GYAN GANGA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES, JABALPUR

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

Advanced Computer Networking

(MCSE-104)

NAME:

ENROLLMENT NUMBER:

TEACHER IN
CHARGE: -
DECEMBER 2024

Index
S.no Experiment Date Signature
1 To study Computer Network Technologies
2 To study various types of Connectors.
3 Study and verification of standard Network
topologies i.e. Star, Bus, Ring.
4 Study of different type of LAN equipment’s.
5 LAN installations and their Configurations
a. Building a Peer- to – Peer Network.
b. Building a client – Server Network.
6 Addressing Basics, DHCP CLIENT & ARP
a. IP addressing basics.
b. Study of DHCP client setup.
c. Study of Workstation ARP.
7 Subnetting Basic, Subnetting Class A, Class B
& Class C Networks
a. Study of Basic Subnetting.
b. Subnetting a class A network.
c. Subnetting a class B network.
d. Subnetting a class C network.
8 Switches
a. Basic Switch Configuration.
b. Configuring Static VLANs in Packet
Tracer Network simulator.
9 To study and configure Static and Dynamic
Routing Protocols.
10 Frame Relay Protocol Configuration in
Packet Tracer Network simulator.
11 DNS server configuration in Packet Tracer
Network simulator.
12 Wireless Networking
Study & configuration of Infrastructure
Wireless Networks.

Experiment-1
Aim: To study network technologies

A network consists of two or more autonomous computers that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers
on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

Classification based on transmission technology:-

Computer networks can be broadly categorized into two types based on transmission technology:

1) Broadcast networks

2) Point to point network

Broadcast networks:-

Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the
network. All the machines on the network receive short messages, called packets in certain contexts
sent by any machine. An address field within the packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon
receiving the packet the machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for itself, the
machine processes it, and ignores it otherwise.

The system also generally allows possibility of addressing the packet to all destinations. When such a
packet is transmitted, it is received by all the machines on the network. This mode of operation is
called Broadcast mode. Some broadcast system also support transmission to a sub-set of machines.
This is called Multicasting.

Example of a broadcast network on a shared bus

Point to point network:-

In a point to point network, the end devices that wish to communicate are called stations. The
switching devices are called are called nodes. Some nodes connect to other nodes and some to
attached stations. It uses FDM or TDM for node-to-node communication. There may exist multiple
paths between source and destination for better network reliability. The switching nodes are not
concerned with the contents of data. Their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move
data from node to node until they reach the destination.

Communication based on point to point technology

Classification based on scale:-

Computer networks can be broadly categorized into three types based on scale:-

 LAN (Local Area Network)

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)

Local Area Network:-

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally
limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN computers
more than a mile apart.

In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the
software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by the computers
attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called workstations. The
workstations can be less powerful than the file server, and they may have additional software on their
hard drives. On most LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.
See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware sections of this tutorial for more information on the
configuration of a LAN.

A Basic Local Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network:-

A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of
buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high
data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used
by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities.
They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks.
 A Metropolitan Area Network

Wide Area Network:-

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as Florida, the United States, or
the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of
network.

Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of minutes,
without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers to connect local
and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a
WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.
A Wide Area Network
 Experiment -2

Aim: To study various types of connectors.

The most commonly used connectors for setting up computer networks are:-
 DB -9 (For RS-232 interface standard)
 EIA - 449
 RJ – 45
 BNC connector

DB-9:-
The DB9 (originally DE-9) connector is an analog 9-pin plug of the D-Subminiature connector family
(D-Sub or Sub-D).
The DB9 connector is mainly used for serial connections, allowing for the asynchronous transmission
of data as provided for by standard RS-232 (RS-232C).
The maximum cable length for RS-232 is 50ft, but in practice depends on baud rate, cable specific
capacitance and ambient noise. The table below contains some rules-of-thumb from experiments done
by Texas Instruments years ago.

Baud rate Maximum range / cable length

19200 50ft
9600 500ft
4800 1000ft
2400 3000ft

RJ-45:-
RJ45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. RJ45 connectors are most commonly seen
with Ethernet cables and networks.

RJ45 connectors feature eight pins to which the wire strands of a cable interface electrically. Standard
RJ-45 pinouts define the arrangement of the individual wires needed when attaching connectors to a
cable.

Several other kinds of connectors closely resemble RJ45 and can be easily confused for each other.
The RJ-11 connectors used with telephone cables, for example, are only slightly smaller (narrower)
than RJ-45 connectors.
BNC connector:-
The BNC connector (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) is a miniature quick connect/disconnect RF
connector used for coaxial cable. It features two bayonet lugs on the female connector; mating is
achieved with only a quarter turn of the coupling nut. BNCs are ideally suited for cable termination
for miniature-to-subminiature coaxial cable (e.g., RG-58, 59, to RG-179, RG-316). They are used
with radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test instruments, video signals,
and was once a popular connector for10BASE2 computer networks. BNC connectors are made to
match the characteristic impedance of cable at either 50 ohms or 75 ohms. It is usually applied for
frequencies below 3 GHz [1] and voltages below 500 Volts. Similar connectors using the bayonet
connection principle exist, and a threaded connector is also available. United States military standard
MIL-PRF-39012 entitled Connectors, Coaxial, Radio Frequency, General Specification for (formerly
MIL-C-39012) covers the general requirements and tests for radio frequency connectors used with
flexible cables and certain other types of coaxial transmission lines in military, aerospace, and
spaceflight applications.

BNC connector

The BNC was originally designed for military use and has gained wide acceptance in video and RF
applications to 2 GHz. The BNC uses a slotted outer conductor and some plastic dielectric on each
gender connector. This dielectric causes increasing losses at higher frequencies. Above 4 GHz, the
slots may radiate signals, so the connector is usable, but not necessarily stable up to about 11 GHz.
Both 50 ohm and 75 ohm versions are available.
 Experiment-3
Aim: Study and verification of standard Network topologies i.e. Bus, Star, Ring.

Bus Topology:-
In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected to a single cable. Each
computer or server is connected to the single bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both
directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended recipient. If the
machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data.
Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology
consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies.
However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the
network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If the
network cable is terminated on both ends and when without termination data transfer stop and when
cable breaks, the entire network will be down.

Bus Topology
Star topology:-
In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub with a
point-to-point connection. In Star topology every node (computer workstation or any other peripheral)
is connected to central node called hub or switch. The switch is the server and the peripherals are the
clients. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network, but
all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one central device. All traffic that traverses the
network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal repeater. The star topology is
considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the
simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub
represents a single point of failure.

Star Topology
Ring topology:-
A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels around the ring in one
direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep the signal strong as it travels. Each
device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next
device in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the ring.
When a device sends data, it must travel through each device on the ring until it reaches its
destination.

Ring Topology
Mesh Topology:-

The full mesh topology is where all nodes are connected directly to all other nodes. Although this
provides the most direct path between endpoints, in reality it doesn’t scale for anything but the
simplest architectures.
If N is the number of nodes, then N(N-1)/2 links are required to provide a full mesh.

Mesh Topology
Hybrid Topology:-
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting
network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree
network connected to a tree network is still a tree network topology. A hybrid topology is always
produced when two different basic network topologies are connected.

Hybrid Topology
 Experiment-4
Aim: To study of different type of LAN equipments.

The various equipments used in setting up a basic LAN are :-

 Network Interface Controller(Ethernet card)
 Connecting media(UTP cable)
 RJ-45 connector
 Crimping tool
 Switch/ Hub

Network Interface Controller(Ethernet Card):-

Ethernet cards are usually purchased separately from a computer, although many computers (such as
the Macintosh) now include an option for a pre-installed Ethernet card. Ethernet cards contain
connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both) (See fig. 1). If it is designed for coaxial
cable, the connection will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection.
Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair,
or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this method is used there is always an external
transceiver attached to the workstation. (See the Cabling section for more information on connectors.)
Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP cat-5):-

Category 5 cable (Cat 5) is a twisted pair cable for carrying signals. This type of cable is used
in structured cabling for computer networks such as Ethernet. The cable standard provides
performance of up to 100 MHz and is suitable for10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX (Fast Ethernet),
and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet). Cat 5 is also used to carry other signals such
as telephony and video. In some cases, multiple signals can be carried on a single cable; Cat 5 can
carry two conventional telephone lines as well as a single 100BASE-TX channel in a single cable or
two 100BASE-TX channels in a single cable.

RJ - 45 Connector:-
RJ45 is the common name for an 8P8C modular connector using 8 conductors that was also used for
both RJ48 and RJ61 registered jacks (which specify pin assignments of the wires in a telephone
cable), although "RJ45" was not originally specified as a registered jack with today's Ethernet wiring.
The "RJ45" physical connector is standardised as the IEC 60603-7 8P8C modular connector with
different "categories" of performance, with all eight conductors present but 8P8C is commonly known
as RJ45. The physical dimensions of the male and female connectors are specified in ANSI/TIA-
1096-A and ISO-8877 standards and normally wired to the T568A and T568B pinouts specified in
the TIA/EIA-568standard to be compatible with both telephone and Ethernet.

Colour sequence for attaching UTP Cat-5 to RJ-45 connector straight through
Network Switch:-
A network switch is a computer networking device that links network segments or network devices.
The term commonly refers to a multi-port network bridge that processes and routes data at the data
link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network
layer (layer 3) and above are often called layer-3 switches or multilayer switches.

A switch is a telecommunication device which receives a message from any device connected to it
and then transmits the message only to the device for which the message was meant. This makes the
switch a more intelligent device than a hub (which receives a message and then transmits it to all the
other devices on its network). The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local
area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small
office/home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged
device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such
as DSL or cable Internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains a router and components
that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a
telephone interface for VoIP.
Remote Desktop Access:-

A Host over a peer to peer network can be accessed remotely from other hosts from the network. The
host to be accessed should have the remote desktop feature enabled.
To enable remote desktop feature in Windows XP, go to :-
My Computer→Properties→Remote

Once the remote desktop feature has been enabled, the host can be accessed by typing its IP address
in the run prompt of any other host in the network.
After typing the address, hit enter and the windows logon pop up of the host computer will occur.
Type in the username and password, and the desktop of the host will appear on your machine.

IP Address:-
IP addresses are 32 bit numbers, most commonly represented in dotted decimal notation
(xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx). Each decimal number represents eight bits of binary data, and therefore can have a
decimal value between 0 and 255. IP addresses most commonly come as class A, B, or C. It's the
value of the first number of the IP address that determines the class to which a given IP address
belongs. Class D addresses are used for multi-cast applications.

The range of values for these classes is given below.

Class Range Allocation
A 1-126 N.H.H.H
B 128-191 N.N.H.H
C 192-223 N.N.N.H
D 224-239 Reserved for multicasting
E 240-255 Reserved for future use

N=Network
H=Host

 127.0.0.0 is a class A network, but is reserved for use as a loopback address (typically
127.0.0.1).

 The 0.0.0.0 network is reserved for use as the default route.

The class of an address defines which portion of the address identifies the Network number and which
portion identifies the Host, as illustrated above, as N and H.

IP addresses are used to deliver packets of data across a network and have what is termed end-to-end
significance. This means that the source and destination IP address remains constant as the packet
traverses a network. Each time a packet travels, it can match the network number of the destination IP
address.

The IP address of a computer can be determined by using the ipconfig command at the command
prompt.
The ipconfig –a command can be used to view the detailed information.
Subnet mask:-

Subnet masks are essential tools in network design, but can make things more difficult to understand.
Subnet masks are used to split a network into a collection of smaller subnetworks. This may be done
to reduce network traffic on each subnetwork, or to make the internetwork more manageable as a
whole. To all intents and purposes, each subnetwork functions as if it were an independent network, as
far as entries in the routing table are concerned.

The illustration below shows how a routing table looks when subnet masks are used on a network.

