CSC 113: Electronics

LESSON FIVE: Introduction to Transistor

By
Dr. Ronoh K, R., PhD
School of Computing and Informatics
Department of Computer Science
 Lesson Objectives
• Upon completion of the chapter the learner should
be able to:
– Differentiate between two types of transistors, BJT
and FET
– Become acquainted with the basic construction and
operation of the Bipolar Junction Transistor.
– Be able to use the proper biasing to ensure operation
in the active region.
– Identify and be able to expound on the characteristics
of an NPN or PNP transistor.
– Become accustomed with the important parameters
that define the response of a transistor.
– Be able to test a transistor and identify the three
terminals
 INTRODUCTION
• Definition: A transistor is semiconductor device which
transfers a signal from a low resistance to high
resistance.
• A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by
sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite types.
• There are two broad categories of a transistor:
– Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
participate in the injection process into the oppositely polarized
material.
– Field Effect Transistor (FET)
• Field Effect Transistor is a unipolar three terminal
semiconductor device in which current conduction is by one
type of carrier i.e., electrons or holes.
 Construction of BJT
• A bipolar junction transistor is a three-
layer semiconductor device consisting of
two PN junctions formed by sandwiching
either P-type or N-type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite types.
• Accordingly there are two types of bipolar
junction transistors as shown in figure 5.1
• Accordingly there are two types of bipolar
junction transistors as shown in figure 5.1

• Figure 5.1 i) P-N-P transistorii) N-P-N transistor

• Figure 5.2: Transistor circuit symbols
 BJT
• The three layers of the bipolar junction
transistor are named as the emitter (E),
base (B) and collector (C).
• The doping levels of each layer vary.
• The emitter is heavily doped, the base is
lightly doped and the collector is
moderately doped.
 BJT
• The outer layers have widths much greater
than the sandwiched P- or N-type material.
• The doping of the sandwiched layer is
also considerably less than that of the
outer layers (typically, or less).
• This lower doping level decreases the
conductivity of the material by limiting the
number of free carriers.
 BJT
• Each layer can be accessed externally by a
terminal named according to the layer.
• The junction between the emitter and the base
is denoted as the Emitter-Base Junction (EB )
J

and the junction between the collector and the

base is denoted Collector-Base Junction (CB ). J

• The direction of emitter arrow indicates

direction of current flow.
• The operation of the transistor depends on
how the junctions are biased.
 BJT
• Consequently, biasing can effected in
three ways:
– Both junctions are forward biased
– Both junctions are reverse biased
– One junction is forward biased while the other
is reversed.
• The main difference between NPN and
PNP transistors is in the direction of
currents.
 BJT
• For ease of our discussion we can choose
to use NPN transistor because it is
commonly used because the main charge
carriers are electrons and hence can be
used in high frequency applications.
Forward Biasing both junctions
• By forward biasing both junctions, the barriers
to diffusion current flow are lowered allowing
huge currents to flow with small voltage drops
(forward biased junctions).
– This looks like a closed switch (large current,
small voltage drops).
– The width of the depletion regions decrease and
the forward resistance becomes ideally zero.
– In this case the transistor becomes saturated and
the current that flows is very large and is known
as the saturation current.
Forward Biasing both junctions

– Figure 5.3: Both Junctions Forward Biased

 Both junctions are reverse biased
• By reverse biasing both junctions, the barriers
to diffusion current flow are increased resulting
in only a small leakage current flowing.
– The widths of the depletion regions increase and
the reverse resistance becomes ideally infinite.
– This looks like an open switch (large voltage
drops, small current).
• In this case the transistor becomes cut off and
the current that flows is very low and is known
as the leakage current.
Both junctions are reverse biased

• Figure 5.4: Both junctions reverse Biased

 Forward Biasing one junction and
reverse biasing the other
• As seen for the two biasing above the
transistor can be used as a switch, ON
when both junctions are forward biased
and OFF when both junctions are reverse
biased.
• To be used as an amplifier the EBJ is
forward biased and the CBJ is reverse
biased
Forward Biasing one junction and
reverse biasing the other

