CAIE-IGCSE-Computer Science - Theory 02/02/2025, 13:07

ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE

COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Veer for personal use only.

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As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

1. Data Representation left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
1.1. Number Systems 4 + 2 = 238

Binary System Converting Denary to Binary

Base 2 number system Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) table like follows:
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the 2 142
MSB (Most Significant Bit) 2 71 Remainder: 0
2 35 Remainder: 1
Denary System 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Base 10 number system 2 4 Remainder: 0
Has values from 0 to 9 2 2 Remainder: 0
2 1 Remainder: 0
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 0 Remainder: 1

Base 16 number system Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F divided by the previous value of the current number and
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
which is F number
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
0000 0 0 it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0001 1 1
0010 2 2 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0011 3 3
0100 4 4 Separate each value from each other and convert them
0101 5 5 to denary
0110 6 6 Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
0111 7 7 All the binary values to be merged together
1000 8 8 e.g.
1001 9 9
1010 A 10 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1011 B 11 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1100 C 12
Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
1101 D 13
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1110 E 14
1111 F 15
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

1.2. Number Conversions

Converting Binary to Denary

Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the

power of the number of values from the right starting
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table
like this:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

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Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s 0
until it reaches 4 1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
For each group, find the denary value as shown above, left-hand side to match them).
and then convert each denary value to its corresponding e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is 2. Add the values as follows with the points given
A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F). above
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD overflow.

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then Logical Shifts
convert the final answer to denary
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to being emptied is going to become 0
hexadecimal as explained above
Explanation with Example
1.3. Binary Calculations Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
Binary values are not added the way denary values are
shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
because it doesn’t exist in binary.
have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Points to Note:
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
0+0=0
marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
1+0/0+1=1
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)
Two’s complement is a method used to represent
Overflow negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit
range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is
Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement
called overflow.
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
space to store the answer to the addition done in the from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
previous part. the third position from the right.
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
Steps to add Two Values (With Example) located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
complement of itself.

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Converting negative values to two complement The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control
Convert the binary value to two’s complement codes
Make the MSB 1, if not already Uppercase and lowercase characters have di!erent ASCII
values
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary: Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8 follows:
e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
0 is at 48
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 A is at 65
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 a is at 97

-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70 ASCII uses one byte to store the value

When the ASCII value of a character is converted to
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a
Examples: character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.

Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that
uniquely identifies a device on a network)
Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps Unicode
Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
location of the error)
The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses
Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Memory Dumps multiple languages and more data.
To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or character set, a collection of characters and the
when trying to trace errors. corresponding binary codes that represent them.
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output
to a printer or monitor. Sound

Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
form, it is sampled
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
less error-prone than binary.
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
values and is prone to errors. How is Sound Recorded

1.5. Text, Sound and Images

ASCII

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The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that
set time intervals make up an image; for example, an image could contain
The value is converted to digital form 4096 × 3072 pixels.
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail
series of binary digits than those with a higher resolution.
A series of readings gives an approximate representation When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
of the sound wave a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known
as being pixelated.
Sampling Resolution: High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
compared to low-resolution ones.
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
resolution (aka bit depth) 1.6. Measurement of the Size of
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored Computer Memories
about the amplitude of the sound.
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to 8 bits is a byte
store the data. 4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size
Sampling Rate
IECB System (Most Common)
The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz) Name of memory No. of
Equivalent Denary Value
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound size Bytes
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
1 mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
Images 1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes

Bitmap Images 1 tebibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 pebibyte (1PiB) 250 bytes
Bitmap images are made up of pixels
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
binary numbers Conventional System

Name of memory No. of

Colour Depth Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes
1 kilobyte (1KB) 3 1 000 bytes
The number of bits representing each colour is called the 10
colour depth. 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) 1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one 1 000 000 000 000 000
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done 1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 bytes
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1
being black) Calculation of File Size
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file
when storing an image. The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
(in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
Image Resolution The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
(in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would
then multiply the result by two.)