Interface configuration for router 1

Interface IP Address Subnet mask

E0 150.4.2.1 255.255.255.0
E1 150.4.3.1 255.255.255.0
E2 150.4.1.1 255.255.255.0

How the subnet mask works:

Communication between a node on a local subnetwork and a node on a different subnetwork is like
communication between nodes on two different networks. To a user, routing between subnetworks is
transparent. Internally, however, the IP software recognizes any IP addresses that are destined for a
subnetwork and sends those packets to the gateway for that subnetwork.

When subnet masks are used, an IP address is interpreted as follows:

[IP address] = [Network address][Subnetwork address][Host address]

This shows that when a network is divided into subnetworks, the host address portion of the IP
address is divided into two parts, the subnetwork address and the host address.

For example, if a network has the Class B IP network address portion 129.47, the remainder of the IP
address can be divided into subnetwork addresses and host addresses. This division is controlled by
the network administrator to allow the most flexibility for network development at the site.
A subnet mask is the mechanism that defines how the host portion of the IP address is divided into
subnetwork addresses and local host address portions. The subnet mask is a 32-bit, (four byte)
number, just as an IP address is.

The subnet mask of the computer is displayed with the IP address.

 Experiment-5

Aim: LAN installations and their Configurations.

a. Building a Peer-to-Peer Network

Objective

 Create a simple peer-to-peer network between two PCs

 Identify the proper cable to connect the two PCs
 Configure workstation IP address information
 Test connectivity using the ping command.

Background / Preparation

This lab focuses on the ability to connect two PCs to create a simple peer-to-peer Ethernet LAN between two
workstations. The workstations will be directly connected to each other without using a hub or switch. In addition
to the Layer 1 physical and Layer 2 data link connections, the computers must also be configured with the
correct IP network settings, which is Layer 3, so that they can communicate. A basic CAT 5/5e UTP crossover
cable is all that is needed. A crossover cable is the same type that would be used as backbone or vertical
cabling to connect switches together. Connecting the PCs in this manner can be very useful for transferring files
at high speed and for troubleshooting interconnecting devices between PCs. If the two PCs can be connected
with a single cable and are able to communicate, then any networking problems are not with the PCs
themselves. Start this lab with the equipment turned off and with cabling disconnected. Work in teams of two
with one person per PC. The following resources will be required:

 Two workstations with an Ethernet 10/100 NIC installed

 Several Ethernet cables, which are both straight-through and crossover, to choose from for connecting the
two workstations
Step 1 Identify the proper Ethernet cable and connect the two PCs

a) The connection between the two PCs will be accomplished using a Category 5 or 5e crossover cable.
Locate a cable that is long enough to reach from one PC to the other, and attach one endto the NIC in each
of the PCs. Be sure to examine the cable ends carefully and select only a crossover cable.
b) What kind of cable is required to connect from NIC to NIC?
c) What is the category rating of the cable?
d) What is the AWG wire size designation of the cable?

Step 2 Verify the physical connection

a) Plug in and turn on the computers. To verify the computer connections, insure that the link lights
on both NICs are lit. Are both link lights lit?

Step 3 Access the IP settings window

Note: Be sure to write down the existing IP settings, so that they can be restored at the end of the lab. These
include IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS servers. If the workstation is a DHCP client, it is not
necessary to record this information.

W indows 95 / 98 / Me/ users should do the following:

 Click on Start > Settings > Control Panel and then click the Network icon.
 Select the TCP/IP protocol icon that is associated with the NIC in this PC and click on

Properties.

 Click on the IP Address tab and the Gateway tab. W indows NT / 2000 users should do the following:
 Click on Start > Settings > Control Panel and then open the Network and Dial-up Connections
folder.
 Click ad open the Local Area Connection icon.
 Select the TCP/IP protocol icon that is associated with the NIC in this PC.
 Click on Properties and click on Use the following IP address.

W indows XP users should do the following:

 Click on Start > Settings > Control Panel and then click the Network Connection icon.
 Select the Local Area Network Connection and click on Change settings of this connection.
 Select the TCP/IP protocol icon that is associated with the NIC in this PC.
 Click on Properties and click on Use the following IP address.

See the example below:

Step 4 Configure TCP/IP settings for the two PCs

a. Set the IP address information for each PC according to the information in the table.

b. Note that the default gateway IP address is not required, since these computers are directly
connected. The default gateway is only required on local area networks that are connected to a router.

Computer IP Address Subnet mask Default Gateway

Step 5 Access the Command or MS-DOS prompt

a. Use the Start menu to open the Command Prompt (MS-DOS-like) window:
W indows 95 / 98 / Me users should do the following:

Start > Programs > MS-DOS Prompt

W indows NT / 2000 users should do the following:

Start > Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt

W indows XP users should do the following:

Start > Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt

Step 6 Verify that the PCs can communicate

a. Test connectivity from one PC to the other by pinging the IP address of the opposite computer.
Use the following command at the command prompt.

C:>ping 192.168.1.1 (or 192.168.1.2)

b. Look for results similar to those shown below. If not, check the PC connections and TCP/IP

settings for both PCs. What was the ping result?

Step 7 Confirm the TCP/IP network settings

W indows 95 / 98 / Me users should do the following:

a. Type the winipcfg command from the MS-DOS Prompt. Record the results:

W indows NT / 2000 / XP users should do the following:

b. Type the ipconfig command from the Command Prompt. Record the results:

Step 8 Restore the PCs to their original IP settings, disconnect the equipment, and store the

cables
b.Building a Switch-based Network

Objective

 Create a simple network with two PCs using a switch

 Identify the proper cable to connect the PCs to the switch

 Configure workstation IP address information

 Test connectivity using the ping command

Background / Preparation

This lab focuses on the ability to connect two PCs to create a simple switch-based Ethernet LAN using two
workstations. A switch is a networking concentration device sometimes referred to as a multiport bridge.
Switches are relatively inexpensive and easy to install. When operating in full- duplex mode, they provide
dedicated bandwidth to workstations. Switches eliminate collisions by creating microsegments between ports
to which the two workstations are attached. They are appropriate for small to large LANs with moderate to
heavy traffic.In addition to the physical and data link connections, which are Layers 1 and 2, the computers
must also be configured with the correct IP network settings, which is Layer 3, so that they can communicate.
Since this lab uses a switch, a basic Category 5/5e UTP straight-through cable is needed to connect each PC
to the switch. This is referred to as a patch cable or horizontal cabling, which is used to connect workstations
and a typical LAN. Start this lab with the equipment turned off and with cabling disconnected. Work in teams
of two with one person per PC. The following resources will be required:
  Two workstations with an Ethernet 10/100 NIC installed.
 Ethernet 10BaseT or Fast Ethernet switch.
 Several Ethernet cables, which are straight-through and crossover, to choose from for connecting the
two workstations

Step 1 Identify the proper Ethernet cable and connect the two PCs to the switch

a. The connection between the two PCs and the switch will be accomplished using a Category 5 or
5e straight-through patch cable. Locate two cables that are long enough to reach from each PC to
the switch. Attach one end to the NIC and the other end to a port on the switch. Be sure to
examine the cable ends carefully and select only a straight-through cable.

b. What kind of cable is required to connect from NIC to switch?

c. What is the category rating of the cable?

d. What is the AWG wire size designation of the cable?

Step 2 Verify the physical connection

Plug in and turn on the computers. To verify the computer connections, insure that the link lights

on the both PC NICs and the switch interfaces are lit. Are all link lights lit?

Step 3 Access the IP settings window

Note: Be sure to write down the existing IP settings, so that they can be restored at the end of the lab. These
include IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS servers. If the workstation is a DHCP client, it is not
necessary to record this information.

W indows 95 / 98 / Me/ users should do the following:

 Click on Start > Settings > Control Panel and then click the Network icon.
 Select the TCP/IP protocol icon that is associated with the NIC in this PC and click on Properties
 Click on the IP Address tab and the Gateway tab.

W indows NT / 2000 users should do the following:

 Click on Start > Settings > Control Panel and then open the Network and Dial-up Connections
 Click and open the Local Area Connection icon
 Select the TCP/IP protocol icon that is associated with the NIC in this PC.
 Click on Properties and click on Use the following IP address.

W indows XP users should do the following:

 Click on Start > Settings > Control Panel and then click the Network Connection icon.
 Select the Local Area Network Connection and click on Change settings of this connection.
 Select the TCP/IP protocol icon that is associated with the NIC on this PC.
 Click on Properties and click on Use the following IP address. See the example below:
Step 4 Configure TCP/IP settings for the two PCs

e. Set the IP address information for each PC according to the information in the table.

f. Note that the default gateway IP address is not required, since these computers are
directly connected. The default gateway is only required on local area networks that are connected to a router.

Computer IP Address Subnet mask Default Gateway

PC – A 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0 Not Required

Step 5 Access the Command or MS-DOS prompt

c. Use the Start menu to open the Command Prompt (MS-DOS-like) window:
W indows 95 / 98 / Me users should do the following:

Start > Programs > MS-DOS Prompt

W indows NT / 2000 users should do the following:

Start > Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt

W indows XP users should do the following:

Start > Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt

Step 6 Verify that the PCs can communicate

e. Test connectivity from one PC to the other through the switch by pinging the IP address of the
opposite computer. Use the following command at the command prompt.

C:>ping 192.168.1.1 (or 192.168.1.2)

f. Look for results similar to those shown below. If not, check the PC connections and TCP/IP

settings for both PCs. What was the ping result?

 Step 7 Confirm the TCP/IP network settings

W indows 95 / 98 / Me users should do the following:

c. Type the winipcfg command from the MS-DOS Prompt. Record the results.

W indows NT / 2000 / XP users should do the following:

d. Type the ipconfig command from the Command Prompt. Record the results.

Step 8 Restore the PCs to their original IP settings, disconnect the equipment, and store the
cables
 Experiment-6

Aim: Addressing Basics, DHCP CLIENT & ARP.

a. IP Addressing Basics

Objective

 Name the five different classes of IP addresses

 Describe the characteristics and use of the different IP address class

 Identify the class of an IP address based on the network number

 Determine which part, or octet, of an IP address is the network ID and which part is the host ID

 Identify valid and invalid IP host addresses based on the rules of IP addressing

 Define the range of addresses and default subnet mask for each class

Background / Preparation

This lab exercise helps develop an understanding of IP addresses and how TCP/IP networks operate.
It is primarily a written lab exercise. However, it would be worthwhile to review some real network IP
addresses using the command line utilities ipconfig for Windows NT/2000/XP or winipcfg for
Windows 9x/ME. IP addresses are used to uniquely identify individual TCP/IP networks and hosts,
such as computers and printers, on those networks in order for devices to communicate. Workstations
and servers on a TCP/IP network are called hosts and each has a unique IP address. This address is
referred to as its host address. TCP/IP is the most widely used protocol in the world. The Internet or
World Wide Web only uses IP addressing. In order for a host to access the Internet, it must have an IP
address.

In its basic form, the IP address has two parts:

 A network address

 A host address

The network portion of the IP address is assigned to a company or organization by the Internet
Network Information Center (InterNIC). Routers use the IP address to move data packets between
networks. IP addresses are 32 bits long according to the current version IPv4 and are divided into 4
octets of 8 bits each. They operate at the network layer (Layer 3) of the Open System

Interconnection (OSI) model, which is the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model. IP addresses are
assigned in the following ways:

 Statically – manually, by a network administrator

 Dynamically – automatically, by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server

 The IP address of a workstation, or host is a logical address, meaning it can be changed. The Media
Access Control (MAC) address of the workstation is a 48-bit physical address. This address is burned
into the network interface card (NIC) and cannot change unless the NIC is replaced. The combination
of the logical IP address and the physical MAC address helps route packets to their proper destination
resources are required:

 PC workstation with Windows 9x/NT/2000/XP installed

 Access to the Windows Calculator

Step 1: Review IP address classes and their characteristics

Address classes

There are five classes of IP addresses, A through E. Only the first three classes are used
commercially. A Class A network address is discussed in the table to get started. The first column is
the class of IP address. The second column is the first octet, which must fall within the range shown
for a given class of addresses. The Class A address must start with a number between 1 and 126. The
first bit of a Class A address is always a zero, meaning the High Order Bit (HOB) or the 128 bit cannot
be used. 127 is reserved for loopback testing. The first octet alone defines the network ID for

a Class A network address.

