1/19/2025

SENTENCE VS
UTTERANCE

What is a Sentence? What is an Utterance?

◦ A sentence is an abstract grammatical unit with fixed sentence-
meaning (semantics).
◦ An utterance is a specific, context-bound realization of a sentence
with utterance-meaning (pragmatics).
◦ “John is tall.”
◦ Sentence: Describes a situation objectively.
◦ semantically means John’s height exceeds an average standard.
◦ Utterance: Depends on context.
◦ might pragmatically mean:
◦ John is taller than someone else present.
◦ John’s height makes him well-suited for basketball.

1
 1/19/2025

Sentences
◦ Sentences are theoretical and exist as part of a language's
grammar.
◦ They have a fixed, basic and literal meaning (semantic meaning)
that doesn’t depend on context.

◦ "The cat is on the roof.“

◦ This sentence is always about a cat on a roof, no matter who
says it or where it’s said.

Sentences
◦ It has a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a
predicate (what is being said about the subject).
◦ Therefore:
◦ The cat (subject)
◦ is on the roof (predicate)

2
 1/19/2025

Sentences
◦ A sentence depends on individual words that make it up.
◦ The meaning of the sentence could be the sum of the meaning
of its words.
◦ Sentences are not tied to a particular time and place.
◦ Sentences are tied by grammatical rules.
◦ Consider these examples:
◦ a. It will be great.
◦ b. They reviewed what they had studied last night.
◦ c. We are learning Semantics now.

Utterance
◦ An utterance is a specific use of a sentence in a real-world
situation.
◦ It’s spoken or written by someone at a certain time and in a
particular context.
◦ It can be a complete sentence, a phrase, or even word.
◦ Consider these:
◦ a. Sit down!
◦ b. cannot
◦ c. oops!
◦ d. next…

3
 1/19/2025

The cat is on the roof.

◦ Utterances are context-dependent - the meaning of an
utterance depends on the situation and how people interpret
it (pragmatic meaning).
◦ When someone actually says or writes "The cat is on the roof," it
becomes an utterance tied to a specific situation.
◦ The meaning of this utterance depends on context:
◦ In a casual chat, it could describe an amusing moment
involving a pet.
◦ In an emergency, it might be a cry for help to rescue the cat.
◦ In a weather discussion, it might suggest a warning if the roof
is unsafe due to rain or snow.

Summary of Differences:
• As a sentence, "The cat is on the roof" is a neutral, general
statement with a fixed literal or basic meaning.
• A cat is physically located on a roof, without implying urgency,
humor, or concern
• As an utterance, "The cat is on the roof" takes on different
meanings or implications depending on the situation.

4
 1/19/2025

THE STUDY OF SEMANTICS

& PRAGMATICS

Semantics
◦ Semantics focuses on the basic, literal or general (abstract)
meaning of language.
◦ This means semantics studies language as ideas or rules that
don’t depend on (independent of) real-life situations.
• It looks at sentences as patterns or general truths that are always
the same, no matter who says them or where they are used.
◦ For example:
• A triangle has three sides.
• It is always true, no matter who says it, when they say it, or
where they are.

10

5
 1/19/2025

Pragmatics
Pragmatics, on the other hand, studies how language is used
in real-life situations.
It looks at how the meaning of words and sentences changes
based on the situation, the speaker’s intentions, and what the
listener already knows.
• It focuses on the meaning of utterances in context.
• An utterance is what someone says in a specific situation.
• The meaning of an utterance depends on things like the setting,
the speaker’s tone (prosody), and their purpose (what they want
to communicate).

11

Pragmatics
• Pragmatics goes beyond the literal or basic meaning.
• For example, if someone says "It’s cold in here," they might mean:
• "Please close the window."
• "Turn on the heater."
• The exact meaning depends on the situation and the speaker's
intention.
◦ Pragmatics also studies how language is used to do things.
◦ For example
◦ Can you pass the salt?
◦ is not just a question—it’s a polite way of asking someone to give
you the salt.

12

6
 1/19/2025

Role of Context in Utterance Meaning

◦ An utterance is always produced in a specific context and is influenced by
that context.
◦ The context includes the setting, the world spoken of, and the textual
environment.
◦ A sentence exists independently of any particular context.

13

Role of Context in Utterance Meaning

• Context Components:
• Physical Setting: Where and when the utterance occurs.
• World Spoken Of: The topic or subject matter the utterance
refers to.
• Textual Environment: Prior and surrounding discourse.
• Example: The utterance "It’s really cold in here" could mean:
• A simple observation about the temperature in a room.
• A request to close a window or turn on the heater.
• A lighthearted complaint during a gathering.

14

7
 1/19/2025

Summary
◦ Sentence: Abstract, context-free, based on semantics.
◦ Utterance: Concrete, context-dependent, based on pragmatics
and prosody.
◦ Context: the setting, the world spoken of, and the textual
environment

15

8
 1/19/2025

SEMANTICS:
WHAT IS MEANING?
Connotation and Denotation

Semantic Meaning
• Semantic meaning is the literal, basic (abstract) meaning of
words, phrases, and sentences based on grammar and
vocabulary.
• It is the meaning that comes from the language itself, not
influenced by context.
• Example:
• In the sentence "The sun is hot," the semantic meaning is:
• "The sun" refers to a star.
• "Is hot" describes its high temperature.
This meaning does not depend on who says it or where it is
said.

