National technical standards regulation

The European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation (ETRTO) and the Tire and Rim Association (TRA)
are two organizations that influence national tire standards. The objective of the ETRTO include aligning
national tire and rim standards in Europe. The Tire and Rim Association, formerly known as The Tire and
Rim Association of America, Inc., is an American trade organization which standardizes technical
standards. In the United States, the Office of Vehicle Safety Compliance, a component of the Department
of Transportation, is one of the agencies tasked to enforce the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard
(FMVSS). Canada has published tire regulations, such as the Motor Vehicle Tire Safety Regulations SOR
95-148.

Explanation of tire codes

Tire identification diagram

The ISO Metric tire code consists of a string of letters and numbers, as follows:

 An optional letter (or letters) indicating the intended use or vehicle class for the tire:
o P: Passenger Car
o LT: Light Truck
o ST: Special Trailer
o T: Temporary (restricted usage for "space-saver" spare wheels)

P indicates that the tire is engineered to TRA standards, and absence of a letter indicates that the tire is
engineered to ETRTO standards. In practice, the standards of the two organizations have evolved together
and are fairly interchangeable, but not fully, since the Load Index will be different for the same size tire.

 3-digit number: The "nominal section width" of the tire in millimeters; the widest point from both
outer edges (side wall to side wall). The tire surface that touches the road usually has smaller
width.
 /: Slash character for character separation.
  2- or 3-digit number: The "aspect ratio" of the sidewall height as a percentage of the total width
of the tire. If the information is omitted, it is assumed to be 82% (if written, it should be like
xxx/82). If the number is larger than 200, then this is the diameter of the entire tire in millimeters.
 An optional letter indicating construction of the fabric carcass of the tire:
o B: bias belt (where the sidewalls are the same material as the tread, leading to a rigid ride)
o D: diagonal
o R: radial
o if omitted, then it is a cross-ply tire
 1- or 2-digit number: Diameter in inches of the wheel that the tires are designed to fit. There is
the rare exception of metric-diameter tires, such as the use of the 390 size, which in this case
would indicate a wheel of 390 mm in diameter. Few tires are made to this size currently. The
number may be longer where a half-inch size is used, for example many heavy transport trucks
now use 22.5-inch tires.
 2- or 3-digit number: Load index; see table below. Some light-truck tires are approved for "dual
use", that is they can be run in pairs next to each other. If so, separate load indexes will be
specified for single and dual usage. In the example shown in the light-truck tire illustration, the tire
has a load index of 114 if used as a single tire, and a load index of 111 if used in a dual pair.[7] Tires
without this designation are unsafe for dual usage.
 1- or 2-digit/letter combo: Speed rating; see table below
 Additional marks: See subheading below.

Flotation sizes[

Tire identification diagram, light truck specific features

Some light-truck tires follow the Light Truck Numeric or Light Truck High Flotation systems, indicated
by the letters LT at the end instead of the beginning of the sequence, as follows:

 The tire diameter is given for High Flotation tires and omitted from Numeric tires.
o 2-digit number: The diameter of the tire in inches.
o x: Separator character.
  3- or 4-digit number: The section width (cross-section) of the tire in inches. If the tire diameter is
not given, section widths ending in zero (e.g., 7.00 or 10.50) indicate the aspect ratio of 92%,
while section widths not ending in zero (e.g., 7.05 or 10.55) indicate the aspect ratio of 82%. These
aspect ratios often vary from today's tire manufacturer specification.
 Construction of the fabric of the tire:
o B: bias belt
o D: diagonal
o R: radial
 2-digit number: Diameter in inches of the wheel rim that this tire is designed to fit.
 LT: Designates that this is a Light Truck tire.
 Load index and speed rating are sometimes not mandatory for flotation sizes, but must be for any
tire approved for street and highway use.
o 2- or 3-digit number: Load index; see table below.
o 1- or 2-digit/letter combination: Speed rating; see table below.
 Additional marks: See subheading below.

As an example, if a tire size has two sets of numbers (6-12, 5.00-15, 11.2-24), then the first number (5.00-
15) is the approximate width in inches, and the second number (5.00-15) is the rim diameter in inches.

If a tire size has three sets of numbers (15x6.00-6, 26x12.00-12, 31x15.50-15), then the first number
(26x12.00-12) is the approximate height in inches, the second number (26x12.00-12) is the approximate
width in inches, and the third number (26x12.00-12) is the rim diameter in inches.

Load range

The Load Range Letter on light-truck tires indicates their ply rating.

Load Range Ply Rating

A 2
B 4
C 6
D 8
E 10
F 12
G 14
H 16
J 18
L 20
M 22
N 24

Load index[

The load index on a passenger-car tire is a numerical code stipulating the maximum load (mass, or weight)
each tire can carry. For Load Range "B" tires, ETRTO (ISO-Metric) standards specify the load index
rating at an inflation pressure of 36 psi (250 kPa) (table below), while P-Metric standards measure the
load capacity at an inflation pressure of 35 psi (240 kPa). The two standards vary slightly with the
capacity required for different inflation pressures.[

While all ETRTO tires of the same load index will have the same maximum load, P-Metric tires with the
same load index may have different load capacities depending on the tire size. The TRA Inflation Tables
must always be consulted when comparing the load capacity of P-Metric tires; the Load Index alone is not
sufficient. An example: a P205/50R15 Standard Load tire has a load index of 84 and a load rating of
505 kg (1,113 lb) at 35 psi (240 kPa). A P215/50R13 with the same load index of 84 only has a load rating
of 495 kg (1,091 lb), also at 35 psi (240 kPa)

ETRTO produces a Standards Manual (current edition 2010), which contains a number of specifications
and tables. The load index table (2010 page G7) lists the Load index from 0–45 kg (0–99 lb) to 279–
136,000 kg (615–299,829 lb) (although it appears to relate to an inflation pressure of 42 psi (290 kPa) it
doesn't specify, but see Load Inflation Table). The Load Inflation Table references the load index to
inflation pressures between 22 psi (150 kPa) and 42 psi (290 kPa) at 1 psi (6.9 kPa) intervals which is too
large to be included here.