Default subnet mask

The default subnet mask uses all binary ones, decimal 255, to mask the first 8 bits of the Class A
address. The default subnet mask helps routers and hosts determine if the destination host is on this
network or another one. Because there are only 126 Class A networks, the remaining 24 bits, or 3
24
octets, can be used for hosts. Each Class A network can have 2 , or over 16 million hosts. It is

common to subdivide the network into smaller groupings called subnets by using a custom subnet
mask, which is discussed in the next lab.

Network and host address

The network or host portion of the address cannot be all ones or all zeros. As an example, the Class A
address of 118.0.0.5 is a valid IP address. The network portion, or first 8 bits, which are equal to 118,
is not all zeros and the host portion, or last 24 bits, is not all zeros or all ones. If the host portion were
all zeros, it would be the network address itself. If the host portion were all ones, it would be a
broadcast for the network address. The value of any octet can never be greater than decimal 255 or
binary 11111111.
 st st
1 Octet 1 Octet
Class Decimal High Order Network/Host ID Default Number of Hosts per
Range Bits
(N=Network, Subnet Mask Networks Network
H=Host)
7
126 (2 – 2)
A 1 – 126 * 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 16,777,214

B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382 65,534

8
254 (2 – 2)
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150

D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting

Note: Class A address 127 cannot be used and is reserved for loop back and diagnostic

functions.

Step 2: Determine basic IP addressing

Use the IP address chart and your knowledge of IP address classes to answer the
following questions:

1. What is the decimal and binary range of the first octet of all possible Class B IP addresses?

Decimal: From: To:

Binary: From: To:

2. Which octet(s) represent the network portion of a Class C IP address?

3. Which octet(s) represent the host portion of a Class A IP address?

4. What is the maximum number of useable hosts with a Class C network address?

5. How many Class B networks are there?

6. How many hosts can each Class B network have?

7. How many octets are there in an IP address? How many bits per octet?
 Step 3: Determine the host and network portions of the IP address
With the following IP host addresses, indicate the following:

 Class of each address

 Network address or ID

 Host portion

 Broadcast address for this network

 Default subnet mask

The host portion will be all zeros for the network ID. Enter just the octets that make up the host.
The host portion will be all ones for a broadcast. The network portion of the address will be all
ones for

the subnet mask. Fill in the following table:

Host IP Address Address Network Host Network Broadcast Default Subnet

216.14.55.137

194.125.35.199

Step 4: Given an IP address of 142.226.0.15 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, answer

the following questions:

1.What is the binary equivalent of the second octet?

2. What is the class of the address?

3. What is the network address of this IP address?

4. Is this a valid IP host address (Y/N)?

5. Why or why not?

 Step 5: Determine which IP host addresses are valid for commercial networks

For the following IP host addresses, determine which are valid for commercial networks and
indicate why or why not. Valid means it could be assigned to any of the following:

 Workstation

 Server

 Printer

 Router interface

 Any other compatible device

Fill in the following table:

IP Host Address Valid Address? Why or Why Not

150.100.255.255

195.234.253.0

100.0.0.23

188.258.221.176

b. Study Of DHCP Client Setup

Objective

The purpose of this lab is to introduce Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and the process for setting
up a network computer as a DHCP client to use DHCP services.

Background / Preparation

DHCP provides a mechanism for dynamically assigning IP addresses and other information. A DHCP server
device located on the LAN or at the ISP can respond to a host request and furnish all of the following required
information:
  IP address
 Subnet mask
 Default gateway
 Domain Name System (DNS) serverOther resource addresses

Without DHCP all of the above information would have to be manually configured on each host
individually. The DHCP device is typically a network server. In small networks, DHCP services can be
provided by a small router. This includes many home networks with DSL, cable, or wireless connections.
Cisco and many other manufacturers offer small routers that include the following features:

 An Internet or WAN connection

 A small built-in hub or switch

A DHCP server service

This lab will focus on setting up a computer to use the DHCP services provided.This lab assumes the PC is
running any version of Windows. Ideally, this lab will be done in a classroom or other LAN connected to the
Internet. It can also be done from a single remote connection via a modem or DSL-type connection.

Note: If the network that the computer is connected to is using static addressing, follow the lab and view the
various screens. Do not try to change settings on these machines. The static settings will be lost and would
require reconfiguration.

Step 1 Establish a network connection

If the connection to the Internet is dialup, connect to the ISP to ensure that the computer has an IP
address. In a TCP/IP LAN with a DHCP server it should not be necessary to do this step.

Step 2 Access a command prompt

Windows NT, 2000, and XP users will use the Start menu to open the Command Prompt window.
The Command Prompt window is like the MS-DOS Prompt window for other Windows versions:

Start > Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt or Start > Programs > Command Prompt

To open the MS-DOS Prompt window, Windows 95, 98, and ME users will use the Start menu:

Start > Programs > Accessories > MS-DOS Prompt or Start > Programs > MS-DOS Prompt

Step 3 Display IP settings to determine if the network is using DHCP

Windows 95/98/ME users:

Type winipcfg and press Enter, then click the More Info button.

The example below indicates that DHCP is in fact being used by the entries in the following boxes:

 DHCP Server IP address

 Lease Obtained
 Lease Expires

These entries would be blank in a statically configured device. DHCP also supplied the DHCP and
WINS server addresses. The missing default gateway indicates a proxy server.
Windows NT / 2000 / XP users:

Type ipconfig/all and press Enter.

The following Windows NT, 2000, and XP example indicates that DHCP is in fact being used by the
DHCP enabled entry. The entries for the DHCP Server, Lease Obtained, and Lease Expires confirm
this fact. These last three entries would not exist in a statically configured device and DHCP enabled
would say No.

1. Is DHCP running on the network?

2. Ask the instructor or lab assistant for help if it is hard to tell whether or not the DHCP is
actually running.
 3. Ask the instructor or lab assistant for help if it is hard to tell whether or not the DHCP is
actually running.

What is the length of the DHCP lease?

DHCP servers provide IP addresses for a limited time, usually several days. However, the actual length of
time can be configured by the network administrator. If a lease expires, the IP address is returned to the pool
to be used by others. This allows DHCP to recapture inactive IP addresses without humans having to update
the records. An organization that lacks enough IP addresses for every user may use very short lease
durations, so that they are reused even during brief periods of inactivity.

When a computer stays connected to the network and remains powered on, it will automatically request
that the lease be extended. This helps a computer avoid an expired lease as long as it is used regularly.

Sometimes a computer is moved from one network to another where the network portion of the IP address is
different. When this happens, the computer may still retain its settings from the old network and be unable to
connect to the new network. One solution is to release and renew the lease. Statically configured computers
can do this, but there will be no change. Computers connected directly to an ISP may lose connection and
have to replace their call, but no permanent changes will occur. Follow these steps to release and renew the
DHCP lease:

Windows NT/2000/XP users:

Type ipconfig/release and press Enter. Look over the results and then type ipconfig/renew.

Since the machine did not actually change locations as described above, the same settings as before will
probably appear. If the machine had been moved as described above, a new settings would appear.

Windows 95/98/ME users:

Click on the Release All button. Look over the results and then click on the Renew All button. Since the
machine did not actually change locations as described above, the same settings as before will probably
appear. If the machine had been moved as described above, new settings would appear.

Step 4 Accessing the network configuration window

On the desktop, right click on the Network Neighborhood or My Network Places icon and choose
.If neither icon on the machine, try using the Start button:

Start > Settings > Control Panel

Then double click on the Network icon. Some users will see a screen like the Network properties box shown
below:
Different versions of Windows will have slightly different tabs and the current configuration of the computer will
determine the items included in the Network Components box. However, the box should still look similar to the
one above. Most Windows 95, 98, and ME systems should see the Network Properties at this point. So, if a
Network window similar to the one above is shown, skip to the next numbered step. Windows 2000 and XP
users need to do two more things. In the window, double-click on Local Area Connection. When the Local
Area Connection Status window appears, click on the Properties button. That will bring up a Local Area
Connection Properties similar to the one shown in the next step.
In the network properties window scroll through the listed components and find a listing for TCP/IP. If there is
more than one listing, find the one for the current network connection, such as NIC or modem. In Windows 2000
and XP it will look like the following:

Select the appropriate TCP/IP entry and click on the Properties button or double-click directly on the TCP/IP
entry. The screen that will appear next depends again on the version of Windows being used, but the process
and concepts are the same. The screen below should look very similar to what Windows 2000 and XP users are
seeing. First thing that should be noted on the example computer is that it is configured for Static addressing.
 Step 5 Enable DHCP
To enable DHCP, select Obtain an IP address automatically and typically select Obtain DNS server address
automatically. The various settings will blank out as these options are selected. If the computer had Static
addressing and it needs to be restored, click on the Cancel button. To keep the changed settings, click OK.
Older versions of Windows have multiple tabs and require selecting Obtain an IP address automatically on
this tab and then going to the DNS Configuration tab to select Obtain DNS server address automatically. If
this computer was really being converted from static to DHCP, any entries in the Gateway and WINS
Configuration tabs would need to be removed. If the computer had Static addressing and it needs to be
restored, click on the Cancel button. To keep these settings click OK.
Older versions of Windows will say that it is necessary to restart the computer. Windows 2000 and XP typically
do not require a restart. Windows 95 might even ask for the installation CD-ROM to complete the process. If the
computer was really being changed over to DHCP, Step 3 would be repeated to confirm the valid set of
configurations.

Reflection

Why might a network administrator prefer that various network profiles be used to hide the above options and
screens, thereby preventing users from making any changes?

As a network administrator what would be some of the potential benefits of using a DHCP server within a
network?

Note: Many small routers that are supplied for cable, DSL, or ISDN connections have DHCP configured by
default. This allows additional computers to share the network connection through the use of a hub or switch.
Each computer would need to be configured like in the lab. Typically, DHCP will assign addresses using one of
the private networks, such as192.168.1.0, that are set-aside for this purpose. While it is common to allow these
settings to be changed, read and understand the instruction manual first. Learn where the Reset

Defaults button is located.

C. Study of Workstation ARP

Objective

 Introduce Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and the arp –a workstation command.

 Explore the arp command help feature using the -? option.

Background / Preparation

ARP is used as a tool for confirming that a computer is successfully resolving network Layer 3 addresses to
Media Access Control (MAC) Layer 2 addresses. The TCP/IP network protocol relies on IP addresses like
192.168.14.211 to identify individual devices and to assist in navigating data packets between networks. While
the IP address is essential to move data from one LAN to another, it cannot deliver the data in the destination
LAN by itself. Local network protocols, like Ethernet or Token Ring, use the MAC, or Layer 2, address to identify
local devices and deliver all data. A computer MAC address has been seen in prior labs.

This is an example of a MAC address:

 00-02-A5-9A-63-5C

A MAC address is a 48-bit address displayed in Hexadecimal (HEX) format as six sets of two HEX characters
separated by dashes. In this format each hex symbol represents 4 bits. With some devices, the 12 hex
characters may be displayed as three sets of four characters separated by periods or colons
(0002.A59A.635C). ARP maintains a table in the computer of IP and MAC address combinations. In other
words, it keeps track of which MAC address is associated with an IP address. If ARP does not know the MAC
address of a local device, it issues a broadcast using the IP address. This broadcast searches for the MAC
address that corresponds to the IP address. If the IP address is active on the LAN, it will send a reply from
which ARP will extract the MAC address. ARP will then add the address combination to the local ARP table of
the requesting computer. MAC addresses and therefore ARP are only used within the LAN. When a computer
prepares a packet for transmission, it checks the destination IP address to see if it is part of the local network.
It does this by checking to see if the network portion of the IP address is the same as the local network. If it is,
the ARP process is consulted to get the MAC address of the destination device using the IP address. The
MAC address is then applied to the data packet and used for delivery. If the destination IP address is not local,
the computer will need the MAC address of the default gateway. The default gateway is the router interface
that the local network is connected to in order to provide connectivity with other networks. The gateway MAC
address is used because the packet will be delivered there and the router will then forward it to the network it
is intended for.
 If the computer does not receive any packets from an IP address after a few minutes, it will

MAC/IP entry from the ARP table assuming the device has logged off. Later attempts to access that IP
address will cause ARP to do another broadcast and update the table. This lab assumes the use of
any version of Windows. This is a non-destructive lab and can be performed with a home machine
without concern of changing the system configuration. Ideally, this lab will be done in a classroom or
other LAN connected to the Internet. It can be done from a single remote connection via a modem or
DSL-type connection.