1
 1/19/2025

What is meaning?
◦ I went to the store this morning.
◦ All dogs are animals.
◦ a. You are too young to travel.
◦ b. You are not old enough to travel.
◦ a. Harold spent several years in northern Tibet.
◦ b. The unmarried woman is married to a bachelor.
◦ My toothbrush is happy.
◦ I saw her duck.

What is meaning?
◦ This exercise illustrates the complexity of meaning:
• Some sentences are clear and literal (e.g., "All dogs are
animals").
• Others involve logical issues (e.g., "The unmarried woman is
married to a bachelor").
• Some require context to resolve ambiguity or interpret
metaphorical meaning (e.g., "I saw her duck").

2
 1/19/2025

Referential Meaning
◦ Referential meaning
◦ This is the literal, factual meaning of a word or sentence—what it
directly refers to in the real or imaginary world.
• Examples:
• The word "dog" refers to an actual animal in the world.
• The sentence "The Eiffel Tower is in Paris" refers to a specific
monument and location.
• The phrase "A cat is sitting on the roof" refers to the situation
where a specific cat is literally on a roof.

Social Meaning
◦ Social Meaning
◦ This type of meaning gives us information about the social traits of
the speaker, such as their status, background, or relationship with the
listener.
◦ It reflects the context or style of language used.
• Examples:
• Saying "Could you please pass the salt?" shows politeness, which
reflects the speaker's formal social behavior.
• Saying "Pass me the salt!" sounds direct and informal, which might
reflect a casual relationship or a lack of politeness.
• Using slang like "What’s up, dude?" indicates the speaker belongs to
a certain social group or informal setting.

3
 1/19/2025

Affective Meaning
◦ Affective Meaning
◦ This refers to the emotions or attitudes expressed by a speaker
through their words and tone.
◦ It shows how the speaker feels about the subject or the listener.
• Examples:
• Saying "I love this song!" conveys positive feelings of joy and
enthusiasm.
• Saying "I hate waiting in line!" shows frustration or anger.
• Saying "Oh, great. Another rainy day." (in a sarcastic tone)
conveys annoyance, despite the word "great" usually having a
positive meaning.

Analyse!
◦ "I can’t believe he said that.“
◦ Referential Meaning:
• Social Meaning:
• Affective Meaning:

4
 1/19/2025

"I can’t believe he said that."

◦ Referential Meaning: Refers to the entities, events, or situations
the sentence refers to in the real world
• Social Meaning: Could be formal or informal depending on
tone and setting (e.g., casual conversation vs. a serious
discussion).
• Affective Meaning: The feelings or emotions expressed by the
speaker. Shows surprise, disbelief, or possibly anger, depending
on tone or context.

Recap
• Semantic Meaning: The general, literal meaning of words or
sentences.
• Referential Meaning: Links language to specific things or
entities in the real world.
• Affective Meaning: Focuses on emotions or attitudes expressed
by the speaker.
• Social Meaning: Reveals the speaker’s social context or traits
through their language.

10

5
 1/19/2025

DENOTATION &
CONNOTATION

11

Denotation & Connotation

◦ In semantics, the meaning of a sentence can be analysed according to
its:
◦ Denotation –
◦ Literal meaning (objective): What the word directly refers to.
◦ Connotation –
◦ Emotional or cultural meaning (subjective): What feelings or
associations the word carries.
◦ Example:
◦ If someone says “It’s raining,”
◦ the literal meaning is about water falling from the sky
◦ the emotional meaning might imply sadness, inconvenience, or
even coziness, depending on the context.

12

6
 1/19/2025

The Literal Meaning: Denotation

◦ Denotation is the direct, dictionary-like meaning of a word or
expression.
◦ It refers to the object or class of objects in the real or imaginary
world that the word identifies.
• Example 1:
• The denotation of "rose" is "a type of flower."
• The denotation of "dog" is "a domesticated, four-legged
animal."
• The word "cat" denotes the set of all cats in the external world.

13

The Associative (subjective) Meaning: Connotation

◦ Connotation refers to the additional meanings a word carries
beyond its literal definition.
◦ It includes affective meaning (emotions) and social meaning
(cultural).
◦ Example 1:
◦ The denotation of "rose" is "a type of flower."
◦ The connotation of "rose" might include love, beauty, or
romance.

14

7
 1/19/2025

The Associative (subjective) Meaning: Connotation

◦ Example 2: Dog
◦ Denotation - "a domesticated, four-legged animal."
◦ Connotation - could be loyalty, companionship (positive), or
fear (negative, if someone has had a bad experience).

15

Connotation
◦ A connotation of a word can be either positive or negative.
• Both "cheap" and "inexpensive" denote something that costs
little money.
• Example:
• "This phone is cheap."
• "This phone is inexpensive."
In both sentences, the literal (denotative) meaning is that the
phone has a low price.
• But which one has a negative connotation?

16

8
 1/19/2025

Cheap vs Inexpensive
◦ "Cheap" has a negative connotation.
◦ It often suggests something is of poor quality or poorly made.
◦ Example: "This phone is cheap" might imply that the phone
is low-priced but also unreliable or unattractive.
◦ "Inexpensive" has a neutral or positive connotation.
◦ It suggests that something is affordable and reasonably priced
without implying poor quality.
◦ Example: "This phone is inexpensive" might mean the phone
is affordable while still being a good value.

17

How to Use Them?

◦ "Cheap":
◦ "I bought a cheap chair, and it broke after a week.“
◦ (The price was low, but the product was of poor quality.)