1.7. File Types

Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)

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Storage of music files Lossless File Compression

A communications protocol that allows electronic
musical instruments to interact with each other All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes again when the file is uncompressed.
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous) Important for files where the loss of data would be
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes: disastrous (spreadsheet)
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the An algorithm is used to compress data
MIDI device what function to perform No data is lost
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
(operates on 16 di!erent channels)
Examples of MIDI commands: Run-Length Encoding
Note on/o!: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
(loudness of music) (e.g. repeated colours in an image)
It needs a lot of memory storage A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
MP3 characters), and the second value represents the code of
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format 98 02 99 05 100.”
This compression reduces the normal file size by 90% RLE is only e!ective where there is a long run of
Done using file compression algorithms, which use repeated units/bits
Perceptual Music Shaping One di#culty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
properly 255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
Certain sounds are removed without a!ecting the every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
quality, too much becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05
CD files are converted using File Compression Software 100 where 255 now indicates that the next character/set
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the of characters is approaching
compression algorithm
Lossy File Compression
MP4

This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
than just sound data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
Videos could be streamed without losing any real compressed
Reduces file quality
discernible quality
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) reduced.

JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file

sizes 2. Data Transmission
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
pixels per centimetre
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file
2.1. Types and Methods of Data
size is reduced Transmission
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
between 5 and 15 Data Packets

1.8. Lossless and Lossy File

Compression

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Serial Parallel
Packet Structure - Better for longer distances Better for short distances
Header (Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
Contains the IP address of the sender and the Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
receiver required)
The sequence number of the packet Used when the size of data
Used when speed is necessary
Size of the packet transmitted is small
Payload Slower Option Faster than Serial
Contains the actual data
Trailer 2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Includes a method of identifying the end of the
packet USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
Error-Checking methods USB consists of:
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where Four-wire shielded cable
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are Two wires are used for power and earth
then sent independently from start to end and Two wires are used in data transmission
reassembled at the receiver’s computer.
Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages Transmission rate is less than
Automatically detected
There is no need to create a 120 MB/sec
Packets may be lost
single line of communication Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is about
Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real- incorrect connections 5 metres
busy nodes time streaming Di!erent data transmission
Delay at the receiver while the rates
High data transmission speed
packets are being re-ordered Backwards compatible
Easy to expand package usage Industry-standard

Data Transmission
2.3. Methods of Error Detection
Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
computer to printer) Parity Checks
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions Type Types -
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone Even - Even number of 1-bits
line) Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a Example (Even Parity) -
time over a single wire
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number
of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
Limitations with Parity Checks
Transmission Two bits may change during transmission; therefore
error is not found
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors,
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified

Parity Blocks

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To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
would be used. user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent
again.
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data will be sent again to the receiver.

2.4. Encryption
Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
and columns Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
Checksum other attackers.

Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender

Plaintext and Ciphertext
would calculate the checksum value using a specific
algorithm. Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
and the same algorithm used before. Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
The receiver would then compare the value received and
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A Symmetric Encryption:
request is made to re-send the data. It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
Echo Check the data.
Asymmetric Encryption:
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
data back to the sender for verification.
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
The sender would compare the received and original
available to the user.
data for errors.
The receiver would have the private key, and they
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
occurred when sending the data or sending the data can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
back for verification. data can be decrypted using the private key.

Check Digits
3. Hardware
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
the code. 3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
Neumann Architecture
6372 typed as 6379
8432 typed as 842
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs) computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture:

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Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and 1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
Logic Unit (ALU) fetched
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
the memory, processor and input/output devices 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like temporarily
calculations 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
timing signals on the control bus the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
types. Stored Program Concept
Address bus – unidirectional
Instructions are stored in the main memory
Data Bus – bi-directional
Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by
Control Bus – bi-directional
the processor
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
be processed, which are fetched by the CPU
Memory Concept
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
Stores the instruction the
Current instruction
CIR CPU is currently decoding or MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
register
executing 10101010 01010110
Stores the Address of the
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and Instruction Set:
register
sends it to MDR
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
Stores the Data from the
can process, and the commands are machine code
MDR Memory data register address received from the
MAR and sends data to CIR
Stores the address of the 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
PC Program counter next instruction to be
fetched from memory
System’s Clock
During calculations, data is
ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased,
however.

Overclocking

Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed

for.
It leads to multiple issues.

Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer

would frequently crash and become unstable)
The Fetch-Execute Cycle
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Length of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of

