15-01-2022

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

 Fundamentals of Systems Engineering

BITS Pilani
presentation CE F323: Introduction to
BITS Pilani Dr. Pubali Mandal
Department of Civil Engineering
Environmental Engineering- Lecture
No. 12-14
Pilani Campus

Dr. Pubali Mandal

Department of Civil Engineering

Groundwater Sources-Aquifers

• An aquifer is a body of regolith that can store and yield

water in sufficient quantities.
• Substratum/regolith having gravel and sand are good.
Many sandstones and limestone are also good aquifers.
Chapter 2: Water Sources,
Pollution and its Control Aquifers are of two types-
• Confined (bounded by confining beds)

• Unconfined (an aquifer without overlying confining beds)

Leaky aquifer is which can leak water (allow water at relatively very low
permeability to adjoining strata/aquifer)
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 3 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 4 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

A water table well

Aquifers drilled into
saturated zone of
the
Confined aquifers
such an aquifer will
Water in a confined aquifer can be under have water at
pressure so that a well drilled into it will atmospheric • Have non-permeable layers, above and below the
have water naturally rising above the upper pressure at the level
surface of the confined aquifer, in which aquifer zone referred to as aquitards or aquicludes.
of the water table
case the well is called an artesian well

• These layers restrict water movement.

• Clay soils, shales, and non-fractured, weakly porous

igneous and metamorphic rocks are examples of
aquitards.

to rise above the ground

level and flow without
pumping. Such a well is
called a flowing artesian well
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 5 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 6 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

1
 15-01-2022

Perched aquifer Artesian aquifers

• A lens of non-permeable material will be found within Artesian aquifers are confined under hydraulic pressure,
more permeable material. Water percolating through the resulting in free-flowing water, from a well.
unsaturated zone will be intercepted by this layer and will
accumulate on top of the lens. This water is a perched
aquifer.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 7 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 8 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Aquifer properties Primary and secondary

porosity
• Porosity • Porosity= Vv/V0
• Primary porosity - intergranular
• Specific Yield
• Secondary porosity - fractures, faults, cavities, etc.
The volume of water that can actually be drained from an unconfined
aquifer per unit of area per unit decline in the water table is called the • Porosity = volume of pore space relative to the total
specific yield, or the effective porosity. volume (rock and/or sediment + pore space).
• Primary porosity (% pore space) is the initial void space
present (intergranular) when the rock formed.
• Storage Coefficient or Storativity
For confined aquifers, the estimated yield is somewhat affected by the • Secondary porosity (% added by openings) develops
pressure released as water is removed, so a different term, the later. It is the result of fracturing, faulting, or dissolution.
storage coefficient, is used to describe the yield. Grain shape and cementation also affect porosity.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 9 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 10 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fractures Specific yield

• Specific Yield(Sy) is the ratio of the volume of water that can
be extracted (due to gravity) from a unit volume of aquifer
material.
• Grain size has a definite effect on specific yield. Smaller grains have larger
surface area/volume ratio, which means more surface tension. Fine-grained
sediment will have a lower Sy than coarse-grained sediment.
• Specific Retention(Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water a
rock can retain (in spite of gravity) to the total volume of
aquifer.
• Specific yield plus specific retention equals porosity
n = Sy +Sr

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-UR4ydeQT0qU/VWOQs9WeFLI/AAAAAAAAITQ/022GeQ74Gls/s1600/N3.JPG

2/9/2025 11 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 12 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

2
 15-01-2022

Problem 2.1 Groundwater Movement

For an aquifer of sand, having characteristics given in Table • The water table is actually a sloping
, what volume of water would be stored in a saturated surface.
column with a cross-sectional area equal to 1 m2 and a
depth of 2.0 m? How much water could be extracted • Slope (gradient) is determined by the
from that volume? difference in water table elevation (h)
over a specified distance (L).

• Direction of flow is down slope.

• Flow rate depends on the gradient

and the properties of the aquifer

Identification of subsurface regions

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 13 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 14 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Hydraulic gradient

Using three wells to determine the

A two-dimensional flow net gradient: Drawing a line between the
consisting of streamlines and wells with highest and lowest head and
equipotential lines. finding the spot along that line
If two wells happen to fall on a corresponding to the third well
streamline, the gradient is Δh/L. establishes an equipotential line
Hydraulic head and gradient in an unconfined aquifer. The groundwater flow between the spot and the third well
is from left to right in the plane of the page
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 15 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 16 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Problem 2.2 Groundwater Movement --

Darcy’s Law
Two wells are drilled 200 m apart along an east-west axis. The
• Henry Darcy, 1856, studied
west well has a total head of 30.2 meters, and the east well has
water flowing through porous
a 30 m head. A third well located 100 m due south of the east material. His equation describes
well has a total head of 30.1 m. Find the magnitude and groundwater flow.
direction of the hydraulic gradient.
v = Ki

• Hydraulic head = dh (change in

height between A and B)
Darcy’s experiment:
• Flow length = dL (distance • Water is applied under pressure through
between the two tubes) end A, flows through the pipe, and
discharges at end B.