◦ "Inexpensive":
◦ "I found an inexpensive chair, and it’s perfect for my home.“
◦ (The price was low, but the product is still good.)

18

9
 1/19/2025

More examples:
◦ "Snake":
◦ Denotation: A long, legless reptile.
◦ The snake is beautiful and majestic.
◦ Connotation: Danger, deceit (negative).
◦ The politician was a snake.

◦ "Home":
◦ Denotation: A place where one lives.
◦ Connotation: Safety, family, warmth (positive).

19

Contrasting Examples
◦ “Slim" vs. "Skinny" –
◦ Both denote a lack of flesh, but "skinny" can carry negative
connotations of being unhealthy
◦ "Confident" vs. "Arrogant" –
◦ Both denote a sense of self-assurance, but "arrogant" has a
negative connotation of being overly proud and disrespectful

20

10
 1/19/2025

Contrasting Examples
◦ "Old" vs. "Antique“
◦ Both denote something not new, but "antique" carries a
positive connotation of something old and valuable
◦ "Child" vs. "Kid"
◦ Both denote a young person, but "kid" is more casual and
could be considered disrespectful in some contexts

21

The Associative (subjective) Meaning: Connotation

◦ Example 3:
◦ Words like "firm," "obstinate," and "pig-headed" all denote
someone who doesn’t change their mind easily.
◦ However, their connotations differ:
◦ "Firm" has a positive connotation.
◦ "Obstinate" is neutral or slightly negative.
◦ "Pig-headed" has a strong negative connotation.

22

11
 1/19/2025

Why are they useful?

• Denotation provides the core, shared meaning of words,
helping communication to be clear.
• Connotation adds emotional or cultural depth, influencing how
words are received and interpreted in different contexts.

◦ Real-Life Application:
• Advertisers use positive connotations to sell products.
• Poets use connotations to evoke emotions.

23

12
Exercise 1: Denotation vs. Connotation

Objective: Differentiate between denotation and connotation.

Instructions: For each word below, list its denotation (literal meaning) and its connotation
(emotional or cultural associations).

• Words:
1. Home
2. Winter
3. Snake
4. Rose
5. Cheap

Example:

• Home:

• Denotation: A place where someone lives.

• Connotation: Warmth, family, safety (positive); or isolation, conflict (negative).

Exercise 2: Rewrite for Connotation

Objective: Identify how connotation changes perception.

Instructions: Rewrite each sentence below to create a more positive or negative connotation.

1. Original: "The meal was cheap."

2. Original: "She’s a firm leader."
3. Original: "He lives in a tiny house."

• Example:
• Original: "The meal was cheap."
o Positive: "The meal was inexpensive."
o Negative: "The meal was of poor quality."

Exercise 3: Connotation Matching Game

Objective: Match words with their connotations.

Instructions: Match each word to its most likely connotation(s):

1. Words:
o Butterfly
o War
 Gold
o
Rain
o
Shadow
o
2. Connotations:
o Peace, fragility, freedom
o Wealth, luxury, greed
o Sorrow, mystery, romance
o Violence, destruction, bravery

Exercise 4: Analyze a Sentence

Objective: Break down the denotation and connotation of a complete sentence.

Instructions: For each sentence, identify the denotation and discuss any possible connotations.

1. "He drives an old car."

2. "She lives in a mansion."
3. "The sky is grey today."

• Example:

"He drives an old car."

• Denotation: He drives a car that has been used for a long time.
• Connotation: Nostalgia, reliability (positive); or outdated, unreliable (negative).

Exercise 5: Personal Reflection

Objective: Explore personal associations with words.

Instructions: Pick 3 words from the list and write a short paragraph about the denotation and
your personal connotation based on your experiences.

• Words: Love, school, rain, ocean, music.

• Example: Rain

• Denotation: Water falling from the sky.

• Connotation: For me, rain feels cozy and calming because I love reading books on rainy
days.
Exercise 6: Contextual Connotation

Objective: Explore how connotation changes in different contexts.

Instructions: For each sentence, explain how the connotation changes based on the scenario
provided.

1. "It’s just a small gift."

o Scenario 1: A friend gives this gift on your birthday.
o Scenario 2: A CEO gives this gift as a thank-you after a major deal.
2. "He’s very persistent."
o Scenario 1: A teacher talking about a hardworking student.
o Scenario 2: A neighbor complaining about a pushy salesman.

Example:

1. "It’s just a small gift."

o Scenario 1: A friend gives this gift on your birthday. (connotation – thoughtful
gesture, meaningful act celebrating a friend’s birthday)
o Scenario 2: A CEO gives this gift as a thank-you after a major deal. (connotatiion
– negative, a bribe, insincere, disappointing)

Exercise 7: Creative Writing

Objective: Use denotation and connotation to create vivid descriptions.

Instructions: Write two sentences about the following objects, one focusing on their denotation
and one focusing on their connotation.

1. Fire
2. Mirror
3. Forest

Example:

Fire:

• Denotation: Fire is a chemical reaction that produces heat and light.

• Connotation: Fire symbolizes passion, danger, or destruction.
 1/26/25

PROSODY AND
MEANING

Recap
◦ We have looked at the differences between semantics and
pragmatics

◦ Semantic meaning
◦ Referential meaning
◦ But some words includes
◦ Associative meaning
◦ Affective meaning

1
 1/26/25

Denotation & Connotation

◦ These differences can be explained in terms of
◦ denotation and connotation meanings
◦ Denotation – semantic/referential meanings
◦ Connotation – associative/affective meanings embedded in
the language

Issues
◦ I see her duck.
◦ I never said she stole my money.
◦ See you at 5.