Standard load table (extract from ETRTO standards manual – 2010 page G7
ref 42 psi (290 kPa))
Code Weight Code Weight Code Weight Code Weight
60 250 kg (550 lb) 80 450 kg (990 lb) 100 800 kg (1,800 lb) 120 1,400 kg (3,100 lb)
61 257 kg (567 lb) 81 462 kg (1,019 lb) 101 825 kg (1,819 lb) 121 1,450 kg (3,200 lb)
62 265 kg (584 lb) 82 475 kg (1,047 lb) 102 850 kg (1,870 lb) 122 1,500 kg (3,300 lb)
63 272 kg (600 lb) 83 487 kg (1,074 lb) 103 875 kg (1,929 lb) 123 1,550 kg (3,420 lb)
64 280 kg (620 lb) 84 500 kg (1,100 lb) 104 900 kg (2,000 lb) 124 1,600 kg (3,500 lb)
65 290 kg (640 lb) 85 515 kg (1,135 lb) 105 925 kg (2,039 lb) 125 1,650 kg (3,640 lb)
66 300 kg (660 lb) 86 530 kg (1,170 lb) 106 950 kg (2,090 lb)
67 307 kg (677 lb) 87 545 kg (1,202 lb) 107 975 kg (2,150 lb)
68 315 kg (694 lb) 88 560 kg (1,230 lb) 108 1,000 kg (2,200 lb)
69 325 kg (717 lb) 89 580 kg (1,280 lb) 109 1,030 kg (2,270 lb)
70 335 kg (739 lb) 90 600 kg (1,300 lb) 110 1,060 kg (2,340 lb)
71 345 kg (761 lb) 91 615 kg (1,356 lb) 111 1,090 kg (2,400 lb)
72 355 kg (783 lb) 92 630 kg (1,390 lb) 112 1,120 kg (2,470 lb)
73 365 kg (805 lb) 93 650 kg (1,430 lb) 113 1,150 kg (2,540 lb)
74 375 kg (827 lb) 94 670 kg (1,480 lb) 114 1,180 kg (2,600 lb)
75 387 kg (853 lb) 95 690 kg (1,520 lb) 115 1,215 kg (2,679 lb)
76 400 kg (880 lb) 96 710 kg (1,570 lb) 116 1,250 kg (2,760 lb)
77 412 kg (908 lb) 97 730 kg (1,610 lb) 117 1,285 kg (2,833 lb)
78 425 kg (937 lb) 98 750 kg (1,650 lb) 118 1,320 kg (2,910 lb)
79 437 kg (963 lb) 99 775 kg (1,709 lb) 119 1,360 kg (3,000 lb)

Some of the older letter-code load-range ratings for Light Truck Tires can be found in a chart.
 Tire size Weight (lb) @lb/in2 Weight (lb) @lb/in2
LR Code D E
LT215/85R16 2335 @65 2680 @80
LT225/75R16 2335 @65 2680 @80
LT235/85R16 2623 @65 3042 @80
LT245/75R16 2623 @65 3042 @80

Speed rating

The speed symbol is made up of a single letter or an A with one number. It indicates the maximum speed
at which the tire can carry a load corresponding to its Load Index.

Speed rating
Code mph km/h Code mph km/h
A1 3 5 L 75 120
A2 6 10 M 81 130
A3 9 15 N 87 140
A4 12 20 P 94 150
A5 16 25 Q 100 160
A6 19 30 R 106 170
A7 22 35 S 112 180
A8 25 40 T 118 190
B 31 50 U 124 200
C 37 60 H 130 210
D 40 65 V 149 240
E 43 70 Z over 149 over 240
F 50 80 W 168 270
G 56 90 (W) over 168 over 270
J 62 100 Y 186 300
K 68 110 (Y) over 186 over 300

Prior to 1991, tire speed ratings were shown inside the tire size, before the "R" construction type. The
available codes were SR (112 mph, 180 km/h), HR (130 mph, 210 km/h), VR (in excess of 130 mph,
210 km/h).

Tires with a speed rating higher than 186 mph (300 km/h) are indicated by a Y in parentheses. The load
rating is often included within the parentheses, e.g. (86Y).

In many countries, the law requires that tires must be specified, and fitted, to exceed the maximum speed
of the vehicle they are mounted on, with regards to their speed rating code (except for "temporary-use"
spare tires). In some parts of the European Union, tires that are not fit for a car's or motorcycle's particular
maximum speed are illegal to mount. The sole exception are M+S tires, where a warning sticker stating
the allowed maximum speed must be placed within clear sight of the driver inside the vehicle. Some
manufacturers will install a speed governor if a vehicle is ordered with tires rated below the vehicle's
maximum speed. In some parts of the European Union, e.g. Germany, it is allowed to mount tires with a
lower speed rating code if the car manufacturer specifies tires with a very high speed rating in the
registration documents and the vehicle will not reach this speed based on insufficient power. In this case it
is possible to calculate the appropriate speed rating with a formula.]

