/ molar mass

Molar Mass

Definition: The molar mass is the mass of 1 mole (containing 6.02 x1023 elementary
particles) of any substance. It is commonly expressed in grams per mole or g/mol.

Note:

* Masses of chemical substances are usually expressed in grams because chemists use small
quantities of chemical substances in their work.

* Relative atomic or molecular masses do not have units. This is because relative atomic or
molecular masses are relative quantities, while molar masses are the masses or weight of
specific number of particles and are expressed in g/mol.

The molar mass of a compound is equal to the sum of the relative atomic masses of the
elements contained in one mole of it.

E.g. to find the molar mass of H2SO4. The relative atomic masses are: (H =1, S = 32, O = 16).
Hence molar mass = 2H + S + 4O =2 x 1 + 32 + 4 x 16 = 98g/mol.
The molar mass of a diatomic or polyatomic molecule, e.g. O2 is the atomic mass of its
element multiplied by the number of atoms it contained. Example, the molar mass of oxygen,
O2 is 16 x 2 = 32g/mol.

Gaseous Molar Volume

Definition: The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of the gas at
standard conditions of temperature and pressure, s.t.p. (i.e. temperature of 273 K and pressure
of 760 mm Hg).

At standard conditions, 1 mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 (or 22400 cm3).
Notice that a change in the standard conditions of temperature and pressure will alter the
7volume.

Molarity

Definition: The molarity of a solution is defined as its concentration in moles of solute per its
volume in dm3. This is a measure of the concentration of any solution.

I.e. Molarity (M) = number of moles/volume of solution in dm3

A solution is said to be 1.0 molar if one mole of the solute is dissolved in 1.0 dm3 of the
solution.

Converting concentration in molarity to g/dm3:

Molarity (M) = mass(g)/molar mass x 1/volume(dm3)

Molarity (M) = mass (g)/v(dm3) x 1/molar mass

mass (g)/v (dm3) = molarity (M) X molar mass

Mole Ratio

When atoms of different elements combine to form compounds, they do so in different

proportions of their moles. To determine the formulae of chemical compounds therefore, we
could deduce the mole ratios of the atoms in the combination.

Also, when substances undergo reactions to form products, they do so in certain proportions
of their individual moles. Hence, a balanced equation would show the ratio of their moles by
which they reacted. The ratio of the moles of the products formed is also expressed.

From a balanced equation therefore, it is possible to deduce the concentration of any species
in the equation from a given data. The number of moles presents in a substance is the mass
(g) of the substance divided by its molar mass or atomic mass.

I.e. Number of moles (n) = mass (g)/molar mass

Application of the Mole Concept

1. The number of hydrogen ions present in 100 cm3 of 0.4 M solution of H2SO4 is ? [NA=
6.02 x1023]

Solution:

From the equation: H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42-

Mole ratio 1 : 2 : 1

To find the actual number of moles of H2SO4 that dissociated:

Molarity = number of moles/volume of solution in dm3

Number of moles = molarity x v (dm3) = 0.4 x 0.1 = 0.04 mole

From the stoichiometry above, 1 mole of H2SO4 formed 2 moles of H+, therefore, 0.04 mole
formed 0.08 mole.

From Avogadro‘s constant, 1 mole of a substance contains 6.02 x1023 elementary particles,
therefore, 0.08 mole of H+ contains 6.02 x1023 x 0.08 = 4.816 x 1022 of hydrogen ions.

2. How many grams of ammonia will be produced from 100g of hydrogen? (N=14, H=1)

Solution: From the equation: N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

Mole ratio: 1(28g) : 3(2g) : 2(17g)

3 moles or 6g of hydrogen produced 2 moles or 34g of ammonia.

