Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

1.6 PLANES IN 3-SPACE

1.6.1 Planes Parallel to the Coordinate Planes

Based on below figure,

The graph of x = a is the plane through (a, 0, 0) that is parallel to the yz-plane,
The graph of y = b is the plane through (0, b, 0) that is parallel to the xz-plane,
The graph of z = c is the plane through (0, 0, c) that is parallel to the xy-plane.

1.6.2 Planes Determined by a Point and a Normal Vector

- A plane in 3-space can be determined uniquely by speci-

fying a point in the plane and a vector perpendicular to
the plane (see figure). A vector perpendicular to a plane
is called a normal to the plane.
- Suppose that we want to find an equation of the plane
passing through P0(x0, y0, z0) and perpendicular to the
vector n = (a, b, c). Define the vectors r0 and r as
r0 = (x0, y0, z0) and r = (x, y, z)
- It should be evident from Figure that the plane consists
precisely of those points P(x, y, z) for which the vector
r − r0 is orthogonal to n; or, expressed as an equation,
n . (r − r0) = 0
If preferred, we can express this vector equation in terms of com-
ponents as (a, b, c) . (x − x0, y − y0, z − z0) = 0
from which we obtain
a (x − x0) + b (y − y0) + c (z − z0) = 0
This is called the point-normal form of the equation of a plane.

40
Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

Example: Find an equation of the plane passing through the point (3, −1, 7) and perpendicu-
lar to the vector n = (4, 2, −5).
Solution: a point-normal form of the equation is
4(x − 3) + 2(y + 1) − 5(z − 7) = 0
(4, 2, −5) . (x − 3, y + 1, z – 7) = 0
we obtain an equation of the form
ax + by + cz + d = 0
4x + 2y − 5z + 25 = 0
The following theorem shows that every equation represents a plane in 3-space.
Theorem
If a, b, c, and d are constants, and a, b, and c are not all zero, then the graph of the equation
ax + by + cz + d = 0
is a plane that has the vector n = (a, b, c) as a normal.
Example: Determine whether the planes 3x − 4y + 5z = 0 and − 6x + 8y − 10z − 4 = 0 are
parallel.
Solution: It is clear geometrically that two planes are parallel if and only if their normals are
parallel vectors. A normal to the first plane is
n1 = (3, −4, 5)
and a normal to the second plane is
n2 = (−6, 8, −10)
Since n2 is a scalar multiple of n1, the normals are parallel, and hence so are the planes.
Example: Find an equation of the plane through the points P1(1, 2,−1), P2(2, 3, 1), and
P3(3,−1, 2).
Solution: Since the points P1, P2, and P3 lie in the plane, the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 = (1, 1, 2) and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃3 = (2, −3, 3) are parallel to the plane. Therefore,
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 × 𝑃1 𝑃3 = |1 1 2|
2 −3 3
is normal to the plane, since it is orthogonal to both ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃3 . By using this normal and
the point P1(1, 2,−1) in the plane, we obtain the point-normal form
9(x − 1) + (y − 2) − 5(z + 1) = 0
which can be rewritten as
9x + y − 5z − 16 = 0

41
Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

Example: Determine whether the line x = 3 + 8t, y = 4 + 5t, z = −3 – t is parallel to the plane
x − 3y + 5z = 12.
Solution: The vector v = (8, 5, −1) is parallel to the line and the vector n = (1, −3, 5) is nor-
mal to the plane. For the line and plane to be parallel, the vectors v and n must be orthogonal.
But this is not so, since the dot product v . n = (8)(1) + (5)(−3) + (−1)(5) = −12 is nonzero.
Thus, the line and plane are not parallel. (v . n =0 then right angle)

Example: Find the intersection of the line and plane in the previous example.
Solution: If we let (x0, y0, z0) be the point of intersection, then the coordinates of this point
satisfy both the equation of the plane and the parametric equations of the line. Thus,
x0 − 3y0 + 5z0 = 12 (1)
and for some value of t , say t = t0,
x0 = 3 + 8t0, y0 = 4 + 5t0, z0 = −3 − t0 (2)
Substituting (2) in (1) yields
(3 + 8t0) − 3(4 + 5t0) + 5(−3 − t0) = 12
Solving for t0 yields t0 = −3 and on substituting this value in (2), we obtain
(x0, y0, z0) = (−21, −11, 0)

1.6.3 Intersecting Planes

- Two distinct intersecting planes determine two positive

angles of intersection—an (acute) angle θ that satisfies the
condition 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 and the supplement of that angle
(Figure a).
- If n1 and n2 are normals to the planes, then depending on
the directions of n1 and n2, the angle θ is either the angle
between n1 and n2 or the angle between n1 and −n2 (Fig-
ure b).
- In both cases, Theorem yields the following formula for
the acute angle θ between the planes:

|𝐧1 ∙ 𝐧2 |
cos 𝜃 =
‖𝐧1 ‖‖𝐧2 ‖

42
Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

Example: Find the acute angle of intersection between the two planes 2x − 4y + 4z = 6 and
6x + 2y − 3z = 4
Solution: The given equations yield the normals n1 = (2,−4, 4) and n2 = (6, 2,−3).

1.6.4 Distance Problems Involving Planes

Considering three basic distance problems in 3-space:

a. Find the distance between a point and a plane.
b. Find the distance between two parallel planes.
c. Find the distance between two skew lines.