Metric to Imperial tire conversion chart[

R15

215/75/15 27.7"x 8.5"

225/70/15 27.4"x 8.9"

225/75/15 28.3"x 8.9"

235/75/15 29.0"x 9.3"

245/75/15 29.5"x 9.6"

255/75/15 30.0"x 10.0"

265/75/15 30.6"x 10.4"

R16

205/85/16 29.7"x 8.1"

215/75/16 28.7"x 8.5"

225/70/16 28.4"x 8.9"

225/75/16 29.2"x 8.9"

235/70/16 29.0"x 9.3"

235/85/16 31.7"x 9.3"

245/70/16 29.5"x 9.6"

245/75/16 30.5"x 9.6"

Wheel/Rim widths[edit]
To determine the allowable range of rim widths for a specific tire size, the TRA Yearbook or the
manufacturer's guide should always be consulted for that specific tire—there is no rule of thumb. Running
a tire on a rim size or type not approved by its manufacturer can result in tire failure and a loss of vehicle
control.

Additional marks
There are numerous other markings on a typical tire, these may include:

 M+S, or M&S: Mud and Snow; A tire that meets the Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA)
and Rubber Association of Canada (RAC) all-season tire definition. These are commonly found on
all-season tires, with self-cleaning tread and average traction in muddy or very snowy conditions,
and for low temperatures. Spike tires have an additional letter, "E" (M+SE).
 M+T, or M&T: Mud and Terrain; Designed to perform in mud or on other terrain that requires
additional traction such as on rocks, in deeper snow, and in loose gravel.
 Mountain Snowflake Pictograph: Winter passenger and light truck tires that meet the severe
snow service requirements of Rubber Manufacturers Association (RMA) and Rubber Association
of Canada (RAC).
 BSW: Black SideWall
 WSW: White SideWall
 OWL: Outline White Lettering
 ORWL: Outlined Raised White Lettering
 RWL: Raised White Lettering
 VSB: Vertical Serrated Band
 BSL: Black Serrated Letters
 E4: Tire approved according ECE-regulations, the number indicating the country of approval.
 030908: Approval number of the tire
 DOT code: All tires for use in the USA have the DOT code, as required by the Department of
Transportation (DOT). It specifies the company, factory, mold, batch, and date of production (two
digits for week of the year plus two digits for year; or two digits for week of the year plus one digit
for year for tires made prior to 2000). Although not law, some tire manufacturers do not

Tire manufactured in 10th week of 2001

suggest using a "new" tire that has been sitting on the shelf for more than six years (Ford Motor
Company) or 10 years (Cooper Tire citing a tire association recommendation). JATMA, the
Japanese Automotive Tyre Manufacturers Association recommends that all tires be inspected at
five years, and all tires that were manufactured more than ten years previous be replaced.
  TL: Tubeless
 TT: Tube-type, tire must be used with an inner-tube
 Made in ...: Country of production
 C: Commercial; tires for light trucks (Example: 185 R14 C)
 B: Bias belted; tires for motorcycles (Example: 150/70 B 17 69 H)—diagonal construction with
belt added under the tread
 SFI, or Inner: Side Facing Inwards; inside of asymmetric tires
 SFO, or Outer: Side Facing Outwards; outside of asymmetric tires
 TWI: Tread Wear Indicator; a device, such as a triangle located where the tread meets the
sidewall. It indicates the location of the raised wear bars in between the tire tread channels.
 LL: Light Load; tires for light usage and loads
 SL: Standard Load; tire for normal usage and loads
 XL: eXtra Load; a tire that allows a higher inflation pressure than a Standard Load tire, which
increases the tire's maximum load
 RF: Reinforced—for Euro-metric tires, the term 'reinforced' means the same thing as 'Extra Load'
 Arrows: Some tread designs are "directional", and designed to perform better when driven in a
specific direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise). Such tires will have an arrow showing which
way the tire should rotate when the vehicle is moving forwards. It is important not to put a
"clockwise" tire on the left hand side of the car or a "counter-clockwise" tire on the right side.
 MO: Original tires for Mercedes-Benz
 MOE: Mercedes-Benz Original Extended
 N-x: Original tires for Porsche where "x" is a "0" for the first approved in that size, "1" the second,
...
 Star: Original tires for BMW
 RSC in a Circle: BMW Runflat System Component
 TPC: General Motors OE Fitments
 AMx: Aston Martin OE Fitments
 "100T": Commonly appears after tire size. Meaning: Standard Load Inflation Table (100) &
Speed Rating (T)
 "J": Jaguar Original Manufacturer fitment
 To facilitate proper balancing, most tire manufacturers also mark red circles (uniformity) and/or
yellow dots (weight) on the sidewalls of their tires to enable the best possible match-mounting of
the tire/wheel assembly.

Tire geometry
When referring to the purely geometrical data, a shortened form of the full notation is used. To take a
common example, 195/55R16 would mean that the nominal width of the tire is approximately 195 mm at
the widest point, the height of the side-wall of the tire is 55% of the width (107 mm in this example) and
that the tire fits 16-inch-diameter (410 mm) wheels. The code gives a direct calculation of the theoretical
diameter of the tire. For a size shown as "T/A_W" use (2×T×A/100) + (W×25.4) for a result in millimeters
or (T*A/1270)+ W for a result in inches. Take the common example used above;
(2×195×55/100)+(16×25.4) = 621 mm or (195×55/1270)+16 = 24.44 inches.

Less commonly used in the USA and Europe (but often in Japan for example) is a notation that indicates
the full tire diameter instead of the aspect ratio of the side-wall height. To take the same example, a 16-
inch wheel would have a diameter of 406 mm. Adding twice the tire height (2×107 mm) makes a total
620 mm tire diameter. Hence, a 195/55R16 tire might alternatively be labelled 195/620R16.

Whilst this is theoretically ambiguous, in practice these two notations may easily be distinguished because
the height of the side-wall of an automotive tire is typically much less than the width. Hence when the
height is expressed as a percentage of the width, it is almost always less than 100% (and certainly less
than 200%). Conversely, vehicle tire diameters are always larger than 200 mm. Therefore, if the second
number is more than 200, then it is almost certain the Japanese notation is being used—if it is less than
200 then the U.S./European notation is being used.