2
 1/26/25

PROSODY & MEANING

Components and Functions

Topics Covered:
◦ Introduction to Prosody: Definition and Importance
◦ Stress and Its Functions: Clarifying Meaning, Marking
Information, and Structuring Information
◦ Intonation and Its Functions: Expressing Emotions, Sentence
Types, and Turn-Taking
◦ Rhythm, Pauses, and Disjunctures: Patterns, Emphasis, and
Timing
◦ Emotional and Paralinguistic Prosody
◦ Cultural and Cross-Linguistic Variation
◦ Why Prosody Matters

3
 1/26/25

Introduction to Prosody
◦ Definition of Prosody:
◦ Prosody refers to the patterns of rhythm, stress, intonation, and
timing in spoken language.
◦ It shapes how speech sounds
◦ conveys emotion
◦ emphasizes meaning
◦ organizes communication.

Why is Prosody Important?

◦ Prosody helps clarify meaning:
• Guides listeners by using stress, intonation, and timing
effectively.
• Conveys emotions and adds subtle nuances to words,
enriching communication.
• Structures information by highlighting key points with pauses
and stress.
• Enhances intercultural communication by adapting to
cultural variations in prosody.

4
 1/26/25

Stress and Its Functions

◦ What is Stress?
Stress emphasizes certain syllables or words to indicate
importance or contrast.
◦ It clarifies specific parts of a sentence, marks focus and resolves
ambiguity.

◦ "He didn’t take the book." (someone else might have taken the
book.)
◦ "I’m really sorry." (conveys sincerity.)
◦ "The report was finished yesterday, not today." (clarifies the
timing and contrasts it with "today.”)

Stress and Its Functions

◦ Stress can be used to distinguish between given (old) and new
information in a sentence.

◦ "John went to the market yesterday." (emphasizes the subject.)

◦ "John went to the market yesterday." (highlights the destination.)

10

5
 1/26/25

Stress and Its Functions

Stress on different words shifts meaning:
◦ I never said she stole my money. (Someone else said it.)
◦ I never said she stole my money. (Denial of ever saying it.)
◦ I never said she stole my money.
◦ I never said she stole my money.
◦ I never said she stole my money.
◦ I never said she stole my money.
◦ I never said she stole my money.

11

Intonation and Its Functions

◦ Intonation refers to the pitch patterns of speech that indicate
statements, questions, commands, or emotions.
◦ Kinetic tones, such as rising, falling, or rise-rise, shape speech's
meaning and emotion.

◦ Signaling Sentence Type:

◦ Rising intonation: "Are you ready?"
◦ This signals a question and invites a response.
◦ Falling intonation: "It’s over there."
◦ This signals a declarative statement, often indicating
certainty.

13

6
 1/26/25

Intonation and Its Functions

◦ Expressing Emotion
Intonation allows speakers to convey emotions through pitch
changes.
◦ "Really?" A rising pitch conveys interest or surprise, while a flat
tone might signal doubt or boredom.
◦ "I can’t believe it!" A rising pitch suggests excitement, while
slower and lower intonation could convey disappointment or
sarcasm.

14

Intonation and Its Functions

◦ Facilitating Turn-Taking:
Intonation also helps manage conversational flow.
◦ A rising pitch or noticeable pause indicates the speaker is
giving the opportunity for someone else to speak.
◦ Falling intonation signals a speaker has finished talking and
does not want to add more information.

15

7
 1/26/25

Rhythm, Pauses, and Disjunctures

◦ Rhythm: The pattern of strong (stressed) and weak (unstressed)
sounds in speech.
◦ It helps make the way we talk sound smooth and natural.
◦ "The DOG chased the CAT down the ROAD." Stressed words
(DOG, CAT, ROAD) convey the main meaning, while
unstressed words provide structure.
◦ "We were walking down the street, talking about the party."
The rhythm of stressed words emphasizes key points in the
story.

16

Rhythm, Pauses, and Disjunctures

◦ Pauses: Deliberate breaks in speech that emphasize meaning or allow
time for processing.
◦ "Let’s eat, Grandma."
◦ A pause after "eat" signals a direct address to Grandma.
◦ "Let’s eat Grandma."
◦ Lack of a pause changes the meaning drastically.
◦ "The plan is... to proceed cautiously."
◦ The pause adds emphasis and allows the listener to process the
information.
◦ "He said... he didn’t know the answer."
◦ Pausing creates suspense and draws attention to the hesitation.

17

8
 1/26/25

Rhythm, Pauses, and Disjunctures

◦ Disjunctures: Abrupt shifts that signal boundaries between phrases or
clauses.
◦ Example 1: "A big grey dog and cat."
• With a pause after "dog":
This signals that "a big grey dog" and "a cat" are two separate entities.
The disjuncture (pause) after "dog" creates a clear boundary, dividing
the phrase into two distinct parts.
• Interpretation: There are two animals: a big grey dog and a cat.
• Without a pause:
The absence of a disjuncture suggests that "a big grey dog and cat"
describes a single entity, such as a hybrid or combined concept.
• Interpretation: There is one entity, a big grey dog-and-cat
combination.

