of a column is the distance between two points

(Gussets plate: When designing steel structures, of zero bending moment or contraflexure. It's
gusset plates are treated as rectangular members used to calculate the Euler's crippling load for
that are axially loaded. The eccentricity of an columns. Lacing in steel structures has several
eccentrically loaded angle section can be
considered in the following ways: Double angles, purposes, including: Preventing buckling
Effective width, Bolt holes. A lug angle is a short Reducing stress on components Preventing
piece of angle that connects the outstand legs of lateral movement. Some modes of failure for
members to the gusset plate. A short strut is a
plate girders: hear Flexural Compression Flange-
compression member that experiences only
simple compression, as opposed to buckling. This induced. The main purpose of a gantry girder in
is determined by the slenderness ratio (KL/r), the design of a steel structure is to support
where KL is the effective length and r is the least cranes and carry heavy materials and equipment
radius of gyration of the cross section. When KL/r
within industrial buildings. Gantry girders are
is small, the compression member is a short strut.
Composite floors with profiled steel decking have laterally unsupported beams that support cranes
many benefits, including: Strength, fire in industrial buildings like factories, workshops,
performance and cost-effective sustainability, and steel works. There are many types of beam
versability. Steel decking is important in the connections in steel structure design, including:
design of steel structures for many reasons, Bolted framed connectionsA web connection
including: Strength, fire resistance, durability, angle is used to link steel beams to supporting
structure ability. sections are classified based on structures, such as columns and girders. The
their slenderness ratio, which is the ratio of the strength of the base materials and fasteners
section's length to its least radius of gyration. should be considered. End plate connections
This classification helps determine the section's End-plates are welded to the end of beams and
behaviour under loads and its susceptibility to field bolted to the connecting columns. An
buckling. Limit states design is a design method unstiffened seated connection is a type of steel
in which the performance of a structure is structure connection that joins two profiles, such
checked against various limiting conditions at as cornier or L profiles, using two angles. It's used
appropriate load levels. The limiting conditions for smaller loads, while stiffened welded seat
to be checked in structural steel design are connections are used for larger loads. Failure for
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state. bolted connections in steel structures: Shear,
the main difference between nominal diameter bending,faitigue,spilting, glazing. Laced columns
and gross diameter is that the gross diameter is are preferred in steel structure design when the
the diameter of a rivet or bolt after it has been structure needs extra support to prevent
fixed, while the nominal diameter is the diameter buckling and bending from outside loads. Lacing
before it has been fixed:Nominal diameterThe is a method that uses horizontal members to
diameter of a rivet or bolt before it has been strengthen steel columns and frames eg bridge.
fixed. For example, the nominal diameter of a Compression members: Local buckling Flexure
bolt is the pitch diameter of its threads.Gross Torsional Flexural-torsional. Lug angles are used
diameterThe diameter of a rivet or bolt after it in steel structures to strengthen connections and
has been fixed. For example, the gross diameter improve the structural integrity of the steel
of a rivet is the diameter of the rivet when it is construction. They are short angle sections that
fully inserted into the rivet hole. High Strength connect the outstanding legs of a member to the
Friction Grip (HSFG) Stiffnes Fatigue resistance gusset plate. Lug angles are used in tension
Withstand alternating forcesLoad transfer. The member connections. Bearing stiffeners are
five basic types of welded joints are: Butt joint, transverse web stiffeners that are used in steel
Corner joint, lap, Tee, edge. the effective length structures to prevent buckling and web crippling
in plate girders. Web buckling occurs when designed for the vertical and horizontal forces.
intensity of vertical compressive stress near In-plane forces: The in-plane forces in the
centre of section becomes greater than the sheeting should be considered in the design.
critical buckling stress for the web acting as a Lateral-torsional buckling: If the torsional
column. Following table gives the types of restraint of the purlin is too low, additional
stiffners provided for different buckling elements may need to be added to hold the free
condition: Buckling behaviour. Block shear failure flange of the purlin. Sagging: Purlins can sag in
in a tension member of a steel structure is a type the direction of a sloping roof. Sag rods can be
of failure that occurs when a block of material provided midway or at third points between roof
tears due to a combination of tension and shear. trusses to take up the sag. Corrosion and fire
A column splice is a joint that joins two parts of a protection: Steel structures should be protected
column together to act as a single column. from corrosion and fire. Temperature effects:
Column splices are used in steel structures. The effects of temperature should be considered
Purlins are used in steel structures to support in the design.
roof decking and are a key component of the
Vertical Stiffness (Web)
secondary frame. The minimum hook approach
in the design of a steel structure's gantry girder is 1. Determine design loads (DL) and live loads (LL)
the distance from the gantry girder to the point on the girder.
where the hook is at its closest. In steel structure
design, compression members are structural 2. Calculate the factored load (FL) using load
components that are subjected to axial combinations.
compressive forces, or loads applied along the
3. Find the shear force (V) and bending moment
member's longitudinal axis. In steel structure
(M) diagrams.
design, a castellated beam is a structural element
made by cutting a rolled steel beam in a pattern 4. Calculate the web's required shear capacity
and then welding the two halves back together (Vr) using AISC 360-16, Section G2.
tion is a type of connection that joins two profiles
with two angles (L or cornier profile). It's often 5. Determine web thickness (tw) and web depth
used to connect a column to a beam. types of (dw) based on:
connections in steel structures: welded
- AISC 360-16, Section G2.1
connections, bolted connections, and riveted
connections. Among them, riveted connections - Web slenderness limitations (dw/tw ≤ 200)
are used less frequently due to difficulties in
disassembly) 6. Check web buckling and shear buckling using:

(The steps for designing a laterally unsupported - AISC 360-16, Section G2.2
beam include:Calculating the ultimate load on
- AISC 360-16, Section G3
the beam Calculating the maximum bending
moment and shear force on the beam Calculating 7. Design web stiffeners (if required):
the plastic section modulus required for the trial
section Selecting a suitable section based on Zp - AISC 360-16, Section G2.3
from IS: 800: 2007 Some other considerations for
- Stiffener spacing ≤ 1.5dw
designing a steel structure with purlins include:
- Stiffener size: 1/3 ≤ tw ≤ 2/3 dw
Connection to frames: Purlins can be fixed to the
frame by screws or cleats. Cleats should be
Horizontal Stiffness (Flanges): due to wheel loads and dead loads from the
gantry girder and rails. • Generally an I-section
1. Calculate the flange's required bending
with a channel section is chosen, though an I-
capacity (Mr) using AISC 360-16, Section F2.
section with a plate at the top flange may be used
2. Determine flange thickness (tf) and flange for light cranes. • When the gantry is not laterally
width (bf) based on: supported, the equation to be used to select a
trial section is as follows: Zp = Mu/fy
- AISC 360-16, Section F2.1 ..............................................................................
.................(1) Zp (trial) = kZp, (k = 1.4-1.5)
- Flange slenderness limitations (bf/tf ≤ 65)
....................................................................(2) •
3. Check flange local buckling using: Generally, the economic depth of a gantry girder
is about (1/12)th of the span. The width of the
- AISC 360-16, Section F2.2 flange is chosen to be between (1/40) and
(1/30)th of the span to prevent the excessive
4. Design flange stiffeners (if required):
lateral deflection. 4. The plastic section modulus
- AISC 360-16, Section F2.3 of the assumed combined section is found out by
considering a neutral axis which divides the area
- Stiffener spacing ≤ 1.5bf in two equal parts, at distance y to the area
centroid from the neutral axis. Thus, Mp =
- Stiffener size: 1/3 ≤ tf ≤ 2/3 bf
2fyA/2y = Ayfy, where Ay = plastic modulus Zp
The design of the gantry girder subjected to ............................(3) 5. When lateral support is
lateral loads is a trial-and-error procedure. It is provided at the compression (top) flange, the
assumed that the lateral load is resisted entirely chosen section should be checked for the
by the compression top flange of the beam and moment capacity of the whole section (clause
any reinforcing plates, channels, etc. and that the 8.2.1.2 of IS800): Mdz = BbZpfy/γmo ≤
vertical load is resisted by the combined beam. 1.2Zefy/γmo
Various steps involved in the design are as ....................................................................(4)
follows: 1. Maximum wheel load is to be Above value should be greater than applied
calculated. The wheel load is maximum when the bending moment. The top flange should be
trolley is closest to the gantry girder. This load is checked for bending in both the axes using the
to be correspondingly increased for the impact. following interaction equation: (My/Mndy) +
(Mz/Mndz) ≤ 1
Maximum bending moment in the gantry girder ........................................................................(5)
due to vertical loads is to be computed. This 6. If the top (compression) flange is not
consists of the bending moment due to supported, the buckling resistance is to be
maximum wheel loads (including impact) and the checked in the same way as in step 4 but
bending moment due to dead load of the gantry replacing fy with the design bending compressive
and rails. The bending moment due to dead loads stress fbd (calculated using Section 8.2.2 of the
is maximum at the centre of the girder, whereas code). 7. At points of concentrated load (wheel
the bending moment due to wheel load is load or reactions) the web of the girder must be
maximum below one of the wheels. For checked for local buckling and, if necessary, load
simplicity, the maximum bending moment due to carrying stiffeners must be introduced to prevent
dead load is directly added to the maximum local buckling of the web. 8. At points of
wheel load moment. 3. Maximum shear force is concentrated load (wheel load or reactions) the