The diameters referred to above are the theoretical diameter of the tire. The actual diameter of a specific
tire size can only be found in the TRA Yearbook or the manufacturer's data books.[21] Note that the tire's
cross-section and diameter are always specified when measured on a wheel of a specified width; different
widths will yield different tire dimensions.

Examples]

The tires on a BMW Mini Cooper might be labeled: P195/55R16 85H

 P — these tires are for a passenger vehicle. However 'P' denotes P metric size load and speed
rating changes for P tire & non-P tires.
 195 — the nominal width of the tire is approximately 195 mm at the widest point
 55 — indicates that the height of the sidewall of the tire is 55% of the width (107 mm)
 R — this is a radial tire
 16 — this tire fits 16 in (410 mm) wheels
 85 — the load index, a maximum of 515 kg (1,135 lb) per tire in this case
 H — the speed index, this means the maximum permitted speed, here 210 km/h (130 mph).

The tires on a Hummer H1 might be labeled: 37X12.5R17LT

 37 - the tire is 37 in (940 mm) in diameter

 12.5 - the tire has a cross section of 12.5 in (320 mm)
 R - this is a radial tire
 17 - this tire fits 17 in (430 mm) wheels
 LT - this is a light truck tire.

Historical Tire Codes

North America
Prior to 1964, tires were all made to a 90% aspect ratio. Tire size was specified by the tire width in inches
and the diameter in inches - for example 6.50-15.

From 1965 to the early 70's, tires were made to an 80% aspect ratio. Tire size was again specified by
width in inches and diameter in inches. To differentiate from the earlier 90-ratio tires, the decimal point is
usually omitted from the width - for example 685-15 for a tire 6.85 inches wide.

Starting in 1972 tires were specified by load rating, using a letter code. In practice a higher load rating tire
was also a wider tire. In this system a tire had a letter, optionally followed by "R" for radial tires, followed
by the aspect ratio, a dash and the diameter - C78-15 or CR78-15 for bias and radial respectively. Each
diameter of wheel had a separate sequence of load ratings, thus a C78-14 and a C78-15 are not the same
width. 78% aspect ratio was typical for letter sized tires, although 70% was also common and lower
profiles down to 50% were occasionally seen.

Plus sizing is the practice of replacing an automotive wheel with one of a larger diameter fitted with a
new tire of lower aspect ratio so that the new tire has the same diameter and circumference as the original
tire to prevent any changes in speedometer accuracy, torque and traction control, while reducing sidewall
flex and--generally--increasing cornerning ability.

The number following the "plus" describes the number of inches which is added to the diameter of the
rim. For example, plus one sizing means increasing the wheel by one inch--from a 15" to a 16" for
example.

A 'plus zero' upgrade means changing to a wider tire size while using the same diameter wheel.

Changing to a wider tire requires reducing the aspect ratio (the second number in the sequence of numbers
that describes the tire's size). Since the aspect ratio is a percentage which is used to calculate the height of
the tire's sidewall, if follows that if a larger number is used for the width, a smaller number must be
substituted if the final result is to remain the same—which is the objective of Plus sizing.

Plus sizing example

Original tire Plus zero Plus one Plus two
195/65r15 205/60R15 215/55R16 225/45R17

Advantages
Larger tires improve handling and cornering, due to wider tread faces and stiffer sidewalls. Wider tires
may decrease braking distances on dry pavement.

Larger wheels with lower profile tires are sometimes aesthetically or culturally desirable.

Disadvantages
Larger wheels typically cost more. Wider tires tend to be more expensive because they are less common,
and there is less competition between brands.

Performance improvements beyond what is achieved in a Plus One sizing are minimal.

Lower profile tires tend to have stiffer sidewalls, which might decrease riding comfort.

Low profile tires are likely to sustain more damage to tires and wheel rims when encountering road debris
and potholes.[1]

During winter, wider tires perform worse. Narrower tires exert more pressure on the contact patch,
maintaining better road contact through snow.

Larger and wider wheels decreases fuel efficiency and increases consumption. A larger tire footprint can
increase the time taken for "return to center" (steering) after taking a sharp turn.

Plus Size Wheels & Tires

Large diameter wheels and wide, low profile tires go together and show up everywhere from America's
new car showrooms to its roads, tracks and trails. So whether the vehicle came from the assembly line or
was upgraded after it was delivered, Plus Sizing (also called "Inch-Up" sizing in other parts of the world)
probably played a role in its tire size choice. Plus Sizing allows tires and wheels to make a fashion
statement while providing a functional improvement.

Plus Sizing dates back to the 1970s when Plus One and Plus Two fitments were the available choices.
Drivers could upgrade their cars from relatively narrow 13-, 14- or 15-inch wheels and tires up to wider
14-, 15- or 16-inch combinations. While Plus One and Plus Two are still popular today, the starting point
now typically begins with 15- or 16-inch wheel diameters and grows from there.

Plus Sizing supports the premise that it's important to maintain the same overall tire diameter whenever
changing tires and wheel sizes to ensure sufficient ground clearance, appropriate driveline gearing and
accurate speedometer readings. Large changes in overall tire diameter can alter the accuracy of the
speedometer as well as the effectiveness of anti-lock braking system (ABS), traction control and vehicle
stability system.

PLUS SIZE WHEEL AND TIRE EXAMPLES

ROLLOVER PLUS SIZE TAB TO COMPARE
Plus Sizing wheels and tires is one of the easiest ways to improve the image of a vehicle. The visual
appeal is obvious since alloy wheels are more attractive than tire sidewalls, and bigger wheels combined
with shorter tire sidewalls produce a powerful image.

