CKCET UNIT -I PH3151-ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT-1-MECHANICS

Multiparticle dynamics: Center of mass (CM) – CM of continuous bodies – motion of the CM – kinetic
energy of system of particles. Rotation of rigid bodies: Rotational kinematics – rotational kinetic energy
and moment of inertia - theorems of M .I –moment of inertia of continuous bodies – M.I of a diatomic
molecule - torque – rotational dynamics of rigid bodies – conservation of angular momentum –
rotational energy state of a rigid diatomic molecule - gyroscope - torsional pendulum – double
pendulum –Introduction to nonlinear oscillations.

1.Explain in detail about the concept of Multi particle dynamics (8 mark)

Dynamics
We know dynamics is the subject of motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Example: The moon affecting the ocean waves is the best example for the external force that
act on a body.
Multi particle dynamics
Multi particle dynamics or dynamics in a system of particles is defined as the study of motion
in respect of a group of particles in which the separation between the particles will be very small i.e.,
the distance between the particles will be negligible.
Explanation
In dynamics we used to study the all the physical parameters by conjuring an object as a point
mass and its shape and size is ignored.
But in real world problems the object will execute rotational motion also along with
translation motion. For example if we throw a chalk piece in app it as combined motion of both
transmission and rotational.
As both the transnational motion and the rotational motion depends on the shape and size of
the object both cannot be ignore even if it is negligible.
In this universe most of the object consist of many particles(multi- particles), which have
equal or unequal mass if an object consists of multi particles for which if the size and shape is
negligible then it is called as system of particles (extended object).
Does the study of rotational and translatory motion with respect to the system of particles or
multi particles is called multi particle dynamics.
2. Explain in detail about CM of one, three dimensional system of particles
Definition
The system consists of many particles with different positions and different Masses. If the
mass of the entire particles in the system is concentrated anti particular point then that point is called

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the centre of mass of the system.

Explanation
Let us consider a fulcrum placed along the x-axis which is not at equilibrium position as
shown in this figure.

Let the
position of massesm1, m2, m3, .... mn-1, mn be at a distance x1x2, x3, ..... xn-1, xn respectively from
the supporting point or fulcrum.
That tendency of mass to rotate with respect to origin or supporting point is called moment of
mass.
The moment of mass for an elemental mass mn with respect to the fulcrum can be written as

mnxn.
If the moments on both sides are equal then the system is said to be in equilibrium. Therefore
total moments with respect to the full from shall be written as
n
m1 x 1 +m2 x 2 +m3 x 3 +…+ mn − 1 x n −1 +mn xn =∑ mi x i=0 − −−→(1)
i=1

If the total momentum is equal to zero, then the centre of mass will I at the supporting point or
fulcrum and the system is said to be in equilibrium.
But from figure 1.3 we can see that the total
momentum of the system is not equal to zero
unbalanced position therefore the full from should be
adjusted to a distance tax with respect to the centre of
mass area in order to get the balanced deposition of the system under to reach equilibrium condition
balance deposition as shown in this figure 1.4.
n n

∑ mi x i – ∑ mi X =0
i=1 i=1

n n

∑ mi X =∑ mi x i
i=1 i=1

n n
X ∑ mi=∑ mi x i
i=1 i =1

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∑ mi x i
X = i =1n −−− →(2)
∑ mi
i=1

n
wℎere ∑ mi x i is tℎe moment of tℎe system
i=1

∑ mi istℎe mass of tℎe system

i=1

Therefore the system should be moved to a distance of X metres in order to attain the
balanced position of the system as shown in fig 1.4.
∴The distance moved to obtain equilibrium position (or) so called the centre of mass in a one
dimensional system is given by
m1 x 1+m2 x2 +m3 x3 + …
X= −− −→(3)
m1 +m2 +m3+ …
CENTRE OF MASS IN A THREE DIMENSIONAL SYSTEM
To find the centre of mass in a three
dimensional system, let us considered a three
dimensional system (x-axis y-axis and z-axis), in which
letm1,m2,m3..... be the masses placed at r1 (x1, y1, z1),

r2 (x2, y2, z2), r3(X3,y3,z3)..... respectively from the

origin ‘O’
Here
The centre of mass along the x-axis
∑m x
m1 x 1+m2 x2 +m3 x3 + … i =1 i i
X= = −−− →(1)
m1 +m2 +m3+ … ∑ mi
i=1