the computer

Cache

Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

-- allows faster access to the CPU

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-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU represent the passport pages
performance Text can be stored in ASCII format
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
Cores stored as jpeg image
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the camera and compared to using face recognition software
performance Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
eyes, width of nose)
But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down
the system performance as the communication between Barcode readers/scanners
each core increases, and so do the data cables between
each. Which in turn reduces the potential system A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
performance. varying thicknesses
You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
septa or octa cores. series of lines
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
using guard bars
3.3. Input Devices Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
Two-dimensional Scanners:
Light is reflected o! the barcode; dark areas reflect
Used to input hard-copy documents little light, which allows the bars to be read
The image is converted into an electronic form, which Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
can be stored in the computer The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
The document is placed on a glass panel
Quick Response (QR) Codes
A bright light illuminates the document
A scan head moves across the document until the Another type of barcode is the QR codes
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors background
The lens focuses on the document image Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled Advantages of QR codes:
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated No need for the user to write down the website
circuits address
The software produces a digital image in the QR codes can store website addresses
electronic form
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which Digital Cameras
converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG shutter speed, focuses the image, etc.
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens
Three-dimensional Scanners onto a light sensitive cell
The cell is made up of pixels
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three- The number of pixels determines the size of the file
dimensional image
Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers, Keyboards
magnetic, white light)
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
model

Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

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Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by Devices that read or measure physical properties
wireless connection Data needs to be converted to digital
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical
digital signal values into digital
Slow method Sensors and their purposes:
Prone to errors Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that
converts sound to electric pulses.
Pointing devices Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's
Mouse/trackball acceleration or deceleration and motion.
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas.
Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
gas in the environment.
Microphones Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in
the air or any sample.
Used to input sound to a computer Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed,
vibrates, producing an electric signal it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into detector.
digital values and stored in a computer Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into emitted by any object.
digital Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
level.
Touchscreens Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
generate electric current based on light brightness.
Capacitive (medium cost tech)
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in
Made up of many layers of glass
magnetic field.
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
content wherever this sensor has been installed.
current changes
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity.
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
determined by an on-board microprocessor
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
Infra-red heat (expensive)
around the sensor
Use glass as the screen material
Temperature - These sensors measure the
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
temperature of the environment.
Infra-red optical (expensive)
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of
Uses glass as screen material
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.)
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is Control of Street Lighting
touched
Resistive (inexpensive) The light sensor sends data to the ADC
The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
glass Microprocessor samples data every minute
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
bottom layer complete a circuit Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a Lamp switched on
microprocessor to determine where the screen was
touched

Sensors

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2D and 3D Cutters
3.4. Output Devices 3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction
3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood
Inkjet Printers
Actuators
Used to print one-o! pictures and documents
Data from the document sent to the printer driver The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format processes.
Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is Used in many control applications involving sensors and
available devices (ADC and DAC)
Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
memory (printer bu!er) Loudspeakers/Headphones
A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
available in the paper tray
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
the loudspeaker
four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Produced by voltage di!erences vibrating a cone in the
Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
speaker at di!erent frequencies
Repeated until the bu!er is empty
Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the LCD and LED Monitors
processor (request for more data to be sent)
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
Laser Printers Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
Used to print flyers, high quality
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
because:
produce text and images LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
Prints the whole page in one go
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet) has a yellow tint
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the LEDs improve the colour image
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it; Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
removing the positive charge leaves negatively LEDs consume very little power
charged areas which match the text/image Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
3. The drum is then coated with positively charged CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the which supplies the light source
drum
Light Projectors:
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to Two common types of light projectors:
produce a copy of the page Digital Light Projector (DLP)
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated LCD Projector
rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent Projectors are used to project computer output onto
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from larger screens/interactive whiteboards
the drum, ready to print on the next page
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
3D Printers

Used for models of cars

Produce solid objects that work
Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
powder
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)

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Uses millions of micromirrors The CPU directly accesses primary storage

the number of micromirrors and the way they are The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples
the image HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they examples
are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source, Primary Memory:
they are o! Random Access Memory (RAM)
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
access data that is actively being used or processed by
on its way to the DLP chip
the user immediately.
White light splits into primary colours
Features of RAM
LCD Projectors Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned o!)
Older technology than DLP Used to store; data, files
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic- the memory can be changed
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at di!erent The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
wavelengths will operate
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue slow
These three di!erent lights pass through three LCD As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
screens; these screens show the image to be projected continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
as millions of pixels in grayscale new data
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, RAM is of two types:
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)
the screen

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Virtual memory

When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
memory management; thus, the system has a high
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes
into the picture.
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
storages are discussed below)
Primary vs. Secondary Storage

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There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the

same time (not like HDD)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above. Data access is faster than HDD
The main advantages of virtual memory are Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
They can be larger than the physical memory
provided in the RAM. O!-Line Storage:
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could CD/DVD Disks
be expensive Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the
The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused surface of the disk.
data. A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Read Only Memory (ROM) Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
Features of ROM DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain capacity (two individual recording layers)
even when ROM is turned o!)
Used to store start-up instructions (basic Blu-ray Disks
input/output systems) Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
cannot be changed (stores up to five times more data than DVD)
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
Secondary Storage:
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) piracy and copyright infringement)
Used as backup systems
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
of the disks (platter) USB Flash Memories
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
surfaces of the disk
Small back-up devices for photo, music
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care
store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks Cloud Storage:
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
Solid-State Drive (SSD) stored on remote servers
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.