Using tires with shorter sidewalls also quickens steering response and increases cornering stability.
Combining them with larger diameter wheels makes it possible to properly maintain the overall wheel
and tire diameter, keeping odometer and speedometer changes negligible.

Plus Sizing's biggest risks stem from accidental encounters with potholes, curbs and debris on the road.
Low profile tire sidewalls can be pinched more easily between the road and the rim because shorter
sidewalls cannot accommodate impact as well as taller sidewalls. Once a vehicle has been Plus Sized, the
driver has to try to go around obstacles, rather than run over them.

Additionally, wide tires tend to float on loose surfaces and cannot process water as quickly as narrow
tires. This reduces snow traction and hydroplaning resistance when driving on water-soaked highways.

And finally, the maximum Plus Size applications for pickup trucks and sport utility vehicles result in
wheel and tire combinations that are significantly heavier than the vehicle's Original Equipment (O.E.)
tires and wheels. This increase in weight can lead to longer stopping distances, as well as increased
suspension and brake wear.

Here's How We Do It!

We select O.E. equivalent tire diameters and load capacities by matching wider, lower profile tires
with wider, larger diameter wheels. This maintains the accuracy of the vehicle's speed dependent
systems, while reducing braking distances, improving responsiveness and increasing stability.

A Plus Sizing rule of thumb is to increase tire width by 10 millimeters and decrease sidewall height
by 5 to 10 percent for each 1-inch increase in wheel diameter.

You will often find only +/- a few tenths of an inch difference in the overall diameter of the tires, as
shown. This results in a negligible +/- four tenths of a mph speedometer variance

Alignment

While it's often referred to simply as an "alignment" or "wheel alignment," it's really complex suspension
angles that are being measured and a variety of suspension components that are being adjusted. This
makes an alignment an important suspension-tuning tool that greatly influences the operation of the
vehicle's tires.

Out-of-alignment conditions occur when the suspension and steering systems are not operating at their
desired angles. Out-of-alignment conditions are most often caused by spring sag or suspension wear (ball
joints, bushings, etc.) on an older vehicle. They can also be the result of an impact with a pothole or curb,
or a change in vehicle ride height (lowered or raised) on any vehicle regardless of age.

Incorrect alignment settings will usually result in more rapid tire wear. Therefore, alignment should be
checked whenever new tires or suspension components are installed, and any time unusual tire wear
patterns appear. Alignment should also be checked after the vehicle has encountered a major road hazard
or curb.

"...an alignment an important suspension-tuning tool that greatly influences the

operation of the vehicle's tires...Incorrect alignment settings will usually result in
more rapid tire wear."

Front-End, Thrust Angle and Four-Wheel Alignment

The different types of alignments offered today are front-end, thrust angle, and four-wheel. During a front-
end alignment, only the front axle's angles are measured and adjusted. Front-end alignments are fine for
some vehicles featuring a solid rear axle, but confirming that the front tires are positioned directly in front
of the rear tires is also important.
On a solid rear axle vehicle, this requires a thrust angle alignment that allows the technician to confirm
that all four wheels are "square" with each other. Thrust angle alignments also identify vehicles that would
"dog track" going down the road with the rear end offset from the front. If the thrust angle isn't zero on
many solid rear axle vehicles, a trip to a frame straightening shop is required to return the rear axle to its
original location.

On all vehicles with four-wheel independent suspensions, or front-wheel drive vehicles with adjustable
rear suspensions, the appropriate alignment is a four-wheel alignment. This procedure "squares" the
vehicle like a thrust angle alignment, and also includes measuring and adjusting the rear axle angles as
well as the front.

Not all vehicles are easily adjustable or fully adjustable. Some vehicles require aftermarket kits to allow
sufficient adjustment to compensate for accident damage or the change in alignment due to the installation
of lowering springs.

When aligning a vehicle, it's appropriate for the vehicle to be carrying its "typical" load. This is important
for drivers who continuously carry loads in their vehicles, such as sales representatives with samples or
literature in the trunk. Additionally, when a vehicle is used for autocross or track events, some racers will
sit in their car, or have the alignment shop "ballast" their vehicle to include the influence of the driver's
weight on the suspension angles.

The primary static suspension angles that need to be measured and adjusted are caster, camber, toe and
thrust angle. Here's a definition of each angle and its influence on a vehicle and its tires.

Camber

The camber angle identifies how far the tire slants away from vertical when viewed directly from the front
or back of the vehicle. Camber is expressed in degrees, and is said to be negative when the top of the tire
tilts inward toward the center of the vehicle and positive when the top leans away from the center of the
vehicle.

Since street suspensions cannot completely compensate for the outer tire tipping towards the outside when
the vehicle leans in a corner, there isn't a magical camber setting that will allow the tires to remain vertical
when traveling straight down the road (for more even wear), and remain perpendicular to the road during
hard cornering (for more generous grip).
Different driving styles can also influence the desired camber angle as well. An enthusiastic driver who
corners faster than a reserved driver will receive more cornering grip and longer tire life from a tire
aligned with more negative camber. However with the aggressive negative camber, a reserved driver's
lower cornering speeds would cause the inside edges of the tires to wear faster than the outside edges.

What's the downside to negative camber? Negative camber leans both tires on the axle towards the center
of the vehicle. Each tire develops an equal and offsetting "camber thrust" force (the same principle that
causes a motorcycle to turn when it leans) even when the vehicle is driven straight ahead. If the vehicle
encounters a bump that only causes one tire to lose some of its grip, the other tire's negative camber will
push the vehicle in the direction of the tire that lost grip. The vehicle may feel more "nervous" and become
more susceptible to tramlining. Excessive camber will also reduce the available straight-line grip required
for rapid acceleration and hard stops.