The centre of mass along the y-axis

∑m y
m1 y 1+m2 y 2+ m3 y 3 +… i=1 i i
Y= = −−− →(2)
m1+ m2+ m3 +… ∑ mi
i=1

The centre of mass along the z-axis

∑m z
m1 z 1+ m2 z 2+ m3 z 3+ … i=1 i i
Z= = −− −→(3)
m1+ m2 +m3 +… ∑ mi
i=1

Therefore the centre of mass of the system in a three dimensional system shall be written as

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m ⃗r + m ⃗r +m r⃗ + … i =1
∑ mi r⃗i
r⃗ cm ( X ,Y , Z ) = 1 1 1 2 1 3 = n − −−→( 4)
m1+ m2 +m3 +…
∑ mi
i=1

Where
^ y i ^j+ z i k^
r⃗ i=x i i+
Equation (4) represent the centre of mass of the system in a three dimensional system.
3.Illustrate the concept of CM of continuous bodies
When a system contains 'n' number of particles,where the mass and position of each particle is
represented by mi and ri respectively, then
∑ mi r⃗i
i
Centre of mass of the system =r⃗ cm = − −− →(1)
∑ mi
i

Equation (1) represents the summation of centre of mass of a system .However,this equation
will not hold good for continuous bodies, because your continuous body will have infinitesimal small
region. Therefore, instead of summation, we need to integrate the equation (1) for obtaining centre of
mass continuous bodies.
Let us considered the mass of one such small region 'dm' and its position 'r'. If the elemental mass mi
is arbitrarily very small in the region i.e., if mi tends to zero, then equation (1) will become an
integral over the entire volume of the body.
∑ mi r⃗i ∫ ⃗r dm
r⃗ cm = lim i =
M →0 ∑ m M
i
i
i

r⃗ cm =
∫ ⃗r dm −−− →(2)
M
Equation (2) represents the centre of mass of the continuous bodies
4.Explain in detail about the kinetic energy of system of particles
he motion of the centre of mass shall be obtained as follows.
Let us consider an external force 'F' acting on the system of the particle along the x-axis. The
centre of a mass of the system along x-axis shall be written as
mi xi
x cm =∑
i mi
x cm ∑ mi=∑ mi xi
i i

Since∑ mi =M we can write

M x cm =m1 x 1 +m2 x 2 +m3 x 3 +… −− −→(1)

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Differentiating equation (1) with respect to the time, we get

dx cm dx 1 dx 2 dx 3
M =m1 +m2 + m3 +…
dt dt dt dt
Differentiating once again with respect to the time
2 2 2 2
d x cm d x1 d x2 d x3
M 2
=m1 2
+ m2 2
+m3 2
+… − −−→(2)
dt dt dt dt
2
d x
Since, acceleration a= 2 therefore equation (2) shall be written as
dt
M acm =m1 a 1+ m2 a2 +m3 a3 +… − −−→(3)
According to Newton’s Second law, we know F=ma

Equation (3) shall be written as Fcm = F1+F2 + F3+........

F cm=∑ F i −−− →(4)
i

Equation (4)represents that the force acting on the centre of a mass is equal to the sum of
force that acting on the system of particle. This force is required to move the particles with respect to
the centre of mass (or) so called motion of the centre of mass.
1 2
5.Prove that the Total K . E= I ω for rotational kinetic energy.
2
Derive the relation between rotational kinetic energy and moment of inertia.(April/May-2022).
Definition
Rotational kinetic energy: Rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body is defined as the sum of the
kinetic energy of all the particles in the rigid body rotating about the axis of rotation.
Rotational kinetic energy occurs due to the objects rotation and is a part of its total kinetic
energy. The Rotational (angular) kinetic energy of a rotating object can be expressed as half of the
product of the angular velocity of the object and moment of inertia around the axis of rotation.
1 2
Rotational Kinetic energy = Iω
2
Where I is the moment of inertia of the rigid body an axis XX' with constant angular velocity
ω as shown in this fig. 1.8
Proof
Let us consider a rigid body rotating about an axis XX' with constant angular velocity 𝝎 as
shown in this fig. 1.8. All particles in rigid body have the same angular velocity ' ω ' but with
different linear velocity 'v',Here, the velocity ‘v’ varies with radial distance from the axis XX'.
Let V 1,V2,............Vi , be the linear velocity of the particles of mass m 1, m2 .........., mi, rotating
about the axis of rotation at distance r1, r2,.......ri, respectively.