Therefore, 100g of hydrogen will produce

34/6 x 100g of ammonia = 567g

3. What volume of carbon(IV) oxide measured at s.t.p. will be produced when 42.0g of
sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV) is completely decomposed by the equation:
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g)+ H2O(l) (Na=23, H=1, C=12, O=16)

Solution:

From the stoichiometry above, 2 moles of NaHCO3 produce 1 mole of CO2 . Actual number
of moles of NaHCO3 used is

mass/molar mass = 42/84 = 0.5

Since 2 moles of NaHCO3 produce 1mole of CO2 , 0.5 mole will produce 0.5/2 = 0.25 mole
of CO2

At s.t.p., 1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 dm3

Therefore, 0.25 mole of CO2 occupies a volume of 22.4 x 0.25 dm3 = 5.6 dm3
 6. To what volume must 300 cm3 of 0.6 M sodium hydroxide solution be diluted to give
a 0.40 M
7. The solution you now have is 0.40M. (Notice that the amount of distilled water used
in diluting it is 150cm3 (450cm3 - 300cm3)

Types of chemical reaction.

Chemical reaction a process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to
one or more different substances, the products. Substances are either chemical elements or
compounds

Synthesis Reactions/ Combination reaction

Synthesis reactions always yield one

product. Reversing a synthesis reaction will
give you a decomposition reaction.

The general form of a synthesis reaction is A + B → AB. Synthesis reactions "put things
together".

This is the most well-known example of a synthesis reaction—the formation of water

via the fusion of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
Another example of a synthesis reaction is the formation of sodium chloride (table salt).

Because of the very high reactivity of sodium metal and chlorine gas, this reaction releases a
tremendous amount of heat and light energy. Recall that atoms release energy as they become
stable, and consider the octet rule when determining why this reaction is so favorable features
.

==Decomposition Reactions==

These are the opposite of synthesis reactions, with the format AB → A + B+C.
Decomposition reactions "take things apart the body ". Just as synthesis reactions can only
form one product, decomposition reactions can only start with one reactant. Compounds that
are unstable decomposes quickly without outside assistance.

Hydrogen peroxide slowly decomposes into water and oxygen because it is somewhat
unstable. The process is sped up by the energy from light, so hydrogen peroxide is
stored in dark containers to slow down the decomposition.
Carbonic acid is the carbonation that is dissolved in soda. It decomposes into carbon
dioxide and water, which is why an opened drink loses its fizz.
Decomposition, aside from happening spontaneously in unstable compounds, occurs under
three conditions: thermal, electrolytic, and catalytic. Thermal decomposition occurs when a
substance is heated. Electrolytic decomposition, as shown above, is the result of an electric
current. Catalytic decomposition happens because a catalyst breaks apart a substance.
Single displacement Reactions

Single displacement, is a reaction in which one element is substituted for another element in a
compound. The starting materials are always pure elements, such as a pure zinc metal or
hydrogen gas plus an aqueous compound. When a replacement reaction occurs, a new
aqueous compound and a different pure element are generated as products. Its format is AB +
C → AC + B. Examples of single displacement are : Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu.

2KBr + Cl2 2KCl + Br2

Double Displacement Reactions/double decomposition reaction.

In these reactions, also known as "double displacement reactions", two compounds swap
components, in the format AB + CD → AD + CB

Double Displacement Reaction

This is also called an "exchange". Here are the examples below:

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s)+ NaNO3(aq)

BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Precipitation

A precipitation reaction occurs when an ionic substance comes out of solution and forms an
insoluble (or slightly soluble) solid. The solid which comes out of solution is called a
precipitate. This can occur when two soluble salts (ionic compounds) are mixed and form an
insoluble one—the precipitate.

An example is lead nitrate mixed with potassium iodide, which forms a bright yellow
precipitate of lead iodide.
Note that the lead iodide is formed as a solid. The previous equation is written in
molecular form, which is not the best way of describing the reaction. Each of the
elements really exist in solution as individual ions, not bonded to each other (as in
potassium iodide crystals). If we write the above as an ionic equation, we get a much
better idea of what is actually happening.
Notice the like terms on both sides of the equation. These are called spectator ions
because they do not participate in the reaction. They can be ignored, and the net ionic
equation is written.

In the solution, there exists both lead and iodide ions. Because lead iodide is insoluble, they
spontaneously crystallize and form the precipitate.

Acid-Base Neutralization
Neutralization reaction is the reaction between hydrogen ion from acid and hydroxide ion
from base to form water or reaction between acid and base to form salt and water.