The following are its types:

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Advantages Disadvantages
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the Small in size, therefore can
customer/client and cloud storage provider are di!erent Can be di#cult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
companies The interface can be confusing
Low cost to make
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated sometimes
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client Troubleshooting is a specialist’s
Requires very little power
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate job
as a single entity Often thrown away as di#cult
Very fast reaction to changing
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above to upgrade and faults are
input
harder to find
environments; some data resides in the private cloud,
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed Increased garbage as they are
Dedicated to one task only
thrown away
from a public cloud storage provider
Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks

Applications of Embedded devices

GPS systems
Security Systems
Vending Machines
Washing Machines
Oven
Microwave
3.6. Embedded System
A combination of hardware and software is designed to 3.7. Network Hardware
carry out a specific set of tasks.
Embedded systems may contain - Network Interface Card (NIC)
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
peripherals on one single chip A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only connect to a network (such as the Internet).
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O
ports, storage and memory Media Access Control (MAC)
Process of Embedded Devices -
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
(ADC needed if the data is analogue) groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
Data from the user interface is also sent to the manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
serial number.
microprocessor
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators These do not change and are primarily constant for every
which are the output
device
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
need a software update. Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Programmable devices have two methods of updating Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Connecting the device to a computer and
downloading the update The only di!erence between the two types is that UAA is
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
link opposite for LAA.

Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded IP Addresses

systems

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IP address allocation: Router functionality:

The network allocates IP addresses. A router is a networking device that directs data
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. packets between di!erent networks.
Static IP addresses: It determines the most e#cient path for data
Assigned manually to a device. transmission.
Does not change over time. Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
Dynamic IP addresses: A router examines the destination IP address of
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host incoming data packets.
Configuration Protocol) server. It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
Changes periodically or when the device connects to the next router on the path to the destination.
a di!erent network. The router forwards the data packet to the
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): appropriate next hop.
Widely used protocol. Router's role in IP address assignment:
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. devices on a local network.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4. predefined range to connected devices.
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration
separated by colons (e.g., and simplifies network management.
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). Connecting a local network to the Internet:
Provides an extremely large number of unique A router serves as the gateway between a local
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion). network and the internet.
Di!erences between IPv4 and IPv6: It connects the local network to an internet service
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 provider (ISP) network.
uses a 128-bit address. The router receives data packets from devices on the
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 local network and forwards them to the internet.
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 o!ers around 340 It also receives incoming data packets from the
undecillion addresses. internet and routes them to the appropriate devices
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated on the local network.
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration. 3.8. Types of Software and Interrupts
Routers Types of Software

1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility

programs and device drivers
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word
processor, etc.

System Software:

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these are a set of programs which control and manage Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
the operations of hardware documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
gives a platform for other software to run text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
it is required to allow hardware and software to run importing images.
without problems Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources with each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
Application Software: produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
calculations.
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
computer’s resources manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft O#ce) and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
user can execute the software when they require, and it in a table.
is mostly not automatic Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
interface with sensors and allow a computer or
Examples microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
control applications by comparing sensor data with
System Software: stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform from games to sophisticated software such as phone
tasks without re-compilation. banking. Common examples include video and music
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
into a single program, allowing the use of separately Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
written code modules in the final program. users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
communicate with a computer's operating system, applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
without which a device like a printer would be unable to transitions between clips.
work. Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
Operating system: Software that manages basic the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
computer functions such as input/output operations, bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
program loading and running, and security management, di!erent image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
making computers more user-friendly. lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and required.
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file Interrupts
management, and security.
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
Application Software: from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their e!ectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the deletion or for the user to decide.
system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software

Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on

a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
3.9. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers.

Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software

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Backup software is a utility software that helps create Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
and manage backup copies of data files and programs. understood by the hardware device they are associated
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard with.
drives are good practices, but operating system backup Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
utilities are also recommended. cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only by the operating system.
backup files if changes have been made to them. USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
There could be three file versions for total security: the vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally number that allow the operating system to identify the
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup device.
on cloud storage. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
Security Software computer simultaneously.