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1 2
The K.E of the particle with mass m1 = m1 v 1
2
1 2
The K.E of the particle with mass m2 = m2 v 2
2
1 2
The K.E of the particle with mass mi= mi v i
2
Here, Total K.E of all the particles will correspond to the K.E of the body
1 2 1 2 1 2
∴ Total K . E= m1 v 1 + m2 v 2 +..... mi v i −−− →(1)
2 2 2
Since all the particles move with same angular velocity (𝝎) but with the different linear
velocity (V1,V2,...............Vi) at different distance (r1, r2,.......ri) from the axis of rotation.
We can write,V 1=r 1 ω ; V 2=r 2 ω ; …V i=r i ω
Equation (1) becomes
1 2 1 2 1 2
∴ TotalK . E= m 1 r 1 ω + m2 r 2 ω +..... mi r i ω
2 2 2
1
(∑ m r ) ω −− −→(2)
2 2
∴ Total K . E= i i
2 i

Since I is the moment of inertia of body about the XX' axis and is given by

I =∑ mi r i −− −→(3)
2

Equation (2) becomes

1 2
∴ Total K . E= I ω −−− →(4)
2
Equation (4) represents the rotational kinetic energy of the particles in a rigid body.
6.Explain the concept of MOI and hence derive parallel axis and perpendicular axis Theorem
Definition
Moment of inertia of a body about an axis is defined as the summation of the “product of
the mass and square of the perpendicular distance” of different particle of the body from the axis of
rotation.
Unit for moment of inertia:kgm2.
Concept
According to Newton's first law of motion, a body at rest
will remain at rest while a body in uniform motion along a
straight line will move continuously unless an external force
disturbs it.The property due to which a body does not

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change its state of rest or motion is called Inertia.

For the motion in a straight line, inertia depends on the mass of the body if the masses more
than the inertia will be more.
However, when a body moves about an axis the kinetic energy of its rotation not only depends
on the mass and angular velocity, but also depends on the axis about which the rotation is taking
place.
Therefore, If we want to rotate a body or a particle for an angle () we need to overcome the
systems angular inertia which is often called moment of inertia (it is not just the mass)
Thus the angular inertia or moment of inertia not only depends on the mass but also depends
on the square of the distance of particle from the axis of rotation.
Proof
Let us consider a rigid body 'B' which consists of 'n' number of particles located at different
distance from the axis of rotation XX' as shown in fig.1.9.
Therefore, The moment of inertia of the particle -1 = m1 r 12
The moment of inertia of the particle-2 = m2 r 22
We can get the moment of inertia of the entire rigid body by summing the moment of inertia
of all particles.

I =∑ mi r i −− −→(1)
2

Equation (1) represents the moment of inertia of a rigid body.

Note: Moment of inertia is a measure of rotational inertia. The moment of inertia (I) in
rotation motion is similar to mass (m) in linear motion.
THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA [M.I]
The moment of inertia not only depends on the rotation of Axis but also depends on the
orientation of the body with respect to the axis, which is different for different axis of the same body.
Based on the orientation of the body and with respect to the rotating axis, moment of inertia shall be
calculated for various bodies by using the following theorem
(i) Parallel axis theorem(ii) Perpendicular axis theorem
(i)PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
Theorem:
It states that moment of inertia with respect to any axis
is equal to the sum of moment of inertia with respect to a
parallel axis passing through the centre of mass and the product
of mass and square of the perpendicular distance between the

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parallel axis .
Proof:
Let us consider a body of mass 'M' for which the centre of mass act at G. Let AA' be an axis
parallel to XX' passing through G. Let‘x’be the perpendicular distance between the parallel axis AA'
and XX' as shown in fig.1.10.
The body consist of 'n' number of particles with different masses and at different distance
from the XX' axis. Let Mi be the mass of one such particle in the body located at a distance Ri from
the XX' axis.
The moment of inertia of this particle with respect to XX' axis is
2
d I XX ' =mi r i −−− →(1)
The moment of inertia of the entire body with respect to XX' axis is
I XX ' =∑ d I XX ' =∑ mi r i −− −→(2)
2

Similarly, the moment of inertia of this particle with respect to AA' axis is
d I AA ' =mi ¿
The moment of inertia of the entire body with respect to AA' axis is
I AA ' =∑ d I AA ' =∑ mi ¿ ¿ ¿
I AA ' =∑ mi (r i +2 r i x + x ¿)¿
2 2

I AA ' =∑ mi r i ∑ 2 mi r i x+∑ mi x 2 − −−→(4)

2

Substituting equation (2) in equation (4) , we get,

I AA ' =I XX ' +2 x ∑ mi r i + M x −−− →(5)
2

Where M= ∑ mi [Mass of the body]

According to centre of mass for a rigid body∑ mi r i=0 (ri has both positive and negative
values so they cancel with each other)
We can write equation (5) as
2
I AA ' =I XX ' + M x −− −→(6)
Equation (6) represents the equation of parallel axis theorem.