18

Rhythm, Pauses, and Disjunctures

◦ "The children, who were noisy, left early."
◦ A disjuncture after "children" signals that "who were noisy" is
non-essential information.
◦ Without a disjuncture, "who were noisy" is essential and
specifies which children left.
◦ Timing:
◦ "I told you... not to go!" vs. "I told you not... to go!"
◦ Pauses shift the focus, altering the meaning of the sentence.

19

9
 1/26/25

Emotional and Paralinguistic Prosody

◦ Prosody conveys emotional states and attitudes through
variations in pitch, loudness, and duration.
◦ Emotional States:
◦ Falsetto: High pitch conveys surprise or excitement.
◦ Creaky voice: Low, rough pitch suggests fatigue or boredom.
◦ Attitudinal Prosody:
◦ Sarcasm: Flat intonation overrides positive connotations (e.g.,
"That’s amazing").
◦ Politeness: Rising intonation softens commands or requests
(e.g., "Could you pass the salt?").

20

Cultural and Cross-Linguistic Variation

◦ Different languages use prosody uniquely to convey meaning, emotion, and
structure.
◦ Cultural norms shape how prosody is used and interpreted.
◦ Examples:
◦ Tonal vs. Intonational Languages:
◦ Mandarin: Uses tone (pitch changes) to distinguish lexical meaning (e.g.,
"ma").
◦ English: Uses intonation for sentence types and emotions (e.g., rising
tone for questions).
◦ High-Rising Terminal (HRT):
◦ In Australian English, rising intonation at the end of statements invites
confirmation or politeness.
◦ Example: ”These books are for me↑"

21

10
 1/26/25

Why Prosody Matters

◦ By understanding how stress, intonation, rhythm, pauses, and
disjunctures function together, speakers and listeners can:
◦ Resolve ambiguity.
◦ Convey emotions effectively.
◦ Structure information clearly.
◦ Navigate conversations smoothly.

22

11
PROSODY AND
CONNOTATION
What do they do?
 Helps Understand Ambiguity
◦ Connotation provides associations or emotional layers for words
but cannot specify which meaning applies in ambiguous
contexts.
◦ "I can't bear this weight," the word "bear" can have two
different meanings.
◦ Enduring or tolerating something difficult, evoking feelings
of struggle or resilience.
◦ Refers to the animal, suggesting a sense of strength or
power about the weight mentioned.
 Helps Understand Ambiguity
◦ Prosody uses stress or pauses to resolve ambiguity by guiding
interpretation in real time.
◦ Example:
◦ ”I can’t bear this weight."
◦ Stress on ”bear" with a short pause before it → an emotional or
psychological sense of being unable to tolerate the burden.

◦ Short pause before weight → implies a physical sense of being

unable to lift or carry something heavy, indicating a more
literal interpretation.
 Highlights Important Words
◦ Connotation can make a word emotionally impactful
◦ (e.g., “stole” conveys wrongdoing)
◦ but it doesn’t decide which part of the sentence is
emphasized.
◦ Example:
◦ In the "I didn’t say she stole the money," connotation adds
negativity to “stole” but does not clarify who stole the money.
 What Prosody Does
◦ Prosody uses stress to draw attention to specific elements of the
same sentence.
◦ Example:
◦ Stress on “she” signals that someone else, not “she,” is being
accused of stealing.
 Adds Emotion
◦ Connotation provides general emotional meanings to words
(e.g., “amazing” suggests positivity).
“That’s amazing” conveys something extraordinary but cannot
show whether the speaker is genuinely excited or sarcastic.
◦ What Prosody Does
◦ Prosody conveys the speaker’s exact emotion through tone
and pitch.
◦ A rising, energetic pitch shows genuine excitement
◦ A flat, monotone delivery indicates sarcasm.
 Intonation
◦ Pitch & Tone Patterns:
◦ A rising pitch often signals a question, while a falling pitch
indicates a statement.
◦ Rising Intonation: Used in yes/no questions. (Are you coming?)
◦ Falling Intonation: Found in statements & commands (I’m
going to sleep)
◦ Rise-Rise Intonation: Suggests uncertainty. (not stopping)
◦ Conveying Emotions:
◦ Pitch variations also express emotions
◦ higher pitches indicating excitement and lower pitches
indicating seriousness.
 Adjusts to Context
◦ Connotation is static and does not adapt to conversational flow or
context in real time.
◦ "We’re meeting at 5." retains its meaning
◦ Cannot indicate uncertainty or request confirmation without
additional cues.

◦ Prosody changes dynamically during conversations to adapt to

context.
◦ Rising intonation on “We’re meeting at 5↑” signals a question,
inviting confirmation
◦ Falling intonation shows certainty. “We’re meeting at 5. Let’s go”
 More Examples
◦ John went to the market yesterday.
◦ if the listener was previously unaware of John's involvement or
if there was a question about who went
◦ By stressing "John," the speaker draws attention to who went to
the market.

◦ John went to the market yesterday.

◦ This conversation setting involves multiple possible
destinations, and the speaker wants to clarify that it was the
market John went to.
◦ Stressing "market" highlights the destination of John's action.
 Works Across Cultures
◦ Connotation is often tied to specific languages and cultures.
◦ A word’s associative meaning may differ significantly between
languages.
◦ The word “home” has positive, comforting connotations in
many languages, but the exact cultural feelings differ.