Appropriate camber settings that take into account the vehicle and driver's aggressiveness will help
balance treadwear with cornering performance. For street-driven vehicles, this means that tire wear and
handling requirements must be balanced according to the driver's needs. The goal is to use enough
negative camber to provide good cornering performance while not requiring the tire to put too much of its
load on the inner edge while traveling in a straight line. Less negative camber (until the tire is
perpendicular to the road at zero camber) typically will reduce the cornering ability, but results in more
even wear.

Even though they have some of the most refined suspensions in the world, the next time you see a head-on
photo of a Formula 1 car or CART Champ Car set up for a road course, notice how much negative camber
is dialed into the front wheels. While this is certainly an example of wear not being as important as grip,
negative camber even helps these sophisticated racing cars corner better.

Caster

The caster angle identifies the forward or backward slope of a line drawn through the upper and lower
steering pivot points when viewed directly from the side of the vehicle. Caster is expressed in degrees and
is measured by comparing a line running through the steering system's upper and lower pivot points
(typically the upper and lower ball joints of an A-arm or wishbone suspension design, or the lower ball
joint and the strut tower mount of a McPherson strut design) to a line drawn perpendicular to the ground.
Caster is said to be positive if the line slopes towards the rear of the vehicle at the top, and negative if the
line slopes towards the front.
A very visual example of positive caster is a motorcycle's front steering forks. The forks point forward at
the bottom and slope backward at the top. This rearward slope causes the front tire to remain stable when
riding straight ahead and tilt towards the inside of the corner when turned.

Caster angle settings allow the vehicle manufacturer to balance steering effort, high speed stability and
front end cornering effectiveness.

Increasing the amount of positive caster will increase steering effort and straight line tracking, as well as
improve high speed stability and cornering effectiveness. Positive caster also increases tire lean when
cornering (almost like having more negative camber) as the steering angle is increased.

What's the downside to positive caster? If the vehicle doesn't have power steering, a noticeable increase in
steering effort will be felt as positive caster is increased. Other than that, the effects of positive caster are
pretty much "positive," especially increasing the lean of the tire when the vehicle is cornering while
returning it to a more upright position when driving straight ahead.

Cross-Camber and Cross-Caster

Most street car alignments call for the front camber and caster settings to be adjusted to slightly different
specifications on the right side of the vehicle compared to the left side. These slight side-to-side
differences are called cross-camber and cross-caster.

For vehicles set up to drive on the "right" side of the road, the right side is aligned with a little more
negative camber (about 1/4-degree) and a little more positive caster (again, about 1/4-degree) to help the
vehicle resist the influence of crowned roads that would cause it to drift "downhill" to the right gutter.
Since most roads are crowned, cross-camber and cross-caster are helpful the majority of the time, however
they will cause a vehicle to drift to the left on a perfectly flat road or a road that leans to the left.

Using cross-camber and cross-caster is not necessary for track-only cars.

Toe

The toe angle identifies the exact direction the tires are pointed compared to the centerline of the vehicle
when viewed from directly above. Toe is expressed in either degrees or fractions-of-an-inch, and an axle
is said to have positive toe-in when imaginary lines running through the centerlines of the tires intersect in
front of the vehicle and have negative toe-out when they diverge. The toe setting is typically used to help
compensate for the suspension bushings compliance to enhance tire wear. Toe can also be used to adjust
vehicle handling.
A rear-wheel drive vehicle "pushes" the front axle's tires as they roll along the road. Tire rolling resistance
causes a little drag resulting in rearward movement of the suspension arms against their bushings. Because
of this, most rear-wheel drive vehicles use some positive toe-in to compensate for the movement, enabling
the tires to run parallel to each other at speed.

Conversely, a front-wheel drive vehicle "pulls" the vehicle through the front axle, resulting in forward
movement of the suspension arms against their bushings. Therefore most front-wheel drive vehicles use
some negative toe-out to compensate for the movement, again enabling the tires to run parallel to each
other at speed.

Toe can also be used to alter a vehicle's handling traits. Increased toe-in will typically result in reduced
oversteer, help steady the car and enhance high-speed stability. Increased toe-out will typically result in
reduced understeer, helping free up the car, especially during initial turn-in while entering a corner.

Before adjusting toe outside the vehicle manufacturer's recommended settings to manipulate handling, be
aware that toe settings will influence wet weather handling and tire wear as well.

Excessive toe settings often bring with them drivability problems, especially during heavy rain. This is
because the daily pounding of tractor trailers on many highways leave ruts that fill with water. Since
excessive toe means that each tire is pointed in a direction other than straight ahead, when the vehicle
encounters a puddle that causes only one tire to lose some of its grip, the other tire's toe setting will push
(excessive toe-in) or pull (excessive toe-out) the vehicle to the side. This may make the vehicle feel
unsettled and very "nervous."

Additionally the vehicle's toe is one of the most critical alignment settings relative to tire wear. A toe
setting that is just a little off its appropriate setting can make a huge difference in their wear. Consider that
if the toe setting is just 1/16-inch off of its appropriate setting, each tire on that axle will scrub almost
seven feet sideways every mile! Extend it out and you'll discover that rather than running parallel to each
other, the front tires will scrub over 1/4-mile sideways during every 100 miles of driving! Incorrect toe
will rob you of tire life.

Thrust Angle

The thrust angle is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the rear axle's centerline. It compares the
direction that the rear axle is aimed with the centerline of the vehicle. It also confirms if the rear axle is
parallel to its front axle and that the wheelbase on both sides of the vehicle is the same.
If the thrust angle is not correct on a vehicle with a solid rear axle, it often requires a trip to the frame
straightening shop to correctly reposition the rear axle.

A vehicle with independent rear axles may have incorrect toe-in or toe-out on both sides of the axle, or
may have toe-in on one side and toe-out on the other. The suspension on each side of the vehicle must be
adjusted individually until it has reached the appropriate toe setting for its side of the vehicle.