(ii)PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM

Theorem:
It states that the moment of inertia of a thin plane body with
respect to an axis perpendicular to the thin plane surface is equal to
the sum of the moment of inertia of a thin plane with respect to two
perpendicular axis lying in the surface of the plane and these three

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usually perpendicular axis meet at a common point.

Proof:
Let us consider the thin plane body of mass M and three mutually perpendicular axis
XX',YY' and ZZ’ passing through the point 'O'.
Let YY' & ZZ' axis lie in the surface of the thin plane and XX' axis lies perpendicular to
plane surface as shown in fig.1.11.
Letmi be the mass of one such particle in the body located at distance ri from the point 'O'.
The moment of inertia of the thin plane with respect to XX' axis is
2
d I XX ' =mi r i −−− →(1)
The moment of inertia of the entire body with respect to the axis XX' is
I XX ' =∑ d I XX ' =∑ mi r i −− −→(2)
2

From the figure 1.11 We can write, r i2= y i2 + z i2 − −−→(3)

substitute equation (3) in equation (2), we get
∴ I XX ' =∑ mi ( y i + zi ¿)¿
2 2

∴ I XX ' =∑ mi y i + ∑ mi zi −−− →(4 )

2 2

We know that
The moment of inertia of a thin plane with respect to YY' axis is I YY ' =∑ mi y i2
The moment of inertia of a thin plane with respect to ZZ' axis is I ZZ ' =∑ mi z i2
Equation (4) becomes
I XX ' =I YY ' + I ZZ ' −−− →(5)
Equation (5) represents the equation for perpendicular axis theorem.
7.Write a short note on MOI of continuous bodies.
When your body contains ‘n’ number of particles, where the mass of each particle is represented by
m1, m2, ....... mi and its position is represented by r1, r2, ...... ri with respect to the rotation axis.
The moment of inertia of the body
I =∑ mi r i −− −→(1)
2

The equation (1) represents the summation of moment of inertia of a system. However this
equation will not hold good for a continuous body, because a continuous body will have infinitesimal
small regions.
Therefore, instead of submission, we need to integrate the equation (1) for obtaining the
moment of inertia of continuous bodies.
Let us consider the mass of one such small region ‘dm’ and its position is ‘r’.If the elemental mass

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miis arbitrarily very small in the region (mi tends to zero), the equation (1) will become an integral
over the entire volume of the body.

I = lim ∑ mi r i =∫ dmr 2 −−− →(2)

2

mi →0 i

Equation (2) represents the moment of inertia of continuous body

The moment of inertia of continuous body method is used to find the moment of inertia for various
bodies with different shapes
 Circular ring
 circular disc
 solid cylinder
 hollow cylinder
 solid sphere
 hollow sphere etc
7.Give a short note on moment of inertia of a diatomic molecule.(April/May2022)
Let us consider a rigid diatomic molecule containing two atoms of masses m 1 and m2, Separated by a
distance‘x’.

Let this diatomic molecule be considered as a system connected by a weightless rigid rod as
shown in Fig. 1.22 The centre of mass of system (diatomic molecule) lies between the two atoms
and is denoted by the point'O'.Let x1 and x2 between the distance of two atoms from the point'O'.

From Fig, we can write,

x ¿ x 1 + x 2 − −−→ ( 1 )

Since the system is balanced with respect to the centre of mass, we can write

m1 x 1=m2 x2 −− −→ ( 2 )

From equation 1, we can write

x 2=x − x 1 −− −→ ( 3 )

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Sub equation ( 3) in equation(2) , we get

m1 x 1=m2 (x − x ¿¿ 1)¿

m1 x 1=m2 x − m2 x 1
m1 x 1 +m2 x 1=m2 x
( m1 +m2 ) x 1=m2 x
m2 x
x 1= −−− → ( 4 )
( m1+ m2 )

From equation 1, we can write

x 1=x − x 2 −− −→ ( 5 )