◦ Japanese (家 - ie):
◦ In Japanese, "ie" refers to a physical structure with a sense of
heritage and continuity.
◦ It often embodies the idea of family lineage and
responsibilities.
 ghani
◦ "‫ ﻏﻨﻲ‬ghani”:
◦ Literal Meaning: The word means "rich" or "wealthy."
◦ Connotation:
◦ In some contexts, it carries a positive connotation of success
and abundance.
◦ However, depending on the situation, it can also imply greed
or materialism.
◦ In English the word ‘rich’ has positive connotation
 Works Across Cultures
◦ Prosody is shaped by phonetic and linguistic structures unique to
each language.
◦ Mandarin Chinese is a tonal language, meaning pitch
variations can change the meaning of a word entirely
(e.g., mā = mother, má = hemp, mǎ = horse, mà = scold).
◦ Japanese vs. Western Expressiveness:
◦ Japanese tends to have flatter intonation in formal settings,
even when expressing emotions like gratitude or apology.
◦ In contrast, English speakers often use a rising or falling
intonation to amplify emotions, making Japanese intonation
sound less expressive or reserved to Western ears.
 Shows Non-Literal Meaning
◦ Connotation enriches a word’s emotional or figurative meaning
but cannot indicate sarcasm or irony without additional context.
◦ The word “great” carries a positive connotation but cannot
signal sarcasm on its own.

◦ Prosody signals non-literal meanings through exaggerated tone,

pitch, or timing.
◦ Saying “Oh, great” with exaggerated flat intonation signals
sarcasm, overriding the positive connotation of the word.
 Shows Non-Literal Meaning
◦ Exaggerated Tone:
◦ "Oh, great! Another meeting! Just what I needed!"
◦ (Said with an exaggerated high-pitched voice on "great.")

◦ Timing and Pauses**:

◦ "Oh, you forgot my birthday... (pause) How surprising."
◦ (The pause before “How surprising” emphasises the sarcasm.)
 Conclusion
◦ While connotation enriches the emotional and associative depth
of language, prosody dynamically clarifies, emphasizes, and
adapts meaning in real-time communication. Together, they
enhance the depth and precision of spoken language.
 Exercises on Prosody & Meaning

Instructions: These exercises are designed to help you understand and apply the concepts of
stress, intonation, and disjunctures in spoken language. For each exercise:

1. Read the sentence or question provided.

2. Focus on the task described (e.g., highlighting a word, applying intonation, or
inserting pauses).
3. Practice aloud to observe how prosody changes the meaning of the sentence.
4. Interpret the meaning based on the prosodic elements you emphasize.

Refer to the examples provided in each exercise for guidance.

Exercise 1: Identifying Stress

Instructions:

1. Say each sentence aloud, focusing on the highlighted word. Stress this word to change
or clarify the meaning of the sentence.

Example:

• Sentence: "She is coming to the party."

o Interpretation: Emphasizing "she" suggests that someone else is not coming,
but "she" is.

Questions:

• a) She forgot where she put the car keys.

• b) She forgot where she put the car keys.
• c) She forgot where she put the car keys.

Exercise 2: Resolving Ambiguity Through Prosody

Instructions:

1. Read the sentences below aloud. Use different intonation patterns or pauses to explore
the possible meanings. For each sentence, the interpretations are provided. Highlight
or indicate which word, tone, or pause helps clarify each meaning.

Example:

• Sentence: "I told him, not her."

o Interpretation 1: I told him, not someone else. (Stress on "him.")
 o Interpretation 2: I told him, not her. (Stress on "her.")

Questions:

• a) I saw the boy with the telescope.

o Interpretation 1: The boy had the telescope.
o Interpretation 2: I used the telescope to see the boy.
o Task: Highlight the word to emphasize or indicate where to pause to signal
each meaning.
• b) Let’s paint the walls, orange.
o Interpretation 1: The walls will be painted orange.
o Interpretation 2: Addressing someone named Orange.
o Task: Indicate where to pause or stress to signal each meaning.

Exercise 3: Practicing Intonation

Instructions:

1. Read each sentence below and use intonation to signal the intended meaning or
emotion.

Example:

• Sentence: "That’s fantastic."

o Rising intonation: Shows excitement or genuine enthusiasm.
o Flat tone: Could indicate sarcasm or indifference.

Questions:

• a) "You’re here already?"

• b) "Do you think this will work?"

Exercise 4: Grouping Speech with Disjunctures

Instructions:

1. Add pauses or disjunctures to the sentences below to create sense groups. Practice
reading them aloud with natural pauses.

Example:

• Sentence: "Let’s eat Grandma."

o Pause after "eat" ("Let’s eat, Grandma.") means addressing Grandma directly.
o No pause ("Let’s eat Grandma.") humorously suggests something different.

Questions:
 • a) Let’s meet after lunch tomorrow.
• b) She loves cooking her family and her dog.

Exercise 5: Combining Stress, Intonation, and Disjunctures

Instructions:

1. Read the following sentence aloud, varying stress, intonation, and pauses. Note how
the meaning shifts.

Example:

• Sentence: "She didn’t take the keys."

o Stress on "didn’t": Emphasizes that the act of taking did not happen.
o Stress on "keys": Suggests that she might have taken something else but not
the keys.

Questions:

• "We should leave now."

 2/2/25

Hyponymy, synonymy, antonymy

§ Sense relations describe the relationships between word meanings

in a language.
§ Understanding these relationships helps analyse vocabulary
structures and how words interact to convey meaning.
§ The three major types
of sense relations are:
§ Hyponymy (Hierarchical word relations)
§ Synonymy (Words with similar meanings)
§ Antonymy (Words with opposite meanings)

1
 2/2/25

§ Hyponymy isa hierarchical semantic relation where one word (the

hyponym) represents a more specific category of another word (the
hypernym or superordinate).