In simple terms, an acid is a substance which can lose a H+ ion (i.e. a proton) and a base is a
substance which can accept a proton. When equal amounts of an acid and base react, they
neutralize each other, forming species which aren't as acidic or basic.

For example, when hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide react, they form water and
sodium chloride (table salt). HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) +H2O(l)
Again, we get a clearer picture of what's happening if we write a net ionic equation.

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

Acid base reactions often happen in aqueous solution, but they can also occur in the gaseous
state. Acids and bases will be discussed in much greater detail in the acids and bases section.

Combustion

The combustion of methane (releasing heat and light)

Combustion, better known as burning, is the combination of a substance with oxygen. The
products are carbon dioxide, water, and possible other waste products. Combustion reactions
release large amounts of heat. C3H8, better known as propane, undergoes combustion. The
balanced equation is:

Combustion is similar to a decomposition reaction, except that oxygen and heat are required
for it to occur. If there is not enough oxygen, the reaction may not occur. Sometimes, with
limited oxygen, the reaction will occur, but it produces carbon monoxide (CO) or even soot.
In that case, it is called incomplete combustion. If the substances being burned contain atoms
other than hydrogen and oxygen, then waste products will also form. Coal is burned for
heating and energy purposes, and it contains sulfur. As a result, sulfur dioxide is released,
which is a pollutant. Coal with lower sulfur content is more desirable, but more expensive,
because it will release less of the sulfur-based pollutants.

Redox
Redox was coined from reduction and oxidation reaction. There are various definitions of
redox reaction.
 In term of oxygen, oxidation is the addition of oxygen while reduction is the removal
of oxygen
 In terms of hydrogen, oxidation is the removal of hydrogen while reduction is the
addition of hydrogen
 In terms of electronegative elements, oxidation is the addition of electronegative
elements while reduction is the removal of electronegative elements.
  In terms of electron transfer, oxidation is the loss of electrons while reduction is the
gain of electrons.
 In terms of oxidation number, oxidation is an increase in oxidation number while
reduction is a decrease in oxidation number.

Redox reactions are often written as two half-reactions showing the reduction and oxidation
processes separately. These half-reactions are balanced (by multiplying each by a coefficient)
and added together to form the full equation. When magnesium is burnt in oxygen, it loses
electrons (it is oxidized). Conversely, the oxygen gains electrons from the magnesium (it is
reduced).

Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu.

2FeCl3 + 3H2S 6HCl + 2FeS + S

Decomposition reaction: This is the type of reaction in which a compound splits into two or
more simpler substances. It is the opposite of combination reaction. AB A+B

CaCO3 ∆ CaO + CO2

2Zn(NO3)2 (s) ∆ 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Balancing of chemical Equations

A chemical equation is the representation of the chemical reaction taking place. This gives us
the exact moles of reactants reacting and the products formed. So, it is important to provide
the exact moles of the reacting substances and products. Also, we know that according to
the law of mass conservation of mass, moles of a product formed would be equal to the moles
of the reactant. Nothing will be lost in the process of a chemical reaction.

How to Balance Chemical Equations Step by Step

The number of atoms of each element is conserved during a chemical reaction. A correctly
written chemical equation reflects this observation. To satisfy the law of conservation of
mass, we need to insert the right coefficients into a chemical equation.

This process is referred to as balancing an equation. Trial and error is the best way to learn
how to balance equations. There are an equal number of atoms for each element on each side
of the equation, when the equation is balanced.

A general method to learn the balancing of chemical equations is as follows:

1. Write down the unbalanced equation containing the correct molecular formula of all
reactants and products.
2. Determine whether or not the chemical equation is already balanced.
 3. If the equation is not balanced, start by balancing the element that occurs in the fewest
number of reactants and the product molecules. Start with carbon or any other
atom with a high molar mass.
4. Balance the remaining elements.
5. Make sure that the number of atoms in each element is balanced.

Example:
Balance the chemical equation:

Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2

We can see that the equation is not already balanced.