Sub equation 5 in equation (2), we get

m1 ¿ ¿ ¿
m1 x −m1 x 2=m2 x 2

m1 x=m1 x 2+ m2 x 2

( m1 +m2 ) x 2=m1 x
m1 x
x 2= −−− → ( 6 )
( m1+ m2 )
MOMENT OF INERTIA:
The moment of inertia (I) of a diatomic molecule with respect to an axis passing through
centre of mass of the system shall be written as
2 2
I =m1 x 1 +m2 x 2 −−− → ( 7 )

Sub equation (4) and equation 6 in equation ( 7), we get

( ) ( )
2 2
m2 x m1 x
I =m1 + m2
( m1+ m2 ) ( m1 +m2 )

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2
x 2 2
I= 2
[m1 m2 +m2 m1 ]
( m1+ m2 )
x2 (m1 m2)
I= 2
[m1 +m2 ]
( m1+ m2 )
(m1 m2 ) 2
I= x − −−→ ( 8 )
m1 +m2
(m1 m2)
µ=
m1+ m2 (Reduced mass of the diatomic molecule)
2
I =µ x −−− → ( 9 )
8.Derive the expression for Rotational Energy State of a rigid diatomic molecule
Let us consider a rigid diatomic molecule having two atoms of masses m1 and m2 weight less
rod of length 'x'.This rigid diatomic molecule rotates with an angular velocity ω, with respect to an
axis through the centre of mass 'O' and is perpendicular to the connecting rod as shown.

We know that
Kinetic energy of diatomic molecule is given by,
1 2
K . E= Iω −− −→ ( 1 )
2
We know that , the angular momentum of rotating body is
L=Iω
L
ω= −−− → (2 )
I
Substitute (2) in ( 1) , we get

()
2
1 L
K . E= I
2 I
2
L
K . E= −− −→ ( 3 )
2I
We know that The moment of inertia of rotating diatomic molecule is
2
I =µ x −−− → ( 4 )
Where, µ is the reduced mass. Subs. eqn. (4) in (3),

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2
L
K . E= 2
−−− → ( 5 )
2µ x
Equation (5) represents the classical equation for kinetic energy of a rigid diatomic molecule.
In which the energy levels are continuous for all possible values of ' ‘L'.
But, according to quantum mechanics, the energy values are discrete.
Based on the quantum theory, the angular momentum 'L' can be written a
L= √ J ( J +1 ) ħ− −−→ ( 6 )
Where, J is the total angular momentum quantum number and its values are 0, 1,2, 3, . . and so
on
Substituting equation (6) in equation (5) we get
2
( √ J ( J +1 ) ħ )
K . E∨E J =
2 μ x2
2
J ( J +1 ) ħ
E J= − −− → ( 7 )
2 μ x2
Eqn. (7) represents the rotational kinetic energy of a rigid diatomic molecule, quantum
mechanically.
Special cases
When J=0, E0 =0
When J=1
2 2
2ħ ħ
E 1= 2
⇒ E 1 = 2
2µ x µx
When J =2
2
2 ( 3) ħ 3 ħ2
E 2= ⇒ E 2= 2 ⇒ E2=3 E 1
2 µ x2 µx
When J=3
2 2
3( 4)ħ 6ħ
E3 = 2
⇒ E 3 = 2
⇒ E3 =6 E1
2µ x µx
9.Discuss in detail the concept of conservation of angular momentum.(Jan 2022)
We know that, the relation between torque τ and angular momentum (L) is
dL
Torque τ=
dt
If no net external torque is acting on the body. If τ net=0, then angular momentum L of the
body will become a constant.
τ net=0
dL
=0
dt
Therefore, L is a constant.
The above equation is known as the law of conservation of angular momentum. It shows that
the angular momentum of the rigid body is constant at any instant of time t if the net torque is zero .In
other words we can say that if the net torque is zero, then the angular momentum in a rigid body will
be equal.