An incorrect thrust angle is often caused by an out-of-position axle or incorrect toe settings. So in addition
to the handling quirks that are the result of incorrect toe settings, thrust angles can also cause the vehicle
to handle differently when turning one direction vs. the other.

Alignment Ranges

The vehicle manufacturers' alignment specifications usually identify a "preferred" angle for camber, caster
and toe (with preferred thrust angle always being zero). The manufacturers also provide the acceptable
"minimum" and "maximum" angles for each specification. The minimum and maximum camber and
caster specifications typically result in a range that remains within plus or minus 1-degree of the preferred
angle.

If for whatever reason your vehicle can't reach within the acceptable range, replacing bent parts or an
aftermarket alignment kit will be required. Fortunately there is a kit for almost every popular vehicle due
to the needs of body and frame shops doing crash repairs and driving enthusiasts tuning the suspensions
on their cars.

Recommendations

An accurate wheel alignment is critical to balance the treadwear and performance a vehicle's tires deliver.
Regular wheel alignments will usually save you as much in tire wear as they cost, and should be
considered routine, preventative maintenance. Since there are "acceptable" ranges provided in the
manufacturer's recommendations, the technician should be encouraged to align the vehicle to the preferred
settings and not just within the range.

If you are a reserved driver, aligning your vehicle to the vehicle manufacturer's preferred settings is
appropriate.
If you are an assertive driver who enjoys driving hard through the corners and expressway ramps, a
performance alignment is appropriate for your car. A performance alignment consists of using the vehicle
manufacturer's range of alignment specifications to maximize the tires' performance. A performance
alignment calls for the manufacturer's maximum negative camber, maximum positive caster, and preferred
toe settings. While remaining within the vehicle manufacturer's recommendations, these alignment
settings will maximize tire performance.

If you are a competition driver who frequently runs autocross, track or road race events, you'll typically
want the maximum negative camber, maximum positive caster and most aggressive toe settings available
from the car and permitted by the competition rules. If the rules permit, aftermarket camber plates and
caster adjustments are good investments.

Calculating Approximate Tire Dimensions

Most modern passenger car and light truck tires feature size designations that indicate the tire's dimensions
in a combination of metric, mathematical and English systems. While this unusual combination of
millimeters, percentages and inches is a byproduct of the evolution of global tire specifications, it also
provides the ability to calculate/estimate basic tire dimensions.

Example size: 225/45R17

The first three numbers in a typical size (225/45R17) are the tire's indicated section width in millimeters,
measured from sidewall to sidewall.
If you are familiar with measurements in inches, the section width in millimeters can be converted into
inches by dividing it by 25.4. For example:

225mm / 25.4 = 8.86"

The second pair of numbers (225/45R17) is the tire's aspect ratio or profile. This percentage represents the
ratio of sidewall's section height to the tire's section width. The section height can be calculated by
multiplying the section width by the aspect ratio percentage. The answer will be the height of one
sidewall. For example:

225mm x 0.45 = 101.3mm

8.86" x 0.45 = 3.99"

The last number (225/45R17) is the diameter of the wheel in inches.

If you are familiar with measurements in the metric system, the wheel diameter can be converted into
millimeters by multiplying it by 25.4. For example:

17" x 25.4 = 431.8mm

To calculate the overall diameter of a tire, the sidewall height must be multiplied by 2 (remembering that
the tire diameter is made up of 2 sidewalls, the one above the wheel and the one below the wheel touching
the ground) and add the diameter of the wheel.

101.3mm + 101.3mm + 431.8mm = 634.4mm

3.99" + 3.99" + 17" = 24.98"

"[The] unusual combination of millimeters, percentages and inches is a by product

of the evolution of global tire specifications, [and] provides the ability to
calculate/estimate basic tire dimensions."

Warning: These calculations (and those provided by all online tire dimension calculators) only reflect
nominal tire dimensions, which are often subtly or substantially different than the tire's actual physical
size and/or the dimensions provided by the tire manufactures.

Drivers working with close fitment tolerances or trying to maintain the original tire diameter of staggered
size fitments (similarities or differences) should use the tire manufacturer's specifications for the exact
tire(s) they are considering.
Actual Tire Section Width is Dependent on Wheel Width

All tire sizes are assigned specific rim widths upon which they are measured (measuring rim), as well as
can often be mounted on slightly narrower or wider wheels (rim width range). Therefore, it is important to
note that actual tire section width will depend on the wheel width the tire is mounted on. The rule of
thumb is that tire section width changes by 0.2" for every 0.5" change in rim width, being reduced if
mounted on narrower than measuring wheel and increased when mounted on wider wheels.

Contact Patch
The shape of a tire's contact patch or "footprint" greatly influences its performance
and is dependent on its profile or "aspect ratio". Low profile tires (most performance
tires) have a short and wide contact patch that is effective in converting the driver's
input into very responsive handling, cornering stability and traction...especially on
dry roads.

High profile tires (light truck and most passenger tires) have a long and narrow
contact patch which helps to provide predictable handling, a smooth ride and
especially good traction in snow.

What is an Alloy Wheel?

Alloy metals provide superior strength and dramatic weight reductions over ferrous metals such as steel,
and as such they represent the ideal material from which to create a high performance wheel. In fact, today
it is hard to imagine a world class racing car or high performance road vehicle that doesn't utilize the
benefits of alloy wheels.
The alloy used in the finest road wheels today is a blend of aluminum and other elements. The term "mag
wheel" is sometimes incorrectly used to describe alloy wheels. Magnesium is generally considered to be
an unsuitable alloy for road usage due to its brittle nature and susceptibility to corrosion. (Flammability
doesn't help either!)