 We start by balancing Fe, since it has a high molecular mass atom and only appears
once on the reactant and the product side. We see that there are three Fe atoms on the
product side, so, we can balance Fe by adding a coefficient '3' to Fe on the reactant
side. So:

3 Fe + H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + H2

 Having balanced Fe, we can then turn to oxygen, since it occurs with Fe in Fe3O4, and
we have already balanced Fe. There are four atoms of oxygen on the product side, so
we can balance oxygen by placing a coefficient of 4 in front of H2O on the reactants
side.

3 Fe + 4H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + H2

 Finally, Hydrogen is the only one, left unbalanced. We have 8 hydrogen atoms on the
left side, in water and so, we need 8 on the right side too. By placing '4' in front of H2,
we will get 8 hydrogen.

3 Fe + 4H2O → 1 Fe3O4 + 4H2

Thus, the following equation is completely balanced, for all the atoms.

Though, there are many types of chemical reactions,

all reactions are balanced in the same way, except for redox reactions, which require a
different method of balancing.

Simplifying Chemical Reactions

Let us start with a chemical equation for a reaction involving the combustion of hydrogen gas
with oxygen gas. The two gases are ignited and the products formed are water and energy.

Write the formula for balancing the chemical equations for the reactants and products.

H2 + O2 → H2O (not balanced)

Balancing the Chemical Equation of Water

The number of atoms in a chemical equation can be equally balanced. Two oxygen atoms can
be presented in the reactant side but on the product side only one atom is presented here.

To solve the equations, on the product side, place 2 before the formula for water.

H2 + O2 → 2 H2O (not balanced)

Now, we can see, two molecules of water can be produced for each molecule of oxygen that
can be reacted. The number is placed before the formula and is called the chemical equation
solver‘s coefficient.

A coefficient represents the number to be multiplied by everything in the formula for both the
reactant and the product sides. The water molecule on the product side is doubled so that the
two oxygen atoms and four hydrogen atoms combined, on the reactant side, equal the number
of atoms on the product side.

For balancing the equation, on the reactant side, place 2 in front of the H2.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (balanced)

Hence, there are four hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms represented on both the reactant
and the product side.

Atoms of Reactants Atoms of products

4H 4H
2O 2O

For the chemical equation balancing solver for water molecule, the atoms involved can
neither be created nor destroyed.

Balancing Chemical Equation Problem

Solved Examples

Question 1: Balance the following chemical equation: NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O

Solution:

Let us write the unbalanced equation first:

NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O

Now, counting the number of each atoms on both sides

Elements Reactants side Product side
Nitrogen 1 1
Oxygen 2 2
Hydrogen 3 2
Except for hydrogen, the other two elements present are balanced. Let us start with balancing
the hydrogen

Since hydrogen occurs in only one substance, in both products and reactant side, and also,
since in one side, its number is an odd number, 3 and on the other side, there are 2 numbers,
which is even, let us take a common multiple and make the number of hydrogen on both sides
as '6'. And also, satisfying the nitrogen, by adding a 2 before NO:

2NH3 + O2 → 2 NO + 3 H2O

On doing this, the number of oxygen and nitrogen changes too. And we have the same odd
and even problem now with oxygen too. There are 2 oxygen on the reactants side and 5 on
the product side.
By doubling all coefficients to make it even:

[2NH3 + O2 → 2 NO + 3 H2O ] x 2
4NH3 + 2O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O

Now, finally, we see that oxygen is still unbalanced. It is less on the reactant side. Changing
the coefficient of oxygen on the left-hand side, the reactants side, we get

4NH3 + 5O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O

The equation is finally balanced.

Question 2: Write the balanced chemical reaction for the combustion of glucose, C6H12O6 In
air.
Solution:
To solve this question, we start by showing the unbalanced reaction

C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

We can start by balancing carbon. There are 6 C atoms on the left-hand side, so we can place
a coefficient of 6 in front of CO2, on the right-hand side. This gives us:

C6H12O6 + O2 → 6 CO2 + H2O

Now, we can move to hydrogen. There are 12 H atoms on the left so we can add a coefficient
of 6 in front of water.