Step 1 Establish a network connection

If the connection to the Internet is dial-up, connect to the ISP to ensure that the computer has an IP
address. In a TCP/IP LAN with a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server it should not be
necessary to do this step.

Step 2 Access a command prompt

Windows NT / 2000 / XP users:

Use the Start menu to open the Command Prompt window. This window is similar to the MS-DOS
window on older Windows versions:

Start > Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt or Start > Programs > Command Prompt

Windows 95 / 98 / ME users:

Use the Start menu to open the MS-DOS Prompt window:

Start > Programs > Accessories > MS-DOS Prompt or Start > Programs > MS-DOS Prompt

Step 3 Display the ARP table

a) In the window type arp -a and press Enter. Do not be surprised if there are no entries. The
message displayed will probably be, ‘No ARP Entries Found’. Windows computers remove any
addresses that are unused after a couple minutes
b) Try pinging a couple local addresses and a website URL. Then re-run the command. The figure
below shows a possible result of the arp -a command. The MAC address for the website will be
listed because it is not local, but that will cause the default gateway to be listed. In the example below
10.36.13.1 is the default gateway while the 10.36.13.92 and 10.36.13.101 are other network
computers. Notice that for each IP address there is a physical address, or MAC, and type, indicating
how the address was learned.
c) From the figure below, it might be logically concluded that the network is 10.36.13.0 and the host
computers are represented by 22, 1, 92,
Step 4 Ping several URLs

a. Ping the following URLs and note the IP address of each. Also select one additional URL to ping
and record it below:

www.cisco.com:

www.msn.de:

b. Now run the arp –a command again and record the MAC addresses for each of the above next
to their IP addresses. Can it be done?

c. Why or why not?

d. What MAC address was used in delivering each of the pings to the URLs?

Why?

Step 4 Use the ARP help feature

Try the command arp -? to see the help feature and look over the options.

The purpose of this step is not so much the ARP command options but to demonstrate using the to
access help, if available. Help is not always implemented uniformly. Some commands use instead of
-?.
Step 5 Use help with tracert and ping

Try tracert -? and then ping -? to see the options available for the commands used previously.

In looking at the help for ping, notice the –t option, which will send continuous pings, not just four.
More importantly, notice the two commands to stop it:

 Control-Break

 Control-C

These two-key commands are common for stopping runaway activities. Try pinging a neighboring
computer with the -t option and then try the Control-Break and Control-C features. An example in the
above network would be ping 10.36.13.101 -t and then press Enter.

Be sure to use the Control-C command to stop the pings.

Reflection

Based on observations made today, what could be deduced about the following results?

Computer 1

IP Address: 192.168.12.113

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Default Gateway: 192.168.12.1

Pings and tracert to 207.46.28.116 were both successful.

What will be the ARP table entry associated with this address and why?

EXPERIMENT-7
Aim: Subnetting Basic, Subnetting Class A, Class B & Class C Networks

a. Study of Basic Subnetting

Objective

 How to identify reasons to use a subnet mask

 How to distinguish between a default subnet mask and a custom subnet mask

 What given requirements determine the subnet mask, number of subnets, and hosts per subnet

 What needs to be understood about useable subnets and useable numbers of hosts

 How to use the ANDing process to determine if a destination IP address is local or remote

 How to identify valid and invalid IP host addresses based on a network number and subnet mask

Background / Preparation

This lab exercise focuses on the basics of IP subnet masks and their use with TCP/IP networks. The
subnet mask can be used to split up an existing network into subnetworks, or subnets. Some of the
primary reasons for subnetting are the following:

 Reduce the size of the broadcast domains, which creates smaller networks with less traffic

 Allow LANs in different geographical locations to communicate through routers

 Provide improved security by separating one LAN from another

Routers separate subnets, and determine when a packet can go from one subnet to another. Each
router a packet goes through is considered a hop. Subnet masks help workstations, servers, and
routers in an IP network determine if the destination host for the packet they want to send is on their
own network or another network. This lab reviews the default subnet mask and then focuses on
custom subnet masks. Custom subnet masks use more bits than the default subnet masks by
borrowing these bits from the host portion of the IP address. This creates a three-part address:

 The original network address

 The subnet address made up of the bits borrowed

 The host address made up of the bits left after borrowing some for subnets

Step 1 Review the structure of IP addresses

If an organization has a Class A IP network address, the first octet, or 8 bits, is assigned and does not change.
The organization can use the remaining 24 bits to define up to 16,777,214 hosts on its network. This is a lot of
hosts. It is not possible to put all of these hosts on one physical network without separating them with routers
and subnets.

It is common for a workstation to be on one network or subnet and a server to be on another. When the
workstation needs to retrieve a file from the server it will need to use its subnet mask to

determine the network or subnet that the server is on. The purpose of a subnet mask is to help hosts and
routers determine the network location where a destination host can be found. Refer to the table below to
review the following information:

 The IP address classes

 The default subnet masks

 The number of networks that can be created with each class of network address

 The number of hosts that can be created with each class of network address

st st Hosts per
1 Octet 1 Octet
Address Decimal Network/Host ID Default Number Network
High Order
Range of (Usable
Bits
Class (N=Network, Subnet Mask Networks Addresses)
H=Host)

A 1 – 126 * 0 N.H.H.H 7
126 (2 –2)
255.0.0.0 16,777,214
B 128 – 191 N.N.H.H
10 255.255.0.0 16,382 65,534
C 192 – 223 N.N.N.H 8
254 (2 – 2)
110 255.255.255.0 2,097,150
D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting

E 240 – 254 11110 Experimental; used for research

* Class A address 127 cannot be used and is reserved for loopback and diagnostic functions.

Step 2 Review the ANDing process

Hosts and routers use the ANDing process to determine if a destination host is on the same network or not. The
ANDing process is done each time a host wants to send a packet to another host on an IP network. In order to
connect to a server, the IP address of the server or the host name, such as, http://www.cisco.com, must be
known. If the host name is used a Domain Name Server (DNS) will convert it to an IP address. First, the source
host will compare, or AND, its own IP address to its own subnet mask. The result of the ANDing is to identify the
network where the source host resides. It will then compare the destination IP address to its own subnet mask.
nd
The result of the 2 ANDing will be the network that the destination host is on. If the source network address
and the destination network address are the same, they can communicate directly. If the results are different,
they are on different networks or subnets. If this is the case, the source host and the destination host will need
to communicate through routers or might not be able to communicate at all. ANDing depends on the subnet
mask. Subnet masks are always all ones. A default subnet mask for a Class C network is 255.255.255.0 or
11111111.111111111.111111111.00000000. This is compared to the source IP address bit for bit. The first bit
of the IP address is compared to the first bit of the subnet mask, the second bit to the second, and so on. If the
two bits are both ones, the ANDing result is a one. If the two bits are a zero and a one, or two zeros, the ANDing
result is a zero. Basically, this means that a combination of 2 ones results in a one, anything else is a zero. The
result of the ANDing process is the identification of the network or subnet number that the source or destination
address is on.

Step 3 Two Class C networks using the default subnet mask

This example shows how a Class C default subnet mask can be used to determine which network a host is on.
A default subnet mask does not break an address into subnets. If the default subnet mask is used, the network
is not being subnetted. Host X, the source on network 200.1.1.0 has an IP address of 200.1.1.5. It wants to send
a packet to Host Z, the destination on network 200.1.2.0 and has an IP address of 200.1.2.8. All hosts on each
network are connected to hubs or switches and then to a router. Remember that with a Class C network
address, the first 3 octets, or 24 bits, are assigned as the network address. So, these are two different Class C
networks. This leaves one octet, or 8 bits for hosts, so each Class C network could have up to 254 hosts:
8
 2 = 256 – 2 = 254

Source net: 200.1.1.0 Destination net: 200.1.2.0

Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0 Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0

Router
Host Hub Hub Host

Host IP 200.1.1.5 Host 200.1.2.8

Router interface Router interface

IP 200.1.1.1 IP 200.1.2.1

The ANDing process helps the packet get from Host 200.1.1.5 on network 200.1.1.0 to Host 200.1.2.8 on
network 200.1.2.0 by using the following steps:

1. Host X compares its own IP address to its own subnet mask using the ANDing process.

Host X IP address 200.1.1.5 11001000.00000001.00000001.00000101

Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

ANDing Result (200.1.1.0) 11001000.00000001.00000001.00000000

Note: The result of the ANDing process is the network address of Host X, which is 200.1.1.0.

2. Next, Host X compares the IP address of the Host Z destination to its own subnet mask using the
ANDing process.

Host Z IP address 200.1.2.8 11001000.00000001.00000010.00001000

 Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

ANDing Result (200.1.2.0) 11001000.00000001.00000010.00000000

Note: The result of the ANDing process is the network address of Host Z, which is 200.1.2.0. Host X
compares the ANDing results from Step 1 and the ANDing results from Step 2, and notes they are different.
Host X now knows that Host Z is not in its local-area network (LAN). Therefore, it must send the packet to its
default gateway, which is the IP address of the router interface of 200.1.1.1 on network 200.1.1.0. The router
then repeats the ANDing process to determine which router interface to send the packet out to.

Step 4 One Class C network with subnets using a custom subnet mask

This example uses a single Class C network address (200.1.1.0) and shows how a Class C custom subnet
mask can be used to determine which subnetwork (or subnet) a host is on and to rout packets from one
subnetwork to another. Remember that with a Class C network address, the first 3 octets, or 24 bits are
assigned as the network address. This leaves one octet, or 8 bits, for hosts. So, each Class C network
could have up to 254 hosts:
8
 2 = 256 – 2 = 254

Perhaps less than 254 hosts, workstations and servers combined, are desired on one network. This could be for
security reasons or to reduce traffic. It can be done by creating two subnetworks and separating them with a
router. This will create smaller independent broadcast domains and can improve network performance and
increase security. This is possible because these subnetworks will be separated by one or more router. Assume
at least two subnetworks will be needed and that there will be at least 50 hosts per subnetwork. Because there
is only one Class C network address, only 8 bits in the fourth octet are available for a total of 254 possible hosts.
Therefore, a custom subnet mask must be created. The custom subnet mask will be used to borrow bits from
the host portion of the address. The following steps help accomplish this:

1. The first step to subnetting is to determine how many subnets are needed. In this case, its two
subnetworks. To see how many bits should be borrowed from the host portion of the network address,
add the bit values from right to left until the total is equal to or greater than the number of subnets
needed. Because two subnets are needed, add the one bit and the two bit, which equals three. This is
greater than the number of subnets needed. To remedy this, borrow at least two bits from the host
address starting from the left side of the octet that contains the host address.

Add bits starting from the right side, the 1 and the 2, until the sum is greater than the number of subnets
needed.