Tires should be serviced periodically following the rotation patterns provided in the vehicle's owner's
manual or as established by the industry. Using tire rotation as a preventative maintenance will equalize
front-to-rear and side-to-side wear rates while enhancing wear quality and pattern noise. Any minor 1/32"
to 2/32" differences in front-to-rear tread depth between tires that might be encountered immediately after
periodic tire rotations at 3,000-5,000 mile intervals won't upset the vehicle's hydroplaning balance and
should not preclude rotating tires. For that matter, any differences in wear rates actually indicate that tire
rotations should be done more frequently.

"When done at the recommended times, [tire rotation] can preserve balanced
handling and traction and even out tire wear. Tire rotation can even provide
performance advantages."

Tire rotation can be beneficial in several ways. When done at the recommended times, it can preserve
balanced handling and traction and even out tire wear. Tire rotation can even provide performance
advantages.

Many tire mileage warranties require tire rotation to keep the warranty valid. When should tires be
rotated? We recommend that tires be rotated every 3,000 to 5,000 miles even if they don't show signs of
wear. Tire rotation can often be done with oil change intervals while the vehicle is off the ground. This
can also be a good time to have your tires rebalanced if the vehicle has developed a vibration. It's also a
good time to inspect the tires for any damage, remove stones or debris from the tire treads, check for
uneven wear by checking the tire tread depth and of course, checking your tire pressure.

Tire rotation helps even out tire wear by allowing each tire to serve in as many of the vehicle's wheel
positions as possible. Remember, tire rotation can't correct wear problems due to worn mechanical parts or
incorrect inflation pressures.

While vehicles are typically equipped with four tires, usually the tires on the front axle need to accomplish
very different tasks than the tires on the rear axle. The tasks encountered on a front-wheel drive vehicle
are considerably different than those of a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Tire wear experienced on a
performance vehicle will usually be more severe than that of a family sedan. Each wheel position can
cause different wear rates and different types of tire wear.

It is an advantage when all four tires wear together because as wear reduces a tire's tread depth, it allows
all four tires to respond to the driver's input more quickly, maintains the handling and helps increase the
tire's cornering traction.

When your tires wear out together, you can get a new set of tires without being forced to buy pairs. If you
replace tires in sets of four, you will maintain the original handling balance. In addition, our suppliers
constantly introduce new tires, each of which improves upon their past product's performance. If you
 replace your tires in sets of four, it allows you to experience today's technology, instead of being forced to
match yesterday's.

Seasonal Changeovers Provide Opportunities for Tire Rotation

For drivers living in America's Snowbelt that will encounter cold wintry weather conditions, seasonal
changeovers to their winter tires and back will provide the opportunity for tire rotations. For drivers that
run an average of 12,000-15,000 miles per year, pre- and post-winter tire changeovers represent two of
their three annual rotations. All they have to do is rotate their summer tires once more in July to complete
their annual preventative maintenance.

Four (4) Tire Rotation

What tire rotation pattern should be followed? The Tire & Rim Association has identified three traditional
rotation patterns covering most vehicles (equipped with non-directional tires and wheels which are the
same size and offset). The first being the "Rearward Cross" (Figure A); the second being the "Forward
Cross" (Figure C); and the third is the "X-Pattern" (Figure B). The X-Pattern can be used as an alternative
to A or C.

Today's performance tire and wheel trends have provided the need for two additional tire rotation patterns.

 The "Front-to-Rear" (Figure D) pattern may be used for vehicles equipped

with the same size directional wheels and/or directional tires.
 A "Side-to-Side" (Figure E) pattern may be used for vehicles equipped
with different sized non-directional tires and wheels on the front axle
compared to the rear axle.
 If the last two rotation patterns do not provide even wear, dismounting, mounting and re-balancing will be
necessary to rotate the tires.

Vehicles that use different sized directional wheels and tires, and/or wheels with different front and rear
offsets with directional tires will require dismounting, mounting and re-balancing to rotate tires.

Five (5) Tire Rotation

While many vehicles are equipped with temporary spares that cannot be included in a tire rotation
program, if the vehicle's four wheels and tires on the ground match the spare wheel and tire (if non-
directional and not branded "for temporary use"), they should be included in the tire rotation pattern.
Follow the vehicle manufacturer's recommended tire rotation procedures, or if not available, insert the
spare in the right rear position at every rotation. Place the tire that would have gone to the right rear in the
trunk as the spare until the next tire rotation.

 On front-wheel drive cars with full-size matching spare, rotate the tires in a
forward cross pattern (Figure F)
 On rear-wheel or four-wheel drive cars with full-size matching spare, rotate
the tires in a rearward cross pattern (Figure G)
Five tire rotation results in equally distributed use that will help maintain equivalent tread depths on all
five tires throughout their life. When applied to many four-wheel drive and all-wheel drive vehicles, this is
required to prevent driveline damage if a flat tire forces a new spare to be put into service with partially
worn tires on the other three wheel positions.

Studded Winter / Snow Tire Rotation

In order to achieve the best possible wintertime performance and longest lifetime from a set of studded
tires, they should be rotated periodically to equally share the vehicle's workload. Tire rotation will help all
four tires maintain equivalent tire wear throughout their life in spite of the different driving demands
experienced on a vehicle's steering and non-steering positions, as well as its driven vs. non-driven axles.
The resulting equivalent tread depths will help balance traction levels and handling characteristics, as well
as help drivers get more life out of their set of four tires.

Tire Rack recommends rotating studded tires at the beginning of every winter season or every 4,000 miles,
whichever comes first.

The rolling direction of studded tires should never be changed.

This can be achieved by rotating tires from front to rear on the same side of the vehicle.

It is also permitted to remount the tires inside-out on the wheels to allow them to be used on other side of
the vehicle if uneven wear due to camber is detected.