C6H12O6 + O2 → 6 CO2 + 6H2O

Now, only oxygen is left to be balanced. We have a total of 12 + 6 or 18 oxygen on the right-
hand side.
In the left-hand side, we have 6 oxygen in glucose molecule.

Therefore, we need to make sure that there are 12 more oxygen atoms on the left, which we
can accomplish by adding a coefficient of 6 in front of Oxygen.
 C6H12O6 +6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6H2O

Thus, the equation is completely balanced.

Information that can be obtained from balanced chemical equation are:

 The reactants and products

 The elements involved in the reaction
 The direction of reaction. This shows whether it is reversible or irreversible
 The number of moles of reactants and products / stoichiometry of the reaction
 The states of matter.

Laws of chemical combination

Law of Conservation of mass

The law of conservation of matter states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in the
course of a chemical reaction. The law states the fact that the total masses of the products
from a chemical reaction exactly equal those of the reactants. The law can be illustrated by
the experiment below:

The mass of the set-up as shown is measured and recorded. By the thread, the HCl solution in
the test tube is mixed with the silver trioxonitrate(V) solution in the flask. A reaction occurs,
leading to the production of white precipitate (AgCl). The mass of the set-up is measured
again. It is found that in spite of the formation of a solid substance, the mass remains the
same.

Matter is neither lost nor gained during chemical reactions, but only change from one form to
another because, according to Dalton‘s atomic theory, the atoms in reaction undergo
reconstitution during chemical reactions to form the products, and not that new atoms are
formed, or that some get destroyed.

The above experiment can be performed with appropriate solutions of other substances.
Example: barium chloride and sodium tetraoxosulphate(VI); barium chloride and dilute
tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid; lead trioxonitrate(V) and potassium iodide; calcium
trioxonitrate(V) and dilute tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid. A more accurate experiment to
illustrate the law of conservation of matter was done by a scientist called Landolt in 1908. It
was done in the apparatus show below:
 In the separate arm of the tube are put sodium chloride and silver nitrate solutions. The tube
and its contents were weighed. The tube was tilted to enable the content mix-up and react. It
was then cooled, and reweighed. It was found that the total weight of the apparatus and the
substances in it remained constant before and after reaction.

Law of Definite Proportions (or Constant Composition)

The law of definite proportions, also known as the law of constant composition states that all
pure samples of the same chemical compound contain the same elements combined in the
same proportions by mass.

What this law emphasizes is that, if pure samples of the same chemical substance, wherever
they may be found, are analyzed, it will be found that they all consist of the same elements,
as well as having these elements combine in the same proportions by mass.

For examples, pure sample of copper(II) oxide is composed of copper and oxygen, in the
proportion of 1:1 by mole, or 64 g of copper to 16 g of oxygen or 1 g of copper to 0.25 g of
oxygen.

Law of Multiple Proportions

The law of multiple proportions states that if two elements A and B combine together to form
more than one compound, then, the several masses of A, which separately combine with a
fixed mass of B, are in a simple ratio.

This law recognizes the fact that two elements may combine to form more than one product.
For example, carbon and oxygen can combine to form carbon(II)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide;
nitrogen combines with oxygen to form three possible oxides - nitrogen(I)oxide,
nitrogen(II)oxide and nitrogen(IV)oxide.

If we consider one of the elements to be of fixed mass in the different products, then, the
other element will be of varied mass which can be seen to be in a simple ratio.

Example: (1). In CO and CO2 If we consider carbon to be of fixed mass in the two products,
then we have

CO CO2
12g of carbon + 16g 12g of carbon +
of oxygen 32 g of oxygen
 Carbon is of fixed
mass:
16g of oxygen 32g of oxygen
Ratio: 1 2

The different masses of oxygen that separately combine with the fixed mass (12g) of carbon
in the two products (CO and CO2) are in a simple ratio of 1:2. However, if we consider the
mass of oxygen fixed in the two products, then the different masses of carbon, which
separately combine with the fixed mass of oxygen, can also be expressed in a simple ratio as
shown below:

CO CO2
12g of carbon + 16g of 12g of carbon +
oxygen 32 g of oxygen
To make oxygen of
equal mass, multiply
the masses of the
elements here by 2 or
divide the masses of
elements in the other
column by 2.