Note: An alternate way to calculate the number bits to be borrowed for subnets is to take the number of bits
borrowed to the power of 2. The result must be greater than the number of subnets needed. As an example if 2
bits are borrowed the calculation is two to the second power, which equals four. Since the number of subnets
needed is two this should be adequate.
th
2. After we know how many bits to borrow, we take them from the left side of the of the host address, the 4
octet. Every bit borrowed from the host address bit leaves fewer bits for the hosts. Even though the number
of subnets is increased, the number of hosts per subnet is decreased. Because two bits need to be
borrowed from the left side, that new value must be shown in the subnet mask. The existing default
subnet mask was 255.255.255.0 and the new custom subnet mask is 255.255.255.192. The 192 results
from adding the first two bits from the left, 128 + 64 = 192. These 6bits now become 1s and are part of the
overall subnet mask. This leaves 6 bits for host IP addresses or 2 = 64 hosts per subnet.
th
4 Octet borrowed bits for subnet: 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subnet bit values: (from left side) 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

With this information, the following table can be built. The first two bits are the subnet binary value. The last 6
bits are the host bits. By borrowing 2 bits from the 8 bits of the host address 4 subnets, 2^2, with 64 hosts each,
can be created. The 4 networks created are as follows:
  The 200.1.1.0 network

 The 200.1.1.64 network

 The 200.1.1.128 network

 The 200.1.1.192 network

The 200.1.1.0 network is considered unusable, unlesss the networking device supports the IOS

command ip subnet-zero, which allows using the first subnet.

Subnet No. Subnet Bits Subnet Bits Host Bits Possible Subnet/Host Useable?
Borrowed Decimal Decimal
Binary Value Value Binary Values (Range) Range

0 Subnet 00 0 000000–111111 0–63 No

st
1 Subnet
01 64 000000–111111 64–127 Yes

nd
2 Subnet
10 128 000000–111111 128–191 Yes

rd
3 Subnet
11 192 000000–111111 192–254 No

Notice that the first subnet always starts at 0 and, in this case, increases by 64, which is the number of hosts on
each subnet. One way to determine the number of hosts on each subnet or the start of each subnet is to take
the remaining host bits to the power of 2.6 Because we borrowed two of the 8 bits for subnets and have 6 bits
left, the number of hosts per subnet is 2 or 64. Another way to figure the number of hosts per subnet or the
increment from one subnet to the next is to subtract the subnet mask value in decimal, 192 in the fourth octet,
from 256, which is the maximum number of possible combinations of 8 bits. This equals 64. This means start at
0 for the first network and add 64 for each additional subnetwork. For example, if the second subnet is used, the
200.1.1.64 network cannot be used for a host ID since the network ID of the 64 subnet has all zeros in the host
portion. Another common way to represent a subnet mask, is the use of the “slash/number” (/#) where the #
following the slash is the number of bits used in the mask (network and subnet combined). As an example, a
Class C network address such as 200.1.1.0 with a standard subnet mask (255.255.255.0) would be written as
200.1.1.0 /24, indicating that 24 bits are used for the mask. The same network, when subnetted by using two
host bits for subnets, would be written as 200.1.1.0 /26. This indicates that 24 bits are used for the network and
2 bits for the subnet. This would represent a custom subnet mask of 255.255.255.192 in dotted decimal format.
A Class A network of 10.0.0.0 with a standard mask (255.0.0.0) would be written as 10.0.0.0 /8. If 8 bits (the
next octet) were being used for subnets it would be written as 10.0.0.0 /16. This would represent a custom
subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 in dotted decimal format. The “slash” number after the network number is an
abbreviated method of indicating the subnet mask being used.

Step 5 Use the following information and the previous examples to answer the following
subnet-related questions
A company has applied for and received a Class C network address of 197.15.22.0. The physical network is to
be divided into 4 subnets, which will be interconnected by routers. At least 25 hosts will be needed per subnet.
A Class C custom subnet mask needs to be used and a router is needed between the subnets to route packets
from one subnet to another. Determine the number of bits that need to be borrowed from the host portion of the
network address and the number of bits that will be left for host addresses.
Note: There will be 8 possible subnets, of which 6 can be used. Fill in the following
table and answer the following questions:

Subnet No. Subnet Bits Subnet Bits Host Bits Possible Subnet/Host Use?
Borrowed Decimal and Decimal
Binary Value Subnet No. Binary Values Range

0 Subnet

st
1 Subnet
nd
2 Subnet
rd
3 Subnet
th
4 Subnet
th
5 Subnet
th
6 Subnet
th
7 Subnet

Use the table just developed to help answer the following questions:

1. Which octet(s) represent the network portion of a Class C IP address?

2. Which octet(s) represent the host portion of a Class C IP address?
3. What is the binary equivalent of the Class C network address in the scenario? 197.15.22.0
4. Decimal network address
5. Binary network address:
6. How many high-order bits were borrowed from the host bits in the fourth octet?
7. What subnet mask must be used? Show the subnet mask in decimal and binary. Decimal subnet mask:
8. Binary subnet mask:
9. What is the maximum number of subnets that can be created with this subnet mask?
10. What is the maximum number of useable subnets that can be created with this mask? How many bits
were left in the fourth octet for host IDs

11. How many hosts per subnet can be defined with this subnet mask?

12. What is the maximum number of hosts that can be defined for all subnets with this scenario? Assume the
lowest and highest subnet numbers and the lowest and highest host ID on each subnet cannot be used.

13. Is 197.15.22.63 a valid host IP address with this scenario?

14. Why or why not?

15. Is 197.15.22.160 a valid host IP address with this scenario?

16. Why or why not?

17. Host A has an IP address of 197.15.22.126. Host B has an IP address of 197.15.22.129. Are these hosts
on the same subnet?

b. Subnetting a Class A Network

Objective

Analyze a Class A network address with the number of network bits specified in order to determine
the following:

 Subnet mask

 Number of subnets

 Hosts per subnet

 Information about specific subnets

Background / Preparation

This is a written exercise and is to be performed without the aid of an electronic calculator.

Step 1 Given a Class A network address of 10.0.0.0 / 24 answer the following questions

How many bits were borrowed from the host portion of this address?

What is the subnet mask for this network?

1. Dotted decimal

2. Binary

How many usable subnetworks are there?

How many usable hosts are there per subnet?

What is the host range for usable subnet sixteen?

What is the network address for usable subnet sixteen?

What is the broadcast address for usable subnet sixteen?

What is the broadcast address for the last usable subnet?

What is the broadcast address for the major network?

c. Subnetting a Class B Network

Objective

The objective of this lab is to provide a subnetting scheme using a Class B network

Background / Preparation

This is a written lab and is to be performed without the aid of an electronic calculator. ABC Manufacturing has
acquired a Class B address, 172.16.0.0. The company needs to create a subnetting scheme to provide the
following:
  36 subnets with at least 100 hosts

 24 subnets with at least 255 hosts

 10 subnets with at least 50 hosts

It is not necessary to supply an address for the WAN connection since it is supplied by the Internet
service provider.

Step 1 Given this Class B network address and these requirements answer the following
questions

How many subnets are needed for this network?

What is the minimum number of bits that can be borrowed?

What is the subnet mask for this network?

1. Dotted decimal

2. Binary

3. Slash format

How many usable subnetworks are there?

How many usable hosts are there per subnet?

Step 2 Complete the following chart listing the first three subnets and the last 4 subnets
What is the host range for subnet two?

What is the broadcast address for the 126th subnet?

What is the broadcast address for the major network?

d. Subnetting a Class C Network

Objective

The objective of this lab is to provide a subnetting scheme using a Class C network.

Background / Preparation

This is a written exercise and is to be performed without the aid of an electronic calculator.

The Classical Academy has acquired a Class C address, 192.168.1.0. The academy needs to create
subnets to provide low level security and broadcast control on the LAN. It is not necessary to supply

an address for the WAN connection. It is supplied by the Internet service provider.
The LAN consists of the following, each of which will require its own subnet:

 Classroom #1 28 nodes
 Classroom #2 22 nodes
 Computer lab 30 nodes
 Instructors 12 nodes
 Administration 8 nodes

Step 1 Given this Class C network address and these requirements answer the following

questions

How many subnets are needed for this network?

What is the subnet mask for this network?

1. Dotted decimal

2. Binary

3. Slash format

How many usable hosts are there per subnet?

Step 2 Complete the following chart

Subnetwork # Subnetwork IP Host Range Broadcast ID

What is the host range for subnet six?

What is the broadcast address for the 3rd subnet?

What is the broadcast address for the major network?

 Experiment 8

Aim: Study of SWITCHES.

a. Basic Switch Configuration

Objective

 Configure a switch with a name and an IP address.

 Configure passwords to ensure that access to the CLI is secured.

 Configure switch port speed and duplex properties for an interface.

 Save the active configuration.

 View the switch browser interface.

Background/Preparation

Cable a network similar to the one in the diagram. The configuration output used in this lab is produced from a
2950 series switch. Any other switch used may produce different output. The following steps are to be
executed on each switch unless specifically instructed otherwise. Instructions are also provided for the 1900
Series switch, which initially displays a User Interface Menu. Select the “Command Line” option from the menu
to perform the steps for this lab.

Start a HyperTerminal session.

Note: Go to the erase and reload instructions at the end of this lab. Perform those steps on all switches in this
lab assignment before continuing.

Step 1 Enter privileged mode

a. Privileged mode gives access to all the switch commands. Many of the privileged commands configure
operating parameters. Therefore, privileged access should be password-protected to prevent unauthorized use.
The privileged command set includes those commands contained in user EXEC mode, as well as the
configure command through which access to the remaining command modes is gained.

Switch>enable

Switch#

1900:

>enable

b. Notice the prompt changed in the configuration to reflect privileged EXEC mode.

Step 2 Examine the current switch configuration

a. Examine the following current running configuration file:

Switch#show running-config

b. How many Ethernet or Fast Ethernet interfaces does the switch have?

c. What is the range of values shown for the VTY lines?

d. Examine the current contents of NVRAM as follows:

Switch#show startup-config

%% Non-volatile configuration memory is not present

e. Why does the switch give this response?

Step 3 Assign a name to the switch

a. Enter enable and then the configuration mode. The configuration mode allows the management of the
switch. Enter AL Switch, the name this switch will be referred to in the following:

Switch#configure terminal

Enter the configuration commands, one for each line. End by pressing Ctrl-Z.

Switch(config)#hostname ALSwitch

ALSwitch(config)#exit

b. Notice the prompt changed in the configuration to reflect its new name. Type exit or press Ctrl-Z to go
back into privileged mode.
 Step 4 Examine the current running configuration

a. Exam the current configuration that follows to verify that there is no configuration except for the hostname:

ALSwitch#show running-config

b. Are there any passwords set on the lines?

c. What does the configuration show as the hostname of this switch?

Step 5 Set the access passwords (1900: Skip to Step 6)

Enter config-line mode for the console. Set the password on this line as cisco for login. Configure the vty lines
5 to 15 with the password cisco as follows:

ALSwitch#configure terminal

Enter the configuration commands, one for each line. End by pressing Ctrl-Z.

ALSwitch(config)#line con 0

ALSwitch(config-line)#password cisco

ALSwitch(config-line)#login

ALSwitch(config-line)#line vty 0 15

ALSwitch(config-line)#password cisco

ALSwitch(config-line)#login

ALSwitch(config-line)#exit

Step 6 Set the command mode passwords

a. Set the enable password to cisco and the enable secret password to class as follows:

ALSwitch(config)#enable password cisco

1900:

ALSwitch(config)#enable password level 15 cisco

ALSwitch(config)#enable secret class

b. Which password takes precedence, the enable password or enable secret password?

Step 7 Configure the layer 3 access to the switch

a. Set the IP address of the switch to 192.168.1.2 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 as follows:

Note: This is done on the internal virtual interface VLAN 1.

ALSwitch(config)#interface VLAN 1

ALSwitch(config-if)#ip address 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0

ALSwitch(config-if)#exit

1900:
 ALSwitch(config)#ip address 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0

ALSwitch(config)#exit

b. Set the default gateway for the switch and the default management VLAN to 192.168.1.1 as follows:

ALSwitch(config)#ip default-gateway 192.168.1.1

ALSwitch(config)#exit

1900:

ALSwitch(config)#ip default-gateway 192.168.1.1

ALSwitch(config)#exit

Step 8 Verify the management LANs settings (1900: Skip to Step 10)

a. Verify the interface settings on VLAN 1 as follows:

ALSwitch#show interface VLAN 1

b. What is the bandwidth on this interface?

c. What are the VLAN states: VLAN1 is , Line protocol is

d. Enable the virtual interface using the no shutdown command

ALSwitch(config)#interface VLAN 1

ALSwitch(config-if)#no shutdown

ALSwitch(config-if)#exit

e. What is the queuing strategy?