• Figure 5.5: BJT biasing for amplification

 Forward Biasing one junction and
reverse biasing the other
• By forward biasing the EB junction, the barrier to
diffusion current flow is lowered allowing huge
concentrations of carriers to flow from the emitter
into the base with small voltage drops (forward
biased junction) where it diffuses (and partially
recombines) on its way toward the collector.
• By reverse biasing the BC junction, large voltages are
supported and since this reverse bias scavenges the
emitter current surviving the diffusion in the base,
the collector current almost matches the emitter
current (in the case of a thin base).
 Forward Biasing one junction and
reverse biasing the other
• The combination of large currents
(originating from the forward biased EB
junction) and large voltages (supported
across the reverse biased CB junction) result
in large power (amplification is possible) as
shown in figure 5.6.

• Figure 5.6 forward

– biased EB junction and
– reverse biased CB junction
 TRANSISTOR CURRENT
RELATIONSHIP
• When the EBJ is forward biased and the CBJ is
reverse biased the various currents that flow
are as shown in figure 5.7.

– Figure 5.7: Flow of currents in a biased PNP

transistor
 TRANSISTOR CURRENT
RELATIONSHIP
• The magnitude of the base current is typically on
the order of microamperes, as compared to
milliamperes for the emitter and collector currents.
• The larger number of these majority carriers will
diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into the
p -type material connected to the collector
terminal as indicated in Fig. 5.7.
• The reason for the relative ease with which the
majority carriers can cross the reverse-biased
junction is easily understood if we consider that
for the reverse-biased diode the injected majority
carriers will appear as minority carriers in the P-
type material.
 TRANSISTOR CURRENT
RELATIONSHIP
• Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the
transistor of Fig. 5.7 as if it were a single
node, we obtain:

• It can be noted that the emitter current is

the sum of the collector and base currents.
 TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT
CONFIGURATION
• As the Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three terminal
device, there are basically three possible ways to
connect it within an electronic circuit with one
terminal being common to both the input and output.
• Each method of connection responding differently
to its input signal within a circuit as the static
characteristics of the transistor vary with each
circuit arrangement.
– Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no
Current Gain.
– Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and
Voltage Gain.
– Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but
no Voltage Gain.
 COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

• The common-base terminology is derived

from the fact that the base is common to
both the input and output sides of the
configuration.
• In addition, the base is usually the terminal
closest to, or at, ground potential.
 COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
• Throughout this discussion all current
directions will refer to conventional (hole)
flow rather than electron flow.
• The result is that the arrows in all electronic
symbols have a direction defined by this
convention.
• Recall that the arrow in the diode symbol
defined the direction of conduction for
conventional current.
 COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

• For the transistor:

• The arrow in the graphic symbol defines
the direction of emitter current
(conventional flow) through the device.

• Figure 5.8 CB configuration

 COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

• Note in each case that IE= IC+ IB.

• Note also that the applied biasing (voltage
sources) are such as to establish current
in the direction indicated for each branch.
• That is, compare the direction of IE to the
polarity of VEE for each configuration and
the direction of IC to the polarity of VCC.
• To describe fully the behavior of a three-
terminal device such as the common-base
amplifiers of Fig. 5.8 requires two sets of
characteristics:
– Input characteristics and
– Output characteristics
 Input Characteristics
• The input set for the
common-base amplifier
as shown in figure 5.9 relates
an input current (IE) to an input
voltage ( VEB) for various levels
of output voltage ( VCB).

» Figure 5.9: Input characteristic curves of CB configuration

• The output set relates an output current (IC)
to an output voltage (VCB) for various levels of
input current ( IE) as shown in Figure 3.10 .
• The output or collector set of characteristics
has three basic regions of interest.
• Active region
• Saturation region
• Cutoff region
 Output characteristics-CB