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If L1 and L2 to the angular momentum, then we can write

L1 = L 2
I 1 ω 1=I 2 ω 2=A constant
Therefore, for a rigid body when the moment of inertia increases, then the angular velocity
will decreases and vice –versa, if the external net torque is zero.
Illustration to explain the law of conservation of angular momentum
Let us considered one striking example as an ice dancer dancing.
(i) We can notice that the dancer spins slowly when the hands are stretched out.
(ii) We cannot is the dancer spins faster when the hands are brought close to the body.
Reason
When the hands are stretched away from body, the moment of inertia (I) increases, thus the angular
velocity (ω) decreases resulting in slower spin.
When the hands are brought close to the body, the moment of inertia (I) decreases and thus the
angular velocity (ω) increases resulting in faster spin.
10.Derive the equation for rigidity modulus of the material of a thin wire using torsion
Pendulum.
A circular metallic disc suspended using a thin wire that
executes torsional oscillation is called torsion pendulum.
Principle:
When a disc (torsion pendulum) is rotated in a horizontal
plane, the disc executes simple harmonic oscillation due to the
restoring couple produced in the wire.
Description
A torsion pendulum consists of a wire with one end fixed to a
split chuck and the other end fixed to the centre of the circular disc of
radius R as shown in fig. Let L be the distance between the chuck end
to the disc and r be the radius of the wire.
Working
The circular disc is rotated in horizontal plane so the wire is twisted through an angle θ thereby
creating a restoring couple (C) in the wire.
The total energy of torsional pendulum (T) = Potential Energy(PE) + Kinetic Energy(KE)
−− →(1)
Restoring couple (PE) through an angle
θ
θ=∫ Cθdθ − −→(2)
0
Where Cθ- moment of couple

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2
Cθ
Potential energy (PE) = −−→(3)
2
If the disk is released, it oscillates with angular velocity ' ω 'in the horizontal plane about the
axis of the wire. These oscillations are known as torsional oscillations.
The Kinetic Energy (KE) of rotating disc (deflecting Couple)
1 2
¿ Iω −− →(4)
2
Here I is the moment of inertia of the circular disc
2
Cθ 1 2
Total energyT = + Iω =constant −− →(5)
2 2
Differentiating equation (5) with respect to time t
dθ dω
Cθ + Iω =0 −−→ (6)
dt dt
2
dθ dω d θ
Tℎe angular velocity ω= ∧Angular Acceleration =
dt dt dt 2
2
dθ dθ d θ
We can write Cθ +I =0− −→(7)
dt dt dt 2

dθ
dt[Cθ+

2
dθ d θ
Here ≠ 0 Cθ+ I 2 =0 −−→( 9)
dt dt
Angular Acceleration
2
d θ Cθ
2
=− −−→(10)
dt I
The negative sign indicates that the couple tends to decrease the twist on the wire.
Period of Oscillation
We know the time period of oscillation T =2 π
√
Displacement
Acceleration

√
θ
T =2 π
Substituting from eqn. (5), we have Cθ
I
Time period of oscillation T =2 π
√ I
C
− −→(1 1)

Frequency of oscillations f =
Rigidity Modulus of the wire
1
2π √ C
I
1
Hence =f
T

If r is the radius of the wire and L is the length of the wire suspended, then we know
4
nπ r
The torque per unit twist C= −− →(12)
2L

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Substituting equation (7) in equation (6) We get

2 4 π 2 LI
T =2 π
2
√ I 2L
nπ r4
T = 4
nπ r
Rigidity Modulus of the wire
8 πIL
n= 2 4
− −→(1 3)
T r
Thus torsion pendulum is used to find the rigidity modulus for various materials.

11.Derive the expression for Lagrangian equation for double pendulum

DOUBLE PENDULUM
Double pendulum consists of two pendulums in which one pendulum is attached to the end of
the other pendulum. If the motion is small then the pendulum behaves as a simple pendulum. If the
motion is large then it behaves as a chaotic system.
Description
Let us consider a double pendulum suspended to a point 'O',
Which consist of
m1- mass of pendulum-1
m2- mass of pendulum-2
l 1 - Length of pendulum-1
l 2-Length of the pendulum-2.
If the double pendulum is made to oscillate, then both pendulum-1 and pendulum-2 will
oscillate at an angle θ1and θ2.
Displacement
Let x1(OA) and x2(OB)be the displacement of pendulum-1 and pendulum-2 respectively,
along the x-axis and Let y1 (OC) and y2 (OD) be the displacement of pendulum-1 and pendulum-2
respectively, along the negative y-axis.
¿
From figure,∆ OA m1
x1
sin θ1=
l1
x 1=¿l Sinθ −− →(1)¿
1 1

¿
From figure,∆ OC m1
− y1
cos θ 1=
l1
y 1=¿− l Cosθ −− →(2)¿
1 1

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Here, the negative sign is imposed due to negative y – direction