Step 9 Save the configuration

a. The basic configuration of the switch has just been completed. Back up the running configuration file to
NVRAM as follows:

Note: This will ensure that the changes made will not be lost if the system is rebooted or loses power.

ALSwitch#copy running-config startup-config

Destination filename [startup-config]?[Enter]
Building configuration...

[OK]

ALSwitch#

1900:

a. The configuration is automatically saved to NVRAM within approximately one minute of entering a
command. To save the configuration to a TFTP server, enter the following:

ALSwitch#copy nvram tftp://tftp server ip add/destination_filename

b. Configuration upload is successfully completed.

Step 10 Examine the startup configuration file (1900: Skip to Step 11)
 a. To see the configuration that is stored in NVRAM, type show startup-config from the privileged
EXEC (enable mode)

ALSwitch#show startup-config

b. What is displayed?

c. Are all the changes that were entered recorded in the file?

Step 11 Exit the switch

Leave the switch welcome screen by typing exit as follows

ALSwitch#exit

Once these steps are completed, logoff by typing exit, and turn all the devices off. Then remove
and store the cables and adapte

Erasing and Reloading the Switch

For the majority of the labs in CCNA 3 and CCNA 4 it is necessary to start with an unconfigured switch. Use of
a switch with an existing configuration may produce unpredictable results. These instructions allow preparation
of the switch prior to performing the lab so previous configuration options do not interfere. The following is the
procedure for clearing out previous configurations and starting with an unconfigured switch. Instructions are
provided for the 2900, 2950, and 1900 Series switches.

2900 and 2950 Series Switches

1. Enter into the privileged EXEC mode by typing enable.

If prompted for a password, enter class (if that does not work, ask the instructor).

Switch>enable

2. Remove the VLAN database information file.

Switch#delete flash:vlan.dat

Delete filename [vlan.dat]?[Enter]

Delete flash:vlan.dat? [confirm] [Enter]

If there was no VLAN file, this message is displayed.

%Error deleting flash:vlan.dat (No such file or directory)

3. Remove the switch startup configuration file from NVRAM.

Switch#erase startup-config

The responding line prompt will be:

Erasing the nvram filesystem will remove all files! Continue? [confirm]

Press Enter to confirm.

The response should be:

Erase of nvram: complete

 4. Check that VLAN information was deleted.

Verify that the VLAN configuration was deleted in Step 2 using the show vlan command. If previous VLAN
configuration information (other than the default management VLAN 1) is still present it will be necessary to
power cycle the switch (hardware restart) instead of issuing the reload command. To power cycle the
switch, remove the power cord from the back of the switch or unplug it. Then plug it back in. If the VLAN
information was successfully deleted in Step 2, go to Step 5 and restart the switch using the reload
command.

5. Software restart (using the reload command)

Note: This step is not necessary if the switch was restarted using the power cycle method

a. At the privileged EXEC mode enter the command reload.

Switch(config)#reload

The responding line prompt will be:

System configuration has been modified. Save? [yes/no]:

b. Type n and then press Enter.

The responding line prompt will be:

Proceed with reload? [confirm] [Enter]

The first line of the response will be:

Reload requested by console.

After the switch has reloaded, the line prompt will be:

Would you like to enter the initial configuration dialog? [yes/no]:

c. Type n and then press Enter.

The responding line prompt will be:

Press RETURN to get started! [Enter]

1900 Series Switches

1. Remove VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) information

#delete vtp

This command resets the switch with VTP parameters set to factory
defaults.

All other parameters will be unchanged.

Reset system with VTP parameters set to factory defaults, [Y]es or

[N]o?

Enter y and press Enter.

2. Remove the switch startup configuration from NVRAM.

 #delete nvram

This command resets the switch with factory defaults. All system parameters will revert to their
default factory settings. All static and dynamic addresses will be removed.

Reset system with factory defaults, [Y]es or [N]o?

Enter y and press Enter.

b. Configuring Static VLANs In Packet Tracer Network Simulator.

Objective

 Create a basic switch configuration and verify it.

 Determine the switch firmware version.

 Create two VLANs, name them and assign member ports to them.

Background/Preparation

When managing a switch, the Management Domain is always VLAN 1. The Network Administrator's
workstation must have access to a port in the VLAN 1 Management Domain. All ports are assigned to
VLAN 1 by default. This lab will also help demonstrate how VLANs can be used to separate traffic and
reduce broadcast domains. Cable a network similar to the one in the diagram. The configuration output
used in this lab is produced from a 2950 series switch. Any other switch used may produce different
output. The following steps are to be executed on each switch unless specifically instructed otherwise.
Instructions are also provided for the 1900 Series switch, which initially displays a User Interface
Menu. Select the “Command Line” option from the menu to perform the steps for this lab. Start a
HyperTerminal session. Note: Go to the erase and reload instructions at the end of this lab. Perform
those steps on all switches in this lab assignment before continuing.
 Step 1 Configure the switch

Configure the hostname, access and command mode passwords, as well as the management LAN settings.
These values are shown in the chart. If problems occur while performing this configuration, refer to the Basic
Switch Configuration lab.

Step 2 Configure the hosts attached to the switch

Configure the host to use the same subnet for the address, mask, and default gateway as on the switch.

Step 3 Verify connectivity

a. To verify that the host and switch are correctly configured, ping the switch from the host.

b. Was the ping successful?

c. If the answer is no, troubleshoot the host and switch configurations.

Step 4 Show the IOS version

a. It is very important to know the version of the operating system. Differences between versions may change
how commands are entered. Type the show version command at the user EXEC or privileged EXEC mode
prompt as follows:

Switch_A#show vlan

b. What version of the switch IOS is displayed?

Does this switch have standard edition or Enterprise edition software?

d. What is the Firmware version of the switch?

Step 5 Display the VLAN interface information

a. On Switch_A, type the command show vlan at the privileged EXEC prompt as follows:

Switch_A#show vlan

1900:

Switch_A#show vlan-membership

b. Which ports belong to the default VLAN?

1900:

Switch_A#show vlan

c. How many VLANs are set up by default on the switch?

d. What does the VLAN 1003 represent?

e. How many ports are in the 1003 VLAN?

Step 6 Create and name two VLANs

Check prompts on 2950

Enter the following commands to create and name two VLANs:

Switch_A#vlan database
Switch_A(vlan)#vlan 2 name VLAN2
Switch_A(vlan)#vlan 3 name VLAN3
Switch_A(vlan)#exit

1900:

Switch_A#config terminal

Switch_A(config)#vlan 2 name VLAN2

Switch_A(config)#vlan 3 name VLAN3

Step 7 Display the VLAN interface information

a. On Switch_A, type the command show vlan at the privileged EXEC prompt as follows:
Switch_A#show vlan

b. Are there new VLANs in the listing?

1900:

Switch_A#show vlan-membership

c. Do they have any ports assigned to them yet?

Step 8 Assign ports to VLAN 2

Assigning ports to VLANs must be done from the interface mode. Enter the following commands to
add port 2 to VLAN 2:

Switch_A#configure terminal

Switch_A(config)#interface fastethernet 0/2

Switch_A(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch_A(config-if)#switchport access vlan 2

Switch_A(config-if)#end

1900;

Switch_A#config terminal

Switch_A(config)#interface Ethernet 0/2

Switch_A(config-if)#vlan static 2

Switch_A(config)#end

Step 9 Display the VLAN interface information

a. On Switch_A, type the command show vlan at the privileged EXEC prompt as follows:

Switch_A#show vlan

1900:
 Switch_A#show vlan-membership

b. Is port 2 assigned to VLAN 2?

c. Is the port still listed in the default VLAN?

Step 10 Assign a port to VLAN 3

Assigning ports to VLANs must be done from the interface mode. Enter the following commands to
add port 3 to VLAN3

Switch_A#configure terminal

Switch_A(config)#interface fastethernet 0/3

Switch_A(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch_A(config-if)#switchport access vlan 3

Switch_A(config-if)#end

1900:

Switch_A#config terminal

Switch_A(config)#interface Ethernet 0/3

Switch_A(config)#vlan static 3

Switch_A(config)#end

Step 11 Look at the VLAN interface information

a. On Switch_A, type the command show vlan at the privileged EXEC prompt as follows:

Switch_A#show vlan

1900:

Switch_A#show vlan-membership

b. Is port 3 assigned to VLAN 3?

c. Is the port still listed in the default VLAN?

Step 12 Look at only VLAN2 information

a. Instead of displaying all of the VLANs type the show vlan id 2 command at the privileged

EXEC mode prompt as follows:

Switch_A#show vlan id 2

1900:

Switch_A#show vlan 2

b. Does this command supply any more information than the show VLAN command?

Step 13 Look at only VLAN2 information with a different command (1900: Omit this step)
 a. Instead of displaying all of the VLANs type the show vlan name VLAN2 command at the
privileged EXEC mode prompt.

Switch_A#show vlan name VLAN2

b. Does this command supply any more information than the show VLAN command?

Once the steps are completed, log off by typing exit, and turn all the devices off. Then remove and

store the cables and adapter.

Erasing and Reloading the Switch

For the majority of the labs in CCNA 3 and CCNA 4 it is necessary to start with an unconfigured
switch. Use of a switch with an existing configuration may produce unpredictable results. These
instructions allow preparation of the switch prior to performing the lab so previous configuration
options do not interfere. The following is the procedure for clearing out previous configurations and
starting with an unconfigured switch. Instructions are provided for the 2900, 2950, and 1900 Series
switches.

2900 and 2950 Series Switches

1. Enter into the privileged EXEC mode by typing enable.

If prompted for a password, enter class (if that does not work, ask the instructor).

Switch>enable

2. Remove the VLAN database information file.

Switch#delete flash:vlan.dat

Delete filename [vlan.dat]?[Enter]

Delete flash:vlan.dat? [confirm] [Enter]

If there was no VLAN file, this message is displayed.

%Error deleting flash:vlan.dat (No such file or directory)

3. Remove the switch startup configuration file from NVRAM.

Switch#erase startup-config

The responding line prompt will be:

Erasing the nvram filesystem will remove all files! Continue? [confirm]

Press Enter to confirm.

The response should be:

Erase of nvram: complete

4. Check that VLAN information was deleted.

 Verify that the VLAN configuration was deleted in Step 2 using the show vlan command. If
previous VLAN configuration information (other than the default management VLAN 1) is still
present it will be necessary to power cycle the switch (hardware restart) instead of issuing the
reload command. To power cycle the switch, remove the power cord from the back of the
switch or unplug it. Then plug it back in. If the VLAN information was successfully deleted in
Step 2, go to Step 5 and restart the switch using the reload command.

5. Software restart (using the reload command)

Note: This step is not necessary if the switch was restarted using the power cycle method.

a. At the privileged EXEC mode enter the command reload.

Switch(config)#reloaD

The responding line prompt will be:

System configuration has been modified. Save? [yes/no]:

b. Type n and then press Enter.

The responding line prompt will be:

Proceed with reload? [confirm] [Enter]

The first line of the response will be:

Reload requested by console.

After the switch has reloaded, the line prompt will be:

Would you like to enter the initial configuration dialog? [yes/no]:

c. Type n and then press Enter.

The responding line prompt will be:

Press RETURN to get started! [Enter]

1900 Series Switches

1. Remove VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) information.

#delete vtp

This command resets the switch with VTP parameters set to factory
defaults.

All other parameters will be unchanged.

Reset system with VTP parameters set to factory defaults, [Y]es or

[N]o?
 Enter y and press Enter.