• Hydraulic gradient, i = dh / dL • Water pressure is measured using

piezometer tubes
2/9/2025 CE F323_2022S2 17 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 18 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

3
 15-01-2022

Groundwater Movement -- Groundwater Movement –

Darcy velocity Pore Velocity
• The velocity of groundwater movement is based on hydraulic Real GW Velocity faster than Darcy velocity
conductivity (K), as well as the hydraulic head (i). (apparent velocity), continuity principle
v=Ki Q = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴 𝑣
or 𝑣 = =
Q=KiA ×
• Q = Discharge = volumetric flow rate, volume of water flowing through an aquifer =
per unit time (m3/day), A = Area through which the groundwater is flowing, cross-
sectional area of flow (aquifer width x thickness, in m2) 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 𝐾 𝑑ℎ
• This flux known as (v), is an apparent velocity called as Darcy 𝑣 = = = Bulk pore velocity, the ACTUAL
𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜂 𝜂 𝑑𝐿
velocity 𝑣 =actual average linear velocity velocity of groundwater given by
(sometimes called the seepage velocity)
𝑣 or va= 𝑣 /𝜂 = Ki/𝜂
• But actual groundwater velocity is higher than that determined by 𝐴 =Area of voids filled with water accounts for tortuosity of flow paths
Darcy’s Law. Flux given by v = Ki is the IDEAL velocity of by including porosity (n) in the
groundwater; it assumes that water molecules calculation.
can flow in a straight line through the • This velocity is higher than
• Lets try to see why? subsurface and valid for laminar flows. apparent Darcy velocity

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 19 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 20 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Problem 2.3 Problem 2.4

A confined aquifer 20.0 m thick has two monitoring wells Suppose the aquifer in Example 2.3 has become contaminated upgradient
spaced 500 m apart along the direction of groundwater of the two wells. Consider the upgradient well as a monitoring well
whose purpose is to provide early detection of the approaching plume
flow. The difference in water level in the wells is 2.0 m
to help protect the second, drinking water well. How long after the
(the difference in piezometric head). The hydraulic monitoring well is contaminated would you expect the drinking water
conductivity is 50 m/day. Estimate the rate of flow per well to be contaminated? Make the following three assumptions (each
meter of distance perpendicular to the flow. of which will be challenged later):
1. Ignore dispersion or diffusion of the plume (that is, it does not spread
out).
2. Assume the plume moves at the same speed as the groundwater.
3. Ignore the “pulling” effect of the drinking water well.
The aquifer has a porosity of 35 percent.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 21 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 22 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Transmissibility vs Hydraulic
Transmissibility or transmissivity Conductivity
The coefficient of transmissivity (T) is a measure of the rate • Discharge in an aquifer (of a
at which water will flow through a unit width vertical strip unit width and thickness b
of aquifer extending through its full saturated thickness (depth of fully saturated zone)
under a unit hydraulic gradient. It has units of m2/s. of unit hydraulic gradient is
Transmissibility
Values of the transmissivity coefficient range from 1.0 X
10-4 to 1.5 X 10-1 m2/s. Q= K i A = K x 1 x (1x b)

T is the transmissibility [L2/T], m2/s T=Kb

• Hydraulic conductivity is the

discharge that occurs through a https://www.enviro.wiki/index.php
unit cross section of aquifer ?title=File:Kirkman1w2Fig3.png
under a unit hydraulic gradient.
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 23 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 24 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

4
 15-01-2022

Effective Hydraulic conductivity in cases Problem 2.5

of stratification

A field sample of an unconfined aquifer is packed in a test

cylinder. The length and the diameter of the cylinder are 50 cm
and 6 cm respectively. The field sample is tested for a period of
3 min under a constant head difference of 16.3 cm. As a result
45.2 cm3 of water is collected at the outlet. Determine the
hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer sample.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 25 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 26 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Problem 2.7 Pumping of wells

• A tracer which is conservative is injected in an Cone of depression: A depression of the water table formed around a
unconfined aquifer. The water levels in the two well when water is pumped out; it is shaped like an inverted cone
observation wells 20 m apart are 18.4 m and 17.1 m
above datum. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is Drawdown: The lowering of the water table near a pumped well
11 m/day and porosity of the formation is 0.25. Compute
the time taken by the tracer to reach second observation
well?

https://www.usgs.gov/media/i
mages/cone-depression-
pumping-a-well-can-cause-
water-level-lowering
Pumping well lowers the water table into a cone of depression
30/04/2021 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 27 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 28 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Ground water pumping Groundwater Overdraft

• Over pumping will have two effects:
• In the low permeability case the water is pumped primarily
– Changes the groundwater flow
from the area directly around the well direction.
– Lowers the water table, making it
necessary to dig a deeper well.
• Whereas with the higher permeability the water seems to
be drawn from a more broad area surrounding the well. • Original land users and land owners
often spend lots of money to drill new,
deeper wells.
• Streams become permanently dry.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 29 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 30 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

5
 15-01-2022

Groundwater Overdraft Over pumping

What happens when a new

well here is heavily pumped?

Flow direction can change

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 31 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 32 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Saltwater Intrusion Land subsidence

Excessive pumping increases • Subsidence of the land surface caused
the intrusion (Compare Figure A by the extraction of groundwater, near
Mendota, San Joaquin Valley,
and Figure B)
California.
Reclaiming the salt intruded well • Signs on the pole indicate the positions
is expensive. Hence, it is of the land surface in 1925, 1955, and
important to control the pumping 1977.
to optimum level. • The land sank in 52 years.
Figure C shows how injecting
freshwater in the aquifer by • Please check the link if interested
artificial recharge reduces the • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
saltwater intrusion TxqWUFyq-ZA

Source: Seawater Intrusion -

SGMA | USGS CA Water
Science Center
Source: Times of India
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 33 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 34 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Pollutant Transport Pure Advection

Advection is mass transport due to the flow of the water in which the mass
is carried. Advection is mass transport due simply to the flow of the water in which
– The direction and rate of transport coincide with that of the groundwater flow. the mass is carried.
– The direction and rate of transport coincide with that of the groundwater
Diffusion is the process of mixing that occurs as a result of concentration
gradients in porous media. flow