Since the displacement of pendulum -2 depends on pendulum -1, from fig. 1.35, we can write the
displacement of pendulum -2 along x – axis.
'
From figure, x 2=x 1+ x −−→(3)
From fig,∆ ¿ m1 B' m2
'
x
sin θ2=
l2
'
x =l 2 Sinθ 2 −− →(4 )
Substituting Equation (4) in equation (3), we get
x 2=x 1+ l 2 sin θ2 −−→(5)
Substituting Equation (1) in equation (5), we get
x 2=l 1 Sinθ 1+l 2 Sinθ 2 −−→(6)
Similarly, from fig 1.35, we can write the displacement of pendulum -2 along the y-axis.
'
y 2= y 1 + y − −→(7)
From fig 1.39 we can write
− y'
cos θ 2=
l2
'
y =−l 2 Cosθ2 − −→(8)
Substituting Equation (8) in equation (7)
y 2= y 1 −l 2 Cosθ 2 −− →(9)
Substituting Equation (2) in equation (8)
y 2=− l 1 Cosθ1 −l 2 cos θ2 − −→(10)
Equations (1), (2), (6) & (10) represent the displacement at various positions of the double
pendulum.
Velocity
Differentiating equation (1) we get,
d x1 d (l 1 Sinθ 1)
V x1= =
dt dt
dθ 1
V x1=l 1 Cosθ1
dt
dθ1
Using the relation =θ̇1
dt
V x1=l 1 Cosθ1 θ˙1 −− →(11)
Differentiating equation (2) we get
d x1 d (−l 1 Cosθ1)
V y 1= =
dt dt

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dθ 1
V y 1=l 1 Sinθ 1
dt
˙
V y 1=l 1 Sinθ 1 θ 1 −− →(12)

Differentiating equation(6) we get

d x 2 d (l 1 Sinθ 1+ l 2 Sinθ2 )
V x2= =
dt dt
dθ 1 dθ2
V x2=l1 Cosθ1 +l 2 Cosθ 2
dt dt
˙ ˙
V x2=l1 Cosθ1 θ 1+l 2 Cosθ2 θ 2 − −→(13)
Differentiating equation(10) we get
d (− l1 Cosθ1 − l 2 Cosθ2 )
V y 2=
dt
dθ 1 dθ2
V y 2=l 1 Sinθ 1 +l 2 Sinθ 2
dt dt
V y 2=l 1 Sinθ 1 θ˙1+l 2 Sinθ 2 θ̇2 − −→(14)
Equations (11), (12), (13) & (14) represent the velocity at various positions of the double pendulum.
Kinetic Energy
We know, the kinetic energy of the system is
2
1
T =∑ mi ( V 2xi + V 2yi )
i=1 2

1 1
T = m1 ( V x 1+ V y 1 ) + m2 ( V x 2+ V y 2 ) −−→(15)
2 2 2 2
2 2
Substituting equation (11), (12), (13) and (14) in equation (15)
1
T = m1 ( 𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .3 𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.3 θ 1 θ̇1 + 𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .3 𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2
Equation (16) represents the kinetic energy of the double pendulum.
Potential Energy
We know the potential energy of the system
V =m1 g y 1+¿m 2
g y 2 −−→(17)¿

Substituting equation (2) & (10) in equation (17)

V =− m1 g l 1 Cosθ1 −m2 g (l 1 Cosθ1 +l 2 cos θ2 )−− →(18)
Lagrangian
Equation (18) represents the Lagrangian equation for double pendulum
L=T – V −−→(19)
1
L= m1 ( 𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .3 cos θ1 θ̇1 + 𝐸𝑀𝐵𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 .3 sin θ 1 θ̇1 )
2 2
2
+1
m ¿
2 2
+m1 g l 1 Cosθ1+ m2 g ( l 1 Cosθ1 +l 2 cos θ2 ) −−→(20)
Equation (20) represents, the Lagrangian equation for double pendulum

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12.Write a short note on non linear oscillation.