Figure 5.10: Output characteristics of CB

configuration
 Output characteristics-CB
• The active region is the region normally
employed for linear (undistorted)
amplifiers.
• In particular:
– In the active region the base–emitter junction
is forward-biased, whereas the collector–base
junction is reverse-biased.
 Output characteristics-CB
• In Figure 5.10 it is noted that as the emitter
current increases above zero, the collector
current increases to a magnitude essentially
equal to that of the emitter current as
determined by the basic transistor-current
relations.
• Note also the almost negligible effect of VCB on
the collector current for the active region.
• The curves clearly indicate that a first
approximation to the relationship between IE
and IC in the active region is given by
 Output characteristics-CB
• As inferred by its name, the cutoff region is defined as
that region where the collector current is 0 A, as
revealed on Fig. 5.10. In addition:
– In the cutoff region the base–emitter and collector–base
junctions of a transistor are both reverse-biased.
• The saturation region is defined as that region of the
characteristics to the left of .
• The horizontal scale in this region was expanded to
clearly show the dramatic change in characteristics in
this region.
• Note the exponential increase in collector current as
the voltage V increases toward 0 V.
– In the saturation region the base–emitter and collector–
CB

base junctions are forward-biased.

 EXAMPLE 3.1
• Using the characteristics of Fig. 5.10, determine
the resulting collector current if I =3mA and
E
V =10V.
CB

• Using the characteristics of Fig. 5.10, determine

the resulting collector current if I remains at 3mA
E
but V is reduced to 2V.
CB

• Solution
– The characteristics clearly indicate that IC=IE= 3 mA.
– The effect of changing VCB is negligible and IC
continues to be 3 mA.
 Alpha (α) -DC Mode
• In the dc mode the levels of I and I due to the
C

majority carriers are related by a quantity called

E

alpha and defined by the following equation:

• Where I and I are the levels of current at the

C E

point of operation. Even though the

characteristics of Fig. 5.10 would suggest that
α =1, for practical devices alpha typically
extends from 0.90 to 0.998, with most values
approaching the high end of the range.
 AC Mode
• For ac situations where the point of
operation moves on the characteristic curve,
an ac alpha is defined by

• The ac alpha is formally called the common-

base short-circuit, amplification factor or
gain.
• For most situations the magnitudes of αac and
αdc are quite close, permitting the use of the
magnitude of one for the other.
 THE COMMON COLLECTOR (CC)
CONFIGURATION
• In the Common Collector or grounded collector
configuration, the collector is now common
through the supply.
• The input signal is connected directly to the base,
while the output is taken from the emitter load
as shown.
• This type of configuration is commonly known
as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
• The emitter follower is a current amplifier that
has no voltage gain.
 THE COMMON COLLECTOR (CC)
CONFIGURATION
• Its important characteristics are:
– No voltage gain.
– It has high input impedance & low output
impedance.
– Relatively high current & power gain.
– Input and output ac voltages are in phase.
• Thus it is an ideal circuit for impedance
matching and DC load line analysis.
 THE COMMON COLLECTOR (CC)
CONFIGURATION

• Figure 5.10 Notation and symbols used with the common-

collector configuration: (a) PNP transistor; (b) NPN transistor.
 THE COMMON COLLECTOR (CC)
CONFIGURATION
• For all practical purposes, the output
characteristics of the common-collector
configuration are the same as for the
common-emitter configuration.
• For the common-collector configuration the
output characteristics are a plot of IE versus
VCE for a range of values of IB.
• The input current, therefore, is the same for
both the common-emitter and common-
collector characteristics.
 COMMON EMITTER
CONFIGURATION
• It is the most frequently encountered
transistor configuration.
• The emitter is common to both the input and
output terminals (in this case common to
both the base and collector terminals).
• Two sets of characteristics are again
necessary to describe fully the behavior of
the common-emitter configuration:
– one for the input or base–emitter circuit and
– one for the output or collector–emitter circuit.
 COMMON EMITTER
CONFIGURATION

• (a) (b)
• Figure 5.11: Notation and symbols used with the
common-emitter configuration: (a) NPN transistor; (b)
PNP transistor.
Output and Input Characteristics