Hypernym or
superordinate

hyponym hyponym hyponym

§ Animal → Dog → Labrador Animal

• Animal is
the hypernym (broadest
category). Dog Cat Bird
• Dog is
a hyponym of Animal (a more
Labrador Persian
specific category).
• Labrador is
a hyponym of Dog (even bulldog Scottish Fold
more specific).

2
 2/2/25

§ Flower → Rose → Red Rose Flower

• Flower is the hypernym.
• Rose is a hyponym of Flower.
• Red Rose is a hyponym of Rose. Rose Lily Tulip
• The "IS A" Test:
• A rose is a flower, but a flower
is not necessarily a rose, Red Rose
demonstrating the hierarchical
nature.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPONYMY
• Asymmetry:
• If A is a hyponym of B, A
• B cannot be a hyponym of A.

3
 2/2/25

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPONYMY
• Transitivity:
• If C is a hyponym of B,
A
• and B is a hyponym of A,
• then C is also a hyponym of A.
A
B
C
C

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPONYMY
•Asymmetry: •Transitivity:

Animal Animal
Dog Labrador
Dog Labrador
Labrador Dog
Labrador

4
 2/2/25

Words with the same meaning

§ Synonymy refers to the relationship between words that have the

same or nearly the same meaning in some or all contexts.

§ Types of Synonyms
§ Absolute Synonyms
§ Near Synonyms
§ Context Dependent Synonyms

10

5
 2/2/25

§ Wordsthat can be interchanged in all contexts without changing the

meaning.
§ Example: Octothorpe (#) and Hashtag.
§ These words are rare in natural language.

11

§ Scientific or Technical Terms

§ Sodium chloride = Table salt
§ H2O = Water
§ Decagon = 10-sided polygon

§ Loanwords & Native Words with Same Meaning

§ Some borrowed words retain the same
meaning as their native counterparts:
§ Resume = Résumé (French influence)
§ Cul-de-sac = Dead-end street
§ Zebra crossing = Pedestrian crossing
§ Sabun (Malay) = Savon (French) Soap

12

6
 2/2/25

Words with similar meaning

13

§ Similar Core Meaning → The words convey a related idea but with
subtle differences.
§ Context-Sensitive → One synonym may be preferred over another in
different situations.
§ DifferentConnotations → Some words carry positive or negative
associations.
§ Varied
Register/Formality → One synonym may be formal, while
another is more casual.

14

7
 2/2/25

§ Slim vs. Skinny

§ She looks slim and healthy. (Positive connotation)
§ She looks skinny and underweight. (Negative connotation)

§ Childlike vs. Childish

§ He has a childlike sense of wonder. (Positive: innocent, pure)
§ He is being childish about the situation. (Negative: immature)
§ Stubborn vs. Determined
§ She is determined to succeed. (Positive)
§ She is stubborn and won’t listen. (Negative)

15

§ Ask vs. Inquire

§ I need to ask you a question. (Casual)
§ I would like to inquire about the position. (Formal)
§ Buy vs. Purchase
§ I’m going to buy some groceries. (Everyday use)
§ The company will purchase new equipment. (Formal/business
context)
§ Help vs. Assist
§ Can you help me move this table? (Casual)
§ The staff will assist you with your request. (Polite/formal)

16

8
 2/2/25

§ Happy vs. Ecstatic

§ She was happy about her promotion. (Mild intensity)
§ She was ecstatic about her promotion. (Stronger emotion)

§ Tired vs. Exhausted

§ I’m a little tired after work. (Less
intense)
§ I’m completely exhausted after that marathon. (More intense)
§ Bigvs. Huge
§ That’s a big house. (Neutral size)
§ That’s a huge house! (Larger, more intense)

17

§ See vs. Watch

§ I saw abird in the sky. (Accidental, passive observation)
§ I watched the birds for an hour. (Active, intentional focus)

§ Hear vs. Listen

§ I heard music playing outside. (Passive)
§ I listened to my favorite song. (Active)
§ Fastvs. Quick
§ He is a fast runner. (Speed-related)
§ She gave a quick response. (Time-related)

18

9
 2/2/25

§ Near synonyms may not be permanently interchangeable;

§ Rather, they can be equivalent to specific contexts but not to others.

§ A big car = a large car

§ A big mistake ≠ A large mistake.

§ It is not absolute
§ because wordsoften gain contextual meaning based on
connotation, usage, register, or intensity.

19

20

10
 2/2/25

21

22

11
 2/2/25

§ are only synonymous in specific contexts

§ but can have completely different meanings in others.
§ "Fast" vs. "Quick"
§ Synonymous Context:
§ She gave me a fast/quick response.

§ Not Synonymous Context:

§ This car is very fast.
§ (Quick wouldn’t fit because quick relates to time, not speed.)
§ I took a quick nap.
§ (Fast wouldn’t fit because fast relates to speed, not duration.)

23

§ Their synonymy is temporary and conditional based on how they are

used.
§ "Thin" vs. "Slim"
§ Synonymous Context:
§ She has a thin/slim figure.
§ Context-dependent :
§ This paper is too thin to write on.
§ (Slim wouldn’t fit because slim applies to body shape, not
objects.)
§ She looks slim and healthy.
§ (Thin might imply being underweight or unhealthy.)