A linear oscillator will oscillate with single frequency in 'to' and 'fro' (or) up and down motion. Its
motion will be sinusoidal and periodic in nature.
Example:
1. Oscillation of pendulum system in a watch.
2. Molecular vibration.
NON LINEAR OSCILLATIONS
A non linear oscillator will oscillate with different frequencies in the same time internal (or)
in terms of least integer fractions.
Example
1. Torsional pendulum (or) double pendulum
2. Damped oscillator.
Characteristics:
The major characteristics for non linear oscillations are as follows.
 In non linear oscillations, the period of oscillations depends on the amplitude of the
oscillations.
 For some type of non linearity, the frequency of the oscillator will change with amplitude.
 Therefore, the non linear oscillations will have multiple steady state solutions.
 Non linear oscillations will have jumping phenomena.
 The non linear oscillations will have complex (or) irregular motion.
 These oscillations will posses internal resources, i.e, different parts of the system will oscillate
at different frequencies.
Explanation:
Let us consider a non linear oscillator which oscillates with different frequencies(fn)
1
i.e., f n= − −→(1)
Tn

where, Tn is the time period.

In non linear oscillator, the time period will

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T T
be the same (or) it be the least integer fractions such as T , , etc .
2 3
T
Therefore, we can writeT n= − −→(2)
n
Where n is the integer i.e., n = 1,2,3.....
Substituting eqn(2) in eqn(1), we get
n
f n= − −→(3)
T
From equation (3) we can conclude that the frequency of the non- linear oscillatory motion is
inversely proportional to the time period.
For various values of 'n'the frequency of oscillations will change and the first four harmonics
as shown in figure.
Inference:
 We can see that at the midpoint, all the harmonics are zero.
 The even harmonics will happen for the integer number of cycles and hence it goes positive.
 The old harmonics will happen for 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 etc., Number of cycles and hence it goes
negative.
 Thus the motion of the non linear oscillator will have complex motion.
13.Explain in detail about the principle and working of Gyroscope
A Gyroscope is a device which is used to measure or maintain the angular velocity and
orientation, without changing its magnitude.
The device has a spinning wheel (or) disc mounted on a face in which the axis of rotation or
spin axis of the disc will freely move in order to maintain its orientation irrespective of the moment of
the base.
Principle
The main principle used in gyroscope is the product of angular momentum which is
experienced by the torque on the wheel or disc is used to produce gyroscopic procession in the
spinning wheel.
Here,the direction of rotation axis will continue until an external
torque act on it
Types
There are different types of gyroscope viz
Mechanical gyroscope
Optical gyroscope
Gas bearing gyroscope.
Let us discuss about the mechanical gyroscope.

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Design
The gyroscope consists of four main parts as shown in the figure 1.29
(i) Rotor (ii) Gimbals (iii) Spinning wheel
(iv) Gyroscope frame with base

In gyroscope the massive rotor is fixed on the supporting rings known as gimbals. The rotor
will have three degrees of rotation, which will be helpful to alter the following parameters.
(i). Angular velocity(𝝎) (ii). Angular Momentum (L)(iii) Torque (τ)
The above three parameters are interrelated. Here the directions of angular momentum act in
the same direction as that of the rotational axis in symmetrical bodies.
Working
Let us consider a gyroscope with its one end is connected with the pivot
Without Spinning
If there is no wheel spinning, the free ends only move to horizontal planeXY due to
gravitational force.
With Spinning
If there is wheel spinning, the free end move towards downward direction simultaneously
produces a torque and angular momentum.
Therefore, gyroscope movement steadily increases depends upon time interval in horizontal
direction based on the equation is given by
dL
∑ τ= dt
∑ τdt=dL− −−→ ( 1 )
From the equation (1) we can see that gyroscope experience a net torque and therefore angular
momentum must change.
Due to constant direction torque and angular momentum will alter its direction without
change of magnitude. As a result, the axis of rotation of wheel does not fall. Thus the gyroscope
maintainsits orientation even though base is moved to any place.

Applications
 Gyroscope are used in following areas
 Used as compasses in boats, aircrafts and aeroplanes.
 Used for spacecraft navigation to the desired target

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 Used for stabilizing ships, satellites and ballistic missiles.

 Used in gyrotheodolites for maintaining the direction in tunnel mining
 Gyroscope with accelerometers are used in smart phones for excellent motion
sensing.

Multiparticle dynamics: Center of mass (CM) – CM of continuous bodies – motion of the CM –

kinetic energy of system of particles. Rotation of rigid bodies: Rotational kinematics – rotational
kinetic energy and moment of inertia - theorems of M .I –moment of inertia of continuous bodies –
M.I of a diatomic molecule - torque – rotational dynamics of rigid bodies – conservation of angular
momentum – rotational energy state of a rigid diatomic molecule - gyroscope - torsional pendulum –
double pendulum –Introduction to nonlinear oscillations.

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