:. 24g of carbon + 32g 12g of carbon +

of oxygen 32g of oxygen
Oxygen is of fixed
mass: 24g of carbon 12g of carbon
Ratio: 2 1

The ratio of the masses of carbon in the two products, CO and CO2 that separately combine
with the fixed mass of oxygen is therefore 2:1 respectively.

2. In the oxides of nitrogen: N2O, NO and NO2. If we consider the mass of nitrogen to be
fixed, then:

N2 O NO NO2
14g of N + 16g of 14g of N + 32g of
28g of N + 16g of OX
OX OX
Divide the mass of
elements here by 2 to
bring the mass of
nitrogen to be same in
all products

14g of N + 16g of 14g of N + 32g of

:. 14g of N + 8g of OX OX OX
Mass of nitrogen is
fixed: 8g of OX 16g of OX 32g of OX
Ratio: 1 2 4
Therefore, the ratio of the different masses of oxygen that will combine with a fixed mass of
nitrogen to form the products N2O, NO and NO2 is 1:2:4 respectively.

Considering the mass of oxygen fixed:

N2 O NO NO2
14g of N + 16g of 14g of N + 32g of
28g of N + 16g of OX
OX OX

Divide the masses

of elements here
by 2 to bring the
mass of oxygen
fixed

:. 28g of N + 16g of 14g of N + 16g of 7g of N + 16g of

OX OX OX
Mass of oxygen is
fixed: 28g of N 14g of N 7g of N
Ratio: 4 2 1

Therefore, the ratio of the different masses of nitrogen which combine with the fixed mass of
oxygen to form the products N2O, NO and NO2 is 4:2:1 respectively.

Note: to confirm whether a statement obeys the law of definite proportion or multiple
proportions, what you should do is to keep the mass of one of the components of the
compound fixed at 1g, and deduce the masses of the other component(s) in combination with
it in the different compounds given.

If the masses of the other component(s) are the same in all the compounds, it means the
composition of the different compounds is fixed, i.e., the law of definite proportion is
satisfied. But if the masses are different, it means that the law of multiple proportions is
satisfied, and the different masses can be expressed in a simple ratio.

Example: 1. An element X forms two oxides containing 77.47 and 69.62 per cent of X
respectively. (a) what law is satisfied? (b) if the first oxide has the formula XO, what is the
formula of the second oxide?

Solution: (a) In the first oxide, O is 22.53 g and X is 77.47g. 1g of oxygen combines with
77.47
/22.53 = 3.4g of X

In the second oxide, O is 30.38g and X is 69.62g. 1g of oxygen combines with

69.62
/30.38 = 2.3g of X
The masses of X in combination with a fixed mass of oxygen in both compounds are
different, therefore, the law of multiple proportions is satisfied. Notice that percentage
compositions can be expressed as composition in mass.

(b) Expressing the different masses of X in a simple ratio:

X of 1st oxide X of 2nd oxide

3.4 2.3

3.4/2.3 2.3/2.3
1.5 or 3/2 1
or 3 2

or 1 2/3

If the 1st oxide is XO, the 2nd is X2/3O

X2/3O is same as X2O3

2. In two separate experiments, 0.125g and 0.11g of oxygen combine with a metal X to give
V and W respectively. An analysis showed that V and W contain 0.5g and 0.44g of X
respectively. What law is represented by the data above?

Solution: In V, 0.5g of X combines with 0.125g of oxygen. 1g of X will combine with

0.125
/0.5 = 0.250g of oxygen

In W, 0.44 g of X combines with 0.11g of oxygen. 1g of X combines with

0.11
/0.44 = 0.250g of oxygen

The masses of oxygen in the two compounds, V and W, which separately combine with a
fixed mass of X are the same - the law of definite or constant proportion is satisfied. Notice
that you will obtain similar result if you make the mass of oxygen fixed (at 1g) and deduce
the masses of X in the two compounds.