to be calculated. This consists of the shear force web of the girder must be checked for local
crushing. If necessary, bearing stiffeners should TECHNOLOGY CE8703 STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND
be introduced to prevent local crushing of the DRAWING Check for plastic and compact section,
web. 9. The maximum deflection under working the Check for plastic and compact section, the
loads has to be checked. 10.The gantry girder is ratio b / tf < 9.4€ € = 1 tf = 40mm bf = 350mm 350
subjected to fatigue effects due to moving loads. / 40 = 8.7 The ratio of satisfies the plastic section
Normally, light-and medium-duty cranes are not Step 4 : Moment capacity The moment capacity
checked for fatigue effects if the number of of the plate girder is Is 800 2007 , page no. 53 Md
cycles of load is less than 5 x 106 . For heavy-duty = [ (βb x Zp x fy) / γmo] βb = 1 Zp = [ (2 x bf x tf (D
cranes, the gantry girders are to be checked for - tf) / 2 ) + ( tw x d^2 ) / 4 ] = [ (2 x 350 x 40 (1500
fatigue loads (see IS 1024 and IS 807). Refer - 40) / 2 ) + ( 20 x 1420^2 ) / 4 ] = 30.52 x 10^6
section 13 of the code for design provisions for mm^3 Md = [ (1 x 30.52 x 10^6 x 250) / 1.1] =
fatigue effects. The fatigue strength is to be 6936 KNm > 4000KNm Hence the section is safe
checked at working loads. Step 5 : Shear capacity Is 800 2007 , page no. 59
V < Vd Design shear strength Vd = Vn / γmo Vn =
Design for plate girder with thick web Example 2
Vp Vp = [(Av x fyw) / √3] Av = d x tw = 1420 x 20
Design a welded plate girder of 20m span to
= 28400mm^2 Vp = [(Av x fyw) / √3] = [(28400 x
support a uniformly distributed love load of
250) / √3] = 4099186 N Vd = Vp / γmo = 4099186
70KN/m over the span using the following data.
/ 1.1 = 3726533 = 3726.5 KN > 800 KN Hence the
Yield stress of steel is 250 N/mm^2, top flange
section is safe Step 6 : Check for bearing
restrained laterally. Design the cross sectional
stiffeners Is 800 2007 , page no. 67 Fw = ( b1 + n2
details of the plate girder to confirm to the
) tw ( fy / γmo) Minimum stiffeners bearing
specifications of IS 800-2007 Given data effective
length b1 = bf / 2 = 350 / 2 = 175mm n2 = 2.5 x 40
span of girder = 20 m Distributed live load =
= 100mm Fw = ( b1 + n2 ) tw ( fy / γmo) = ( 175 +
75KN/m Yield stress of steel = 250 N/mm^2 Step
100 ) x 20 x ( 250 / 1.1 ) = 1250 x 10^3 KN > 800
1 : Load on plate girder load on girder = ( 1.5 x 70
KN )
x 20 ) = 2100KN Assume self weight = ( total load
/ 200 ) = 10KN/ m Total factored load = 70 + 10 = (5 Unstiffened Seated Connection Design
80 KN/m Step 2 : Bending moments and shear
Step 1: Gather Design Information
force Md = ( WL^2 / 8) = ( 80 x 20^2 / 8) = 4000KN
Vd = ( WL / 2) = ( 80 x 20 / 2) = 800KN Step 3 : 1. Beam and column sizes and materials
Cross section of girder Is 800 2007 , page no. 63,
64 depth of plate girder D = [√( MK / fy)]^0.33 K 2. Beam and column orientations (e.g., vertical,
= ( d / tw) < 200 € d = depth of web tw = thickness horizontal)
of web Yield stress ration € = ( 250 / fy ) = ( 250 /
3. Connection type (unstiffened seated)
250) = 1 K = 200 € = 200 x 1 = 200 D = [√( 4000 x
10^6 x 200 / 250)]^0.33 = 1500mm adopt overall 4. Design loads (DL, LL, WL, etc.)
depth D = 1500mm Allowing for 40mm flange
plates Depth of web d = 1500 – 80 = 1420 mm 5. Load combinations (ASCE 7-16 or equivalent)
Thickness of web ( d / tw) = 200 € Tw = d / 200 x
Step 2: Determine Connection Forces
1 = 1420 / 200 = 7.1 mm ( d / tw) = 67 € Tw = d /
67 x 1 = 1420 / 67 = 21.2 mm adopt 20mm thick 1. Calculate beam end reactions (shear, moment)
and 1420mm deep web Width of flange Width of
flange = 0.2 d to 0.3 d = 0.2 x 1420 to 0.3 x 1420 2. Determine connection forces:
= 288 to 426 = 350 mm adopt width of flange is
- Vertical shear (V)
350mm ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
 - Horizontal shear (Vh) 2. Calculate bolt group's required strength (ASD
or LRFD)
- Moment (M)
3. Check bolt group's:
- Axial force (P)
- Shear strength (AISC 360-16, Section J3.6)
Step 3: Check Beam Web Stability
- Tension strength (AISC 360-16, Section J3.7)
1. Calculate beam web's instability parameter (λ)
- Bearing strength (AISC 360-16, Section J3.8)
2. Check web stability using AISC 360-16, Section
K1.3 Step 7: Verify Connection Capacity