• Figure 5.12: Characteristics of a silicon transistor in the

common-emitter configuration: (a) collector (output)
characteristics; (b) base (input) characteristics.
 COMMON EMITTER
CONFIGURATION
• The current relations developed earlier for the
common-base configuration are still applicable.
– That is, IE= IC+ IB and IC= αIE.
• For the common-emitter configuration the
output characteristics are a plot of the output
current (IC) versus output voltage (VCE) for a
range of values of input current (IB).
• The input characteristics are a plot of the input
current (IB) versus the input voltage (VBE) for a
range of values of output voltage (VCE).
 COMMON EMITTER
CONFIGURATION
• In the active region of a common-emitter
amplifier, the base–emitter junction
isforward-biased, whereas the collector–
base junction is reverse-biased.
• The active region of the common-emitter
configuration can be employed for voltage,
current, or power amplification.
• The cutoff region for the common-emitter
configuration is not as well defined as for
the common-base configuration.
 EXAMPLE 3.2
• a) Using the characteristics of Fig. 5.12, determine I C

at I =30 mA and V =10 V.

B CE

• b) Using the characteristics of Fig. 5.12, determine I C

at V =0.7 V and V =15 V.

BE CE

• Solution:
• a) At the intersection of I =30 mA and V =10 V, I =3.4
B
CE
C

mA.
• b) Using Fig. 5.12b, we obtain I =20mA at the
B

intersection of V =0.7 V and V =15 V (between

BE CE

V =10V and 20V). From Fig. 5.12a we find that I =2.5

CE C

mA at the intersection of I =20 mA and V = 15 V.

B
CE
 Beta (β)- DC Mode
• In the dc mode the levels of I and I are related by a
C B

quantity called beta and defined by the following

equation:

• Where I and I are determined at a particular

C B

operating point on the characteristics.

• For practical devices the level of typically ranges
from about 50 to over 400, with most in the
midrange.
• As for α, the parameter β reveals the relative
magnitude of one current with respect to the other.
 Beta (β)- DC Mode
• For a device with a of 200, the collector
current is 200 times the magnitude of the
base current.
• On specification sheets βdc is usually
included as hFE with the italic letter h derived
from an ac hybrid equivalent circuit.
• The subscript FE is derived from forward-
current amplification and common- emitter
configuration, respectively.
 Beta (β)- AC Mode

• For ac situations an ac beta is defined as follows:

• The formal name for β is common-emitter,

ac

forward-current, amplification factor.

• On specification sheets ac is normally referred to
as h . Note that the only difference between the
notation used for the dc beta, specifically, β = h ,
FE

dc FE

is the type of lettering for each subscript quantity.

• Figure 5.13: Determining βacand βdcfrom the
collector characteristics.
• Figure 5.14: Characteristics in which βacis
the same everywhere and βac = βdc.
 β and α
• A relationship can be developed between
β and α using the basic relationships
introduced thus far.
• Beta is a particularly important parameter
because it provides a direct link between
current levels of the input and output
circuits for a common-emitter
configuration. That is,
• For each transistor there is a region of
operation on the characteristics that will
ensure that the maximum ratings are not
being exceeded and the output signal
exhibits minimum distortion.
• Such a region has been defined for the
transistor characteristics of Fig. 5.15.
• Fig. 5.15 : Defining the linear (undistorted)
region of operation for a transistor.
 TRANSISTOR TESTING
• As with diodes, there are three routes one
can take to check a transistor: use of a curve
tracer, a digital meter, and an ohmmeter.
• An ohmmeter or the resistance scales of a
digital multimeter (DMM) can be used to
check the state of a transistor

• 5.16:Checking the forward-biased base-to-emitter

junction of an NPN transistor
– Figure 5.17: Checking the reverse-biased
base-to-collector junction of an NPN transistor.
 Exercise
• F

• Figure 5.18 Figure 5.19

• Using the characteristics of Figs. 5.18 and
5.19, determine IC if VCB= 5 V and VBE=0.7 V.
• Determine VBE if IC=5 mA and VCB=15 V.
• Given an dc of 0.998, determine ICif IE=4 mA.
• Using the characteristics of Fig. 3.30:
– Find the value of IC corresponding to VBE=750
mV and VCE=4 V.
– Find the value of VCEand VBE corresponding to
IC=3.5 mA and IB=30 mA.
• Figure 5.20