2. Remove the switch startup configuration from NVRAM.

#delete nvram

This command resets the switch with factory defaults. All system parameters will revert to their
default factory settings. All static and dynamic addresses will be removed.

Reset system with factory defaults, [Y]es or [N]o?

Enter y and press Enter.
 Experiment 9

Aim: To study and configure Static and Dynamic Routing Protocols

a. Configuring Static Routes

 the Configuring router passwords lab. Configure interfaces and IP host tables. If there are any

difficulties, refer to the Configuring Host Tables lab.

Step 2 Configure the workstations

Configure the workstations with the proper IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway.

a. Check connectivity between the workstations using ping.

C:\>ping 192.168.16.2

Pinging 192.168.16.2 with 32 bytes of data:

Request timed out.

b. Was the ping successful?

Step 3 Check interface status

a. Check the interfaces on both routers with the command show ip interface brief.

Step 4 Check the routing table entries

a. Using the command show ip route, view the IP routing table for GAD.

output eliminated

Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.14.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0

C 192.168.15.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

b. Use the command show ip route, view the IP routing table for BHM.

Output eliminated.
Gateway of last resort is not set
C 192.168.15.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

C 192.168.16.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0

c. Are all of the routes needed in the routing tables?

Step 5 Adding static routes

a. How can this situation be changed so that the hosts can ping each other?
Add static routes to each router or run a routing protocol.

b. In global configuration mode, add a static route on Router1 to network 192.168.16.0 and on

Router2 to network 192.168.14.0.

Step 6 Verify the new routes

GAD>show ip route
output eliminated
Gateway of last resort is not set

C 192.168.14.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0

C 192.168.15.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

S 192.168.16.0/24 [1/0] via 192.168.15.2

b. Using the command show ip route, view the IP routing table for BHM.
BHM>show ip route
Output eliminated.
Gateway of last resort is not set
S 192.168.14.0/24 [1/0] via 192.168.15.1

C 192.168.15.0/24 is directly connected, Serial0

C 192.168.16.0/24 is directly connected, FastEthernet0

c. Are all of the routes needed in the routing tables?

d. Can a host on subnet 192.168.16.0 see a host on network 192.168.14.0?

Step 7 ping host to host again

a. Check connectivity between the workstations using ping.

C:\>ping 192.168.16.2

Pinging 192.168.16.2 with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 192.168.16.2: bytes=32 time=20ms TTL=254

Reply from 192.168.16.2: bytes=32 time=20ms TTL=254

Reply from 192.168.16.2: bytes=32 time=20ms TTL=254

 b. If the ping was not successful, check routing table to make sure static routes are entered

correctly.
Upon completion of the previous steps, logoff by typing exit. Turn the router off.
Erasing and reloading the router:

Enter into the privileged EXEC mode by typing enable.

If prompted for a password, enter class. If “class” does not work, ask the instructor for assistance.

Router>enable

At the privileged EXEC mode, enter the command erase startup-config.

Router#erase startup-config

The responding line prompt will be:

Erasing the nvram filesystem will remove all files! Continue?

[confirm] Press
Enter to confirm. The
response should be:

Erase of nvram: complete

Now at the privileged EXEC mode, enter the command reload.

Router(config)#reload

The responding line prompt will be:

System configuration has been modified. Save? [yes/no]:

Type n and then press Enter.

Router Interface Summary

Router Ethernet Ethernet Serial Serial Interface

Model Interface #1 Interface #2 Interface #1 Interface #2 #5

800 (806) Ethernet 0 (E0) Ethernet 1 (E1)

1600 Ethernet 0 (E0) Ethernet 1 (E1) Serial 0 (S0) Serial 1 (S1)

2600 FastEthernet 0/0 FastEthernet 0/1 (FA0/1) Serial 0/0 (S0/0) Serial 0/1

(FA0/0) (S0/1)

In order to find out exactly how the router is configured, look at the interfaces. This will identify the type of router

as well as how many interfaces the router has. There is no way to effectively list all of the combinations of
configurations for each router class. What is provided are the identifiers for the possible combinations of interfaces

in the device. This interface chart does not include any other type of interface even though a specific router may
contain one. An example of this might be an ISDN BRI interface. The string in parenthesis is the legal abbreviation
 Experiment 10

Aim: Frame Relay Protocol Configuration in Packet Tracer Network simulator.

Introduction:

Frame Relay is a protocol standard for WAN internetworking which provides a fast and
efficient method of transmitting packets through the network. Frame Relay offers an
attractive alternative to both dedicated lines and X.25 networks for WAN links. The
success of the Frame Relay protocol is based on the following two factors:

1. Virtual circuits consume bandwidth only when they transport data. Consequently,
many virtual circuits can exist across a given transmission line, which is an
improvement compared to dedicated leased lines. In addition, each device can use
more than the allowed bandwidth as necessary, and thus operate at higher speeds.
2. The increased error-handling sophistication at end stations and the improved
reliability of communication lines allows the Frame Relay protocol to discard bad
frames and thus eliminate time-consuming error-handling processing.
Packet Tracer 5.3 includes a "Cloud-PT" device for WAN emulation. This device can be
configured as a Frame Relay switch. Router are connected to the Frame Relay switch
using serial connections. Virtual circuits, LMI types, and DLCI are configured using the
Serial and Frame Relay tabs of the "Cloud-PT" device.

Frame Relay configuration - WAN cloud:

Configure the LMI type and DLCI of virtual circuits on each serial interface of the cloud
used for Frame Relay operation.
Create the virtual circuits one the "Frame Relay" tab. DLCI's need to be configured on the "Serial"
tabs before creating virtual circuits.

Frame Relay
Configuration in Cisco Packet Tracer:
EXPERIMENT-11

Aim: DNS Server Configuration In Packet Tracer Network Simulator.

The network above uses a multi-level DNS hierarchy similar to that used on the internet.
The domain
google.com is hosted by a single DNS server in that company, www.google.com is a
CNAME alias
to server.google.com which hosts the web pages.
Test DNS Resolution:

1. From the Client PC ping www.google.com and wait for the resolution.

2. Using the Client PC's web browser, visit http://www.google.com

3. Reload the file and use simulation mode to view the path the DNS requests take.

4. The DNS entry will be cached in the Local DNS Server. When the Client visits
http://www.google.com again,

the Local DNS Server will retrieve the DNS record in its cache and give it to the Client.

The SOA record in authority.google.com has a Minimum TTL field set to 30. This says
that the DNS record retrieved from this server will stay in the Local DNS Server cache and
Root DNS Server for 30 seconds.

CONFIGURATION:

I) PC0 : IP ADDRESS: 10.0.0.2

SUBNET MASK : 255.0.0.0

DEFAULT GATEWAY : 10.0.0.1

DNS : 10.0.0.3
II) LOCAL DNS SERVER (SERVER 1) : IP ADDRESS : 10.0.0.3

SUBNET MASK : 255.0.0.0

DEFAULT GATEWAY : 10.0.0.1

DNS SERVER CONFIGURATION ON SERVER 1 :

NO. NAME TYPE DETAILS

1. COM NS ROOT

2. ROOT A Record 14.0.0.2

III) GGITS ROUTER (R1) :

A) FastEthernet 0/0 : IP ADDRESS : 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

B) SERIAL 0/1/0 : IP ADDRESS : 11.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

CLOCK RATE 64000

C) ROUTER RIP: NETWORK 10.0.0.0

NETWORK 11.0.0.0
IV) INTERNET (ISP) ROUTER (R1) :
A) FastEthernet 0/0 : IP ADDRESS : 14.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

B) SERIAL 0/1/0 : IP ADDRESS : 11.0.0.2 255.0.0.0

CLOCK RATE 64000

C) SERIAL 0/1/1 : IP ADDRESS : 12.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

CLOCK RATE 64000

D) ROUTER RIP: NETWORK 11.0.0.0

NETWORK 12.0.0.0
NETWORK 14.0.0.0

V) ROOT DNS SERVER (ISP) (SERVER 2) : IP ADDRESS : 14.0.0.2

SUBNET MASK : 255.0.0.0

DEFAULT GATEWAY : 14.0.0.1

DNS SERVER CONFIGURATION ON SERVER 2 :

NO. NAME TYPE DETAILS
 1. authority SOA ServerName : authority
Mailbox : Authority

Expiry : 5
Refresh : 20
Retry : 5
Min TTL :50
2. authority.google.com A Record 13.0.0.3

3. google.com NS authority.google.com

VI) GOOGLE ROUTER (R3) :

A) FastEthernet 0/0 : IP ADDRESS : 13.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

B) SERIAL 0/1/0 : IP ADDRESS : 12.0.0.2 255.0.0.0

CLOCK RATE 64000

C) ROUTER RIP: NETWORK 12.0.0.0

NETWORK 13.0.0.0
VII) GOOGLE WEB SERVER (SERVER.GOOGLE.COM) (SERVER 3) :

IP ADDRESS : 13.0.0.2

SUBNET MASK : 255.0.0.0

DEFAULT GATEWAY : 13.0.0.1

VIII) GOOGLE DNS SERVER (AUTHORITY.GOOGLE.COM) (SERVER 4)

:

IP ADDRESS : 13.0.0.3

SUBNET MASK : 255.0.0.0

DEFAULT GATEWAY : 13.0.0.1

DNS SERVER CONFIGURATION ON SERVER 2 :

NO. NAME TYPE DETAILS
1. authority.google.com A Record 13.0.0.3
2. authority.google.com SOA ServerName :
authority
Mailbox : Authority

Expiry : 5
Refresh : 20
Retry : 5
Min TTL : 30
3. google.com A Record 13.0.0.2

4. server. google.com A Record 13.0.0.2

5. www.google.com CNAME server.google.com

 Experiment-12
Aim: Study & configuration of Infrastructure Wireless Networks
Introduction:
The D-Link AirPlus DWL-900AP+ Wireless Access Point is an enhanced 802.11b
high-performance wireless access point. It is an ideal way to extend the reach and
number of computers connected to your wireless network.
Unlike most 802.11b access points, the DWL-900AP+ is capable of data transfer
speeds of up to 22 Mbps (compared to the standard 11 Mbps) when used with other
D-Link AirPlus products such as the DWL-520+ Wireless
PCI Adapter.
After completing the steps outlined in the Quick Installation Guide (included in your
package) you will have the ability to share information and resources, such as files
and printers, and enjoy the freedom that wireless networking delivers.
The DWL-900AP+ is compatible with most popular operating systems, including
Macintosh, Linux and Windows, and can be integrated into a large network. This
Manual is designed to help you connect the Access Point and the D-Link AirPlus
2.4GHz Wireless Adapters into a network in Infrastructure mode. Please take a look
at the Getting Started section in this manual to
see an example of an Infrastructure network using the DWL-900AP+.
This manual provides a quick introduction to wireless technology and its application
as it relates to networking. Please take a moment to read through this manual and
get acquainted with wireless technology.

Connections:

MDII RJ-45 Ethernet

Port
 Straight-Through
cable is required when connecting to a router or switch
 Cross-Over
cable is required to connect to a computer

Power

Reset Button
Features & Benefits:

 Up to 2X Faster with AirPlus Products - high-speed wireless data

transfer rates up to 22Mbps. With twice the data rate and capacity, the DWL-
900AP+ elivers media rich content such as digital images, videos, and MP3 files
much faster than standard 802.11b networks.

 Fully 802.11b Compatible – Fully compatible with the IEEE 802.11b

standard and interoperable with all existing 802.11b compliant devices

 Improved Performance – Up to 20% faster data transfer rates on

standard 802.11b networks

 Stronger Network Security with 256-bit WEP Encryption – Supports

64/128/256-bit WEP encryption for higher level of security for your data and wireless
communication than encryption found in existing 802.11b products.

 Built-in DHCP Server – If enabled, it will automatically assign IP

addresses to wireless clients on the local network.

 Web-based interface for Managing and Configuring- Easy-to-use

interface independent of the operating system.