3. If unstable, consider stiffening or modifying 1. Calculate connection's available strength (ASD

Step 4: Design Seat Angle 2. Compare connection forces to available

3. Check seat angle's: - ASCE/SEI 8-19, Section 9.4

- Shear strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.2) 5. Stiffened Seated Connection Design

- Moment strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.3) Step 1: Gather Design Information

- Local buckling (AISC 360-16, Section K1.3) 1. Beam and column sizes and materials

Step 5: Design Connection Plates 2. Beam and column orientations (e.g., vertical,
horizontal)
1. Determine connection plate size and thickness
(W, t) 3. Connection type (stiffened seated)

2. Calculate connection plate's required strength 4. Design loads (DL, LL, WL, etc.)
(ASD or LRFD)
5. Load combinations (ASCE 7-16 or equivalent)
3. Check connection plate's:
Step 2: Determine Connection Forces
- Shear strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.2)
1. Calculate beam end reactions (shear, moment)
- Moment strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.3)
2. Determine connection forces:
- Local buckling (AISC 360-16, Section K1.3)
- Vertical shear (V)
Step 6: Check Bolted Connection
- Horizontal shear (Vh)
1. Determine bolt size, spacing, and edge
- Moment (M)
distance
- Axial force (P)
Step 3: Design Stiffener Plates

1. Determine stiffener plate size and thickness (L,

2. Calculate stiffener plate's required strength

3. Check stiffener plate's:

- Shear strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.2)

- Moment strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.3)

- Local buckling (AISC 360-16, Section K1.3)

Step 4: Design Seat Angle

1. Determine seat angle size and thickness (L, t)

2. Calculate seat angle's required strength (ASD

3. Check seat angle's:

- Shear strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.2)

- Moment strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.3)

- Local buckling (AISC 360-16, Section K1.3)

Step 5: Design Connection Plates

1. Determine connection plate size and thickness

2. Calculate connection plate's required strength

3. Check connection plate's:

- Shear strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.2)

- Moment strength (AISC 360-16, Section J4.3)

- Local buckling (AISC 360-16, Section K1.3))