Theorem
The distance D between a point P0(x0, y0, z0) and the plane ax + by
+ cz + d = 0 is
𝒂𝒙𝟎 + 𝒃𝒚𝟎 + 𝒄𝒛𝟎 + 𝒅
𝑫=
√𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐

Example: Find the distance D between the point (1, −4, −3) and the plane 2x − 3y + 6z = −1

Solution: the plane be rewritten in the form ax +by +cz+d = 0.

Thus, we rewrite the equation of the given plane as
2x − 3y + 6z + 1 = 0
from which we obtain a = 2, b = −3, c = 6, and d = 1.

Example: The planes x + 2y − 2z = 3 and 2x + 4y − 4z = 7 are parallel since their normals, (1,
2, −2) and (2, 4, −4), are parallel vectors. Find the distance between these planes.

43
Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

Solution: To find the distance D between the planes, we can select an arbitrary point in one
of the planes and compute its distance to the other plane. By setting y = z = 0 in the equation
x + 2y − 2z = 3, we obtain the point P0(3, 0, 0) in this plane.
The distance from P0 to the plane 2x + 4y − 4z = 7 is

Example: It was shown in previous example that the lines L1: x = 1 + 4t, y = 5 − 4t, z = −1 +
5t L2: x = 2 + 8t, y = 4 − 3t, z = 5 + t are skew. Find the distance between them.

Solution: Let P1 and P2 denote parallel planes containing L1 and

L2, respectively (see figure).
- To find the distance D between L1 and L2, we will calcu-
late the distance from a point in P1 to the plane P2.
- Since L1 lies in plane P1, we can find a point in P1 by
finding a point on the line L1; we can do this by substitut-
ing any convenient value of t in the parametric equations of L1. The simplest choice is
t = 0, which yields the point Q1(1, 5,−1).
- The next step is to find an equation for the plane P2. For this purpose, observe that the
vector u1 = (4, −4, 5) is parallel to line L1, and therefore also parallel to planes P1 and
P2.
- Similarly, u2 = (8, −3, 1) is parallel to L2 and hence parallel to P1 and P2.
Therefore, the cross product

is normal to both P1 and P2. Using this normal and the point Q2(2, 4, 5) found by setting t = 0
in the equations of L2, we obtain an equation for P2:
11(x − 2) + 36(y − 4) + 20(z − 5) = 0
or
11x + 36y + 20z − 266 = 0
The distance between Q1(1, 5,−1) and this plane is

44
Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

1.7 QUADRIC SURFACES

- Although the general shape of a curve in 2-space can be obtained by plotting points,
this method is not usually helpful for surfaces in 3-space because too many points are
required.
- It is more common to build up the shape of a surface
with a network of mesh lines, which are curves ob-
tained by cutting the surface with well-chosen planes.
- For example, the figure shows the graph of z = x3 −
3xy2 rendered with a combination of mesh lines and
colorization to produce the surface detail. This surface
is called a “monkey saddle” ]].
- The mesh line that results when a surface is cut by a
plane is called the trace of the surface in the plane (see
figure).

We noted that a second-degree equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
represents a conic section (possibly degenerate). The analog of this equation in an xyz-
coordinate system is
Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 + Dxy + Exz + Fyz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0
which is called a second-degree equation in x, y, and z. The graphs of such equations are
called quadric surfaces or sometimes quadrics.
Six common types of quadric surfaces are shown in the following table—ellipsoids, hyperbo-
loids of one sheet, hyperboloids of two sheets, elliptic cones, elliptic paraboloids, and hyper-

45
Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

bolic paraboloids. (The constants a, b, and c that appear in the equations in the table are as-
sumed to be positive.)

1.7.1 Techniques for Graphing Quadric Surfaces

A rough sketch of an ellipsoid

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
+ + =1 (𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0, 𝑐 > 0)
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑐 2
can be obtained by first plotting the intersections with the coordinate axes, and then sketching
the elliptical traces in the coordinate planes.
Example: Sketch the ellipsoid

46
Chapter 1: Rectangular Coordinate systems in 3-space and Vectors

Solution: The x-intercepts can be obtained by setting y = 0 and

z = 0 in. This yields x = ±2. Similarly, the y-intercepts are y =
±4, and the z-intercepts are z = ±3. Sketching the elliptical trac-
es in the coordinate planes yields the graph in the figure.

Example: Sketch the graph of the hyperboloid of one sheet

Solution: The trace in the xy-plane, obtained by setting z = 0, is

x2 + y2 = 1 (z = 0)
which is a circle of radius 1 centered on the z-axis. The traces in
the planes z = 2 and z = −2, obtained by setting z = ±2, are given
by
x2 + y2 = 2 (z = ±2)
which are circles of radius √2 centered on the z-axis. Joining
these circles by the hyperbolic traces in the vertical coordinate
planes yields the graph in the following figure.
Example: Sketch the graph of the hyperboloid of two sheets

Solution: The z-intercepts, obtained by setting x = 0 and y =

0, are z = ±1. The traces in the planes z = 2 and z = −2, ob-
tained by setting z = ±2 in (10), are given by

Sketching these ellipses and the hyperbolic traces in the ver-

tical coordinate planes yields the following figure.

47