 5 Different Operation Modes – Capable of operating in one of four

different operation modes to meet your wireless networking requirements: Access
Point, AP-to-AP Bridging, AP-to-Multipoint Bridging, Wireless Client, and Wireless
Repeater.

LEDs:
LED stands for Light-Emitting Diode. The DWL-900AP+ Wireless Access Point
has 3 LEDs as shown below:

LAN

WLAN

Power
  Power: solid green light indicates connection

 LAN: blinking green light indicates activity; solid

green light indicates connection

 WLAN: blinking green light indicates wireless

activity; solid green light indicates connection

Wireless Basics:

D-Link AirPlus wireless products are based on industry standards to provide easy-
to-use and compatible high-speed wireless connectivity within your home, business
or public access wireless networks. Strictly adhering to the IEEE standard, the D-
Link AirPlus wireless family of products will allow you to securely access the data
you want, when and where you want it. You will be able to enjoy the freedom that
wireless networking delivers.
A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a cellular computer network that transmits
and receives data with radio signals instead of wires. Wireless LANs are used
increasingly in both home and office environments, and public areas such as
airports, coffee shops and universities. Innovative ways to utilize WLAN technology
are helping people to work and communicate more efficiently. Increased mobility
and the absence of cabling and other fixed infrastructure have proven to be
beneficial for many users.
Wireless users can use the same applications they use on a wired network. wireless
adapter cards used on laptop and desktop systems support the same protocols as
Ethernet adapter cards.
Under many circumstances, it may be desirable for mobile network devices to link to
a conventional Ethernet LAN in order to use servers, printers or an Internet
connection supplied through the wired LAN. A Wireless Access Point (AP) is a
device used to provide this link.

People use wireless LAN technology for many different purposes:

 Mobility - Productivity increases when people have access to data in any

location within the operating range of the WLAN. Management decisions
based on real-time information can significantly improve worker efficiency.
 Low Implementation Costs – WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks) are
easy to set up, manage, change and relocate. Networks that frequently
change, both physically and logically, can benefit from WLANs ease of
implementation. WLANs can operate in locations where installation of wiring
may be impractical.
 Installation Speed and Simplicity - Installing a wireless LAN system can be
fast and easy and can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and
ceilings.
  Network Expansion - Wireless technology allows the network to go where
wires cannot go.
 Reduced Cost-of-Ownership - While the initial investment required for
wireless LAN hardware might be higher than the cost of wired LAN hardware,
overall installation expenses and life-cycle costs will be significantly lower.
Long-term cost benefits are greatest in dynamic environments requiring
frequent moves, adds, and changes.
 Scalability – Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) can be configured in a
variety of topologies to meet the needs of specific applications and
installations. configurations are easily changed and range from peer-to-peer
networks suitable for a small number of users to full infrastructure networks of
thousands of users that allow roaming over a broad area.

 D-Link AirPlus Wireless Family of LAN products include:

 Enhanced 2.4GHz Wireless Cardbus Adapters used with laptop
computers (DWL-650+)
 Enhanced 2.4GHz Wireless PCI cards used with desktop
computers
 (DWL-520+)
 Enhanced 2.4GHz Wireless Access Points (DWL-900AP+)
 Enhanced 2.4GHz Wireless Broadband Router (DI-614+)
The DWL-900AP+ will also work with D-Link Air 802.11b wireless adapters, which
include:
 2.4GHz Wireless Cardbus Adapters used with laptop
computers
 (DWL-650)
 2.4GHz Wireless PCI cards used with desktop computers
(DWL-520)

Standards - Based Technology:

The IEEE standard-based technology assures that the D-Link AirPlus Products are
interoperable with existing compatible 2.4GHz wireless technology. This means you
will be able to transfer large files quickly or even watch a movie in MPEG format
over your network without noticeable delays. The technology works by using multiple
frequencies in the 2.4GHz range at speeds up to 22 Mbps. D-Link AirPlus products
will automatically sense the best possible connection speed to ensure optimal
network performance.

Installation Considerations:

Designed to go up to 1,312 feet (400 meters) outdoors and up to 328 feet (100
meters) indoors, D-Link’s AirPlus DWL-900AP+ lets you access your network using
a wireless connection from virtually anywhere. Keep in mind, however, that the
number, thickness and location of walls, ceilings or other objects that the wireless
signals must pass through may limit the range.
Typical ranges vary depending on the types of materials and background RF (radio
frequency) noise in your home or business. The key to maximizing wireless range is
to follow these basic guidelines:

1. Keep the number of walls and ceilings between the wireless Access Point
and your receiving device (e.g., the DWL-650+) to a minimum - Each wall
or ceiling can reduce your D-Link AirPlus Wireless product’s range from 3-
90 feet (1-30 meters.) Position your Access Points, Residential Gateways,
and computers so that the number of walls or ceilings is minimized.

2. Be aware of the direct line between Access Points, Residential Gateways

(routers)and computers. A wall that is 1.5 feet thick (.5meters), at a 45-degree angle
appears to be almost 3 feet (1 meter) thick. At a 2-degree angle it looks over 42 feet
(14 meters) thick! Try to make sure that the Access Points and adapters are
positioned so that the signal will travel straight through a wall or ceiling for better
reception.
3. Building Materials make a difference - A solid metal door or aluminum studs may
have a negative effect on range. Try to position Access Points, and computers with
wireless adapters so that the signal passes through drywall or open doorways and
not other materials.
4. Make sure that the device’s antenna is positioned for best reception by using
the software signal strength tools included with your product.
5. Keep your product away (at least 3-6 feet or 1-2 meters) from electrical
devices or appliances that may generate extreme RF noise.

For the average home, signal range should not be an issue. If you
experience low or no signal strength in areas of your home that you wish to
access, consider positioning the Access Point in a location directly between the
computers with wireless adapters. Additional Access Points can be connected
to provide better coverage in rooms where the signal does not appear as
strong as desired.

Troubleshooting:

This chapter provides solutions to problems that can occur during the
installation and operation of the DWL-900AP+ Wireless Access Point. We cover
various aspects of the network setup, including the network adapters. Please read
the following if you are having problems.
Note: It is recommended that you use an Ethernet connection to configure the
DWL-900AP+ Access Point.

1. The computer used to configure the DWL-900AP+ cannot access the

Configuration menu.
 Check that the Ethernet LED on the DWL-900AP+ is ON.
If the LED is not ON, check that the cable for the
Ethernet connection is securely inserted.
 Check that the Ethernet Adapter is working properly. Please see item 3
(Check that the drivers for the network adapters are installed
properly) in this Troubleshooting section to check that the drivers are
loaded properly.
 Check that the IP Address is in the same range and subnet as the DWL-
900AP+. Please see Checking the IP Address in Windows XP in the
Networking Basics section of this manual.

Note: The IP Address of the DWL-900AP+ is 192.168.0.50. All the computers

on the network must have a unique IP Address in the same range,
e.g.,192.168.0.x. Any computers that have identical IP Addresses will not be
visible on the network. They must all have the same subnet mask,
e.g.,255.255.255.0

 Do a Ping test to make sure that the DWL-900AP+ is

responding. Go to Start>Run>Type Command>Type ping A successful
ping will show four replies.
2. The wireless client cannot access the Internet in the Infrastructure mode.
 Make sure the wireless client is associated and joined with the correct
Access Point. To check this connection: Right-click on the Local
Area Connection icon in the taskbar> select View Available
Wireless Networks. The Connect to Wireless Network screen will
appear.Please make sure you have selected the correct available
network, as shown in the illustrations below.

Note: Screen shot were taken

using Windows XP. Your screens may look similar.

Default

 Check that the IP Address assigned to the wireless adapter is within

the same IP Address range as the access point and gateway. Since the DWL-
900AP+ has an IP Address of 192.168.0.50, wireless adapters must have
an IP Address in the same range, e.g.,192.168.0.x. Each device must
have a unique IP Address; no two devices may have the same IP Address.
The subnet mask must be the same for all the computers on the network.)
To check the IP Address assigned to the wireless adapter,
double-click on the Local Area Connection icon in the taskbar > select the
Support tab and the IP Address will be displayed. (Please refer to Checking the
IP Address in the Networking Basics section of this manual.)

 If it is necessary to assign a Static IP Address to the wireless

adapter, please refer to the appropriate section in Networking
Basics. If you are entering a DNS Server address you must also
enter the Default Gateway Address. (Remember that if you have a
DHCP-capable router, you will not need to assign a Static IP Address.
See Networking Basics: Assigning a Static IP Address.)
3. Check that the drivers for the network adapters are installed
properly.
You may be using different network adapters than those illustrated here, but this
procedure will remain the same, regardless of the type of network adapters you
are using.

 Go to Start
 Right-click on
My Computer
 Click Properties

 Select the
Hardware Tab
 Click Device
Manager
 Double-click on Network
Adapters
 Right-click on D-Link
AirPlus DWL-650+ Wireless
Cardbus Adapter
 Select Properties to check that
the drivers are
installed properly
D-Link AirPlus DWL-650 Wireless Cardbus Adapter

D-Link AirPlus DWL-650+ Wireless Cardbus Adapter

 Look under Device

D-Link AirPlus DWL-650+ Wireless Cardbus Adapter
Status to check that the device is
working properly.

 Click OK
4. Resetting the DWL-900AP+ to Factory Default Settings
After you have tried other methods for troubleshooting your network, you may choose
to Reset the DWL-900AP+ to the factory default settings. Remember that D-Link
AirPlus products network together, out of the box,at the factory default settings.

To hard-reset the D-Link AirPlus DWL-900AP+ to Factory Default Settings, please do

the following:
 Locate the Reset button on the back of the DWL-900AP+
 Use a paper clip to press the Reset button.
 Hold for about 5 seconds and then release
 After the DWL-900AP+ reboots (this may take a few minutes) it
will be reset to the factory Default settings.

Medium Access Control :

Most wired LANs products use Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) as the MAC protocol. Carrier Sense means that the station
will listen before it transmits. If there is already someone transmitting, then the
station waits and tries again later. If no one is transmitting then the station goes
ahead and sends what it has. But when more than one station tries to transmit, the
transmissions will collide and the information will be lost. This is where Collision
Detection comes into play. The station will listen to ensure that its transmission made
it to the destination without collisions. If a collision occurred then the stations wait
and try again later. The time the station waits is determined by the back off
algorithm. This technique works great for wired LANs but wireless topologies can
create a problem for CSMA/CD.
However, the wireless medium presents some unique challenges not present in
wired LANs that must be dealt with by the MAC used for IEEE 802.11. Some of the
challenges are:
The wireless LAN is prone to more interference and is less reliable.
The wireless LAN is susceptible to unwanted interception leading to security
problems.
There are so called hidden station and exposed station problems.

In the discussion of both the problem, we shall assume that all radio transmitters
have fixed range. When the receiver is in the range of two active transmitters then
the signal will be garbled. It is important to note that not all stations are in range of
two transmitters.

The Hidden Station Problem:

Consider a situation when A is transmitting to B, as depicted in the Fig. 5.7.7. If C
senses the media, it will not hear anything because it is out of range, and thus will
falsely conclude that no transmission is going on and will start transmit to B. the
transmission will interfere at B, wiping out the frame from A. The problem of a station
not been able to detect a potential competitor for the medium because the
competitor is too far away is referred as Hidden Station Problem. As in the described
scenario C act as a hidden station to A, which is also competing for the medium.

Exposed Station problem:

Now consider a different situation where B is transmitting to A, and C sense the
medium and detects the ongoing transmission between B and A. C falsely conclude
that it can not transmit to D, when the fact is that such transmission would cause on
problem. A transmission could cause a problem only when the destination is in zone
between B and C. This problem is referred as Exposed station Problem. In this
scenario as B is exposed to C, that’s why C assumes it cannot transmit to D. So this
problem is known as Exposed station problem (i.e. problem caused due to exposing
of a station). The problem here is that before transmission, a station really wants to
know that whether or not there is any activity around the receiver. CSMA merely tells
whether or not there is any activity around the station sensing the carrier.