24

12
 2/2/25

§ "House" vs. "Home"

§ Synonymous Context:
§ We bought a new house in the suburbs.
§ We bought a new home in the suburbs.
§ Context-dependent:
§ A house is made of bricks and wood.
§ (Home wouldn’t work because it’s an emotional concept.)
§ Home is where the heart is.
§ (House wouldn’t fit because the phrase refers to a
personal/emotional space.)

25

§ See vs.Watch
§ I saw the movie vs. I watched the movie
§ (synonymous in this case)
§ I saw a bird vs I watched a bird
§ I watched a bird implies more prolonged attention.
§ Hear vs. Listen
§ I heard the announcement vs. I listened to the announcement
§ (They are context-dependent because hear is passive
and listen is active).

26

13
 2/2/25

• Context-dependent synonyms function as near synonyms in some contexts but are

distinct in others.
• Their interchangeability is entirely dependent on usage.

27

14
 2/9/25

Hyponymy, synonymy, antonymy

§ Antonymy refers to words

that have opposite
meanings.

1
 2/9/25

§ Therefore, we can say that a

synonym is the opposite of
antonym.

§ However, antonyms are not all the same;

§ they can be classified into different types.

§ Gradable Antonyms
§ Complementary Antonyms
§ Relational Antonyms

2
 2/9/25

§ Exist on a continuum where a middle ground is possible.

§ Hot ↔ Cold.
§ There are intermediate levels like warm or cool.
§ Hot – warm – cool – Cold
§ Beautiful, Plain, Unattractive, Ugly

•Strong vs. Weak: • Fast vs. Slow

• Strong, Sturdy, Fragile, Weak • Fast, Brisk, Moderate, Slow
•Strong – Having great power or force •Fast – Very high speed
•Sturdy – Stable and solid but not at •Brisk – Quick but not extremely fast
maximum strength •Moderate – Average speed, neither fast nor
•Fragile – Lacking full strength, prone to slow
breaking •Slow – Noticeably lacking speed
•Weak – The lowest level of strength,
lacking power

3
 2/9/25

§ They allow degrees of comparison (hotter, colder).

§ Today is colder than yesterday
§ She more beautiful than her younger sister.

§ Often modified by degree words to amplify or downgrade a word

- very, slightly, or somewhat.
§ A person can be very tall, slightly tall, or medium height.

§ 3. Bright vs. Dim

§ Bright, Radiant, Faint, Dim
§ Rich vs. Poor
§ Rich, Comfortable, Financially Strained, Poor
§ Clean vs. Dirty
§ Clean, Tidy, Dusty, Grimy, Dirty
§ Happy vs. Sad
§ Happy, Content, Melancholy, Sad

4
 2/9/25

§ There is no middle ground—one term excludes the other.

§ Example: Alive ↔ Dead.
§ Someone cannot be both alive and dead at the same time.

§ If one term applies, the other cannot.

§ No in-between state—someone is either married or single

§ Present vs. Absent:

§ If a student is present, they cannot also be absent.

10

5
 2/9/25

§ On vs. Off:
§ If a device is on, it cannot be off at the same time.

§ Alive vs. Dead:

§ An organism is either alive or dead; there is no state in
between (we can’t say – very dead, slightly dead).

§ True vs. False:

§ A statement can be either true or false, but not both
simultaneously.

11

§ These antonyms imply each other.

§ The relationship is mutually dependent.

§ Example: Buy ↔ Sell.

§ If someone buys, someone else must sell.

§A teacher exists only because there are students.

§ These
antonyms require two entities interacting, and their
meaning depends on perspective.

12

6
 2/9/25

§ Win ↔ Lose:
§ If one person wins a game, another must lose. Their outcomes are
directly linked to each other.

§ Parent ↔ Child:
§ The role of a parent is defined by the existence of a child. Without
children, the concept of parenthood does not exist.

§ Give ↔ Receive:
§ When someone gives something, another person must receive it. The
actions are interdependent and require both parties for their
meaning.

13

14

7
 2/9/25

§ Choose the correct hypernym and hyponyms from each group:

§ (Furniture, Chair, Kitchenware, Table, Sofa)

§ (Reptile, Lizard, Mammal, Snake, Crocodile)
§ (Drink, Coffee, Spice, Tea, Juice)
§ (Clothing, Jeans, Footwear, Jacket, Skirt)
§ (Vehicle, Bicycle, Tool, Car, Bus)
§ (Instrument, Guitar, Sculpture, Violin, Flute)

15

§ Provide a synonym for each of the following words:

§ Big
§ Small
§ Bright
§ Weak
§ Quiet
§ Tired

16

8
 2/9/25

§ Choose the more appropriate synonym for the given sentence:

§ The child was feeling ___ (joyful/ecstatic) after winning the

game.
§ The explanation was ___ (clear/lucid) and easy to understand.
§ She gave a ___ (quick/hasty) response without thinking.
§ His behavior was very ___ (impolite/rude) at the meeting.
§ The house was ___ (ancient/old) and full of history.
§ The food was ___ (delicious/tasty) and well-prepared.

17

§ For each pair of antonyms, identify whether they are gradable,

complementary, or relational:
§ Rich – Poor
§ Buy – Sell
§ Fast – Slow
§ Married – Single
§ Clean – Dirty
§ Teacher – Student

18

9
 2/9/25

§ Rewrite the following sentences by replacing the underlined

word with an antonym:
§ The room was bright.
§ He is a brave soldier.
§ The test was easy.
§ The lake was deep.
§ She spoke in a loud voice.
§ The weather is warm today.

19

10