Security software is a utility software that manages

3.10. Operating Systems
access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
such as virus and spyware checkers.
Operating Systems are designed to establish
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
communication between the user and the computer
prevent unauthorized access.
Functions of a typical operating system -
Security software uses encryption and decryption to
-managing files
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
– handling interrupts
decryption key.
– providing an interface
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
– managing peripherals and drivers
and prevent malicious software from being installed. – managing memory
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords – managing multitasking
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access. – providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
Screensavers – managing user accounts
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
Screensavers display moving and still images on the
monitor screen after computer inactivity. Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
from 'phosphor burn'.
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
device and as a part of computer security systems.
They automatically log out of the user after a certain
period of inactivity.
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.

Device Drivers

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -

Second Edition (Hodder Education)

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Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the It is easier to read and understand as the language is
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs closer to human language.
Security Management - Providing security features such Easier to write in a shorter time
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on Easier to debug at the development stage
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device Easier to maintain once in use
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and bu!ers
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Low-Level Languages
Renaming, and many more functions
Refer to machine code
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
Binary instructions that the computer understands
with each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
users to customise their accounts individually.

Running of Applications

The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)

through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
the location of the OS in the storage.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language

Few programmers use assembly language to -

Make use of special hardware
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
Write code that runs very quickly
Assembly language must be translated into machine
code using an assembler to run.
Interrupts
3.12. Translators
Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
doing and service a task Compiler
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt Translates a program written in a high-level language
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it into machine code
Di!erent interrupts have di!erent levels of priority Used without compiler
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Executable file of machine code produced
continues One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Used for general use
3.11. Programming Languages,
Translators and IDEs Interpreter

Computers can only understand machine code;

therefore, translators are needed

High-Level Languages

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Executes a high-language program a statement at a time An IDE would usually have these features -
No executable file of machine code produced Code Editor
One high-level language program statement may require Translator
several machine code instructions to be executed. Debugger
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an Error Reports
interpreter Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
Used when the program is being developed Auto-Documenter
Pretty Printing
Assembler

Translates a low-level language program into machine

code
4. The Internet and Its Uses
Executable file of machine code produced
One low-level language translated into one machine 4.1. The Internet and the World Wide
code instructions
It can be used without an assembler
Web
Used for general use
Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
Compiler Interpreter Assembler Uses transmission protocols
Collection of webpages and
Translates a high- Executes a high-level Translates a low- such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites
level language language program level assembly Protocols)
program into one statement at a language program Allows the user to
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are
machine code. time. into machine code. communicate with other users
written using Hypertext Mark-
An executable file of No executable file of An executable file of via chat, email, calling and
up Language (HTML)
machine code is machine code is machine code is more
produced. produced. produced. Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource
One high-level Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the
One high-level language program One low-level Devices location of the web pages
language statement statement may language statement Web browsers can access web
can be translated require several is usually translated pages.
into several machine machine code into one machine
code instructions. instructions to be code instruction. Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
executed.
Interpreted Assembled URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
Compiled programs
programs cannot be programs are used
are run without the typical format of URLs is -
run without the without the
compiler.
interpreter. assembler.
protocol://website address/path/file name
An interpreter is An assembled
A compiled program
often used when a program is usually The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
is usually distributed
program is being distributed for
for general use. The website address would contain -
developed. general use.
domain host (www)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer domain name (website name)
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) The path would usually become the file directory roots.
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
The /computer-science is the file name

HTTP and HTTPS

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS

stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
data.

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Web Browsers Blockchain Network involves several interconnected

computers where the transaction data is stored
It is software used to connect to the internet Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
It translates the HTML code be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established changed without the consent of all the network
O!ers additional features like search history & ad members
blockers
How do blockchains work
Retrieval and Location of web pages Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
block would contain -
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
(DNS) Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP money and more
IP is sent to the browser if it exists Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
Browser interprets the HTML in the chain

Cookies

Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer

They are used to track data about the users and autofill
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -

Session Cookie Persistent Cookie

Remembers the user’s login
Temporary cookies are stored
details so the user doesn’t have
in the RAM till the browser is
to log in every time they visit a
closed.
website The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point
Stored on the hard disk on the to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
Doesn’t collect any information
computer until their expiry
on the user
date or the user deletes them
A good example is the virtual
4.3. Cyber Security
shopping basket on e-
commerce websites. Brute Force Attack:

Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the

4.2. Digital Currency di!erent combinations of letters, numbers and symbols.
E!ect:
Form of payment to pay for goods and services Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, cards, passwords and more)
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more) To remove risk:
Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem Use stronger passwords with more characters and
in centralised banking systems. symbols
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
transactions. Data Interception:
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
Blockchain Network

Blockchain Network

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This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
wireless transmission line Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
internet connections illegally computer malfunction
Packet Sni#ng - Uses Packet sni!ers to examine Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent a certain amount of money is paid
back to the attacker Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
E!ect: Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
It can cause a computer to crash legitimate software
Can delete or corrupt files/data Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
To remove risk: user to the attacker
Install anti-virus software Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
Don’t use software from unknown sources the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
Be careful when opening emails from unknown of the computer alone

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS) Phishing

An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
network into giving out their information.
Usually temporary but may be damaging To remove risk:
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from: Don’t open links from unknown receivers
Accessing their emails Use anti-phishing tools
Accessing websites Block pop-up ads
Accessing online services Have an up-to-date browser

Hacking Pharming

The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
E!ect: which redirects the user to fake websites
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal E!ect:
information The user gives out login details and other personal
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted details
To remove risk: To remove risk:
Firewalls Using anti-virus software
Strong passwords/ user IDs Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Use of anti-hacking software Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Di!erence between hacking and cracking URL bar
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Social Engineering
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
malicious Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
Malware
informing them that their account has been hacked)

Keeping data safe from threats

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Access Levels - Having Di!erent levels of access for Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
di!erent people (for example - Only doctors can have authentication to prove who the user is
access to patient’s data) Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware patches which improve device security
attacks Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs), the tone would also seem urgent
biometrics and more) Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the
tra#c between a network and the user’s computer
Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
Biometric user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
Benefits Drawbacks
Methods
Filtering Internet tra#c
Most development
Intrusive as used to Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
methods are very easy
identify criminals, Can’t Blocking access to certain websites
Fingerprint to use and require very
be used if the finger
Scans low storage space to Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
gets dirty or damaged
store the biometric server, keeping the web server safe.
(e.g. cuts)
data. Acts as a firewall as well.
With very high It is very intrusive, Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
accuracy, it Impossible Takes longer to verify,
Retina Scan user’s profile
to replicate a person’sExpensive to install and
retina set up SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
Can’t identify if there communicating with other users on the internet.
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
or person’s age. 5. Automated and Emerging
Voices can be recorded
and used for Technologies
verification, but low
Non-Intrusive method,
accuracy and illnesses
Voice verification is done
Recognition quickly and relatively
such as colds or coughs 5.1. Automated Systems
can a!ect a person’s
cheaper
voice, making
Automated Systems are a combination of software and
identification
impossible. hardware designed to function without human
intervention.
Process of Automated Systems
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
(ADC)
The microprocessor processes the data and makes
the necessary decisions based on its program
The actions are then executed by the actuators
(Motors, wheels and so on)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems

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Advantages Disadvantages
Expensive to set up and Types of Robots -
Faster and Safer Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
maintain
Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems are completely replace humans
quickly prone to attacks Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
Over-reliance on automated interface, can supplement but can’t completely
Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans to replace humans
lose skills
Higher Productivity and Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
E#ciency Advantages Disadvantages
Robots can find it di#cult to do
You should be able to describe the advantages and Robots can work 24/7
non-standard tasks
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher
scenario. conditions unemployment
Including scenarios from: They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots
long run replace humans in some task
industry They have high productivity Expensive to install and
transport and are more consistent maintain in the short run
agriculture Robots have the risk of getting
weather hacked.
gaming
lighting 5.3. Artificial Intelligence
science
AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
5.2. Robotics intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Robotics is the branch of computer science that Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
combines robot design, construction and operation. human when doing one specific task
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics - General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
A robot may not injure a human through action or doing one specific task
inaction Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it human in many tasks
comes into conflict with Law 1 Characteristics of AI -
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with Collection of Data and Rules
law 1. Ability to Reason
Characteristics of a robot - Ability to learn and adapt
Ability to sense their surroundings
Have a degree of movement Types of AI
Programmable
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN answering questions using knowledge and inference.
CHARACTERISTICS They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

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Advantages Disadvantages
Setup and Maintenance costs
High level of Expertise
are very high
Can only rely on the information
High Accuracy and Consistent
in the system
Tend to give cold responses
High response times
sometimes

Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines

are trained to learn from past experiences.

Di!erence Between AI and Machine Learning

AI Machine Learning
Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
decisions without being
intelligence in machines
programmed to
The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines
that think like humans learn through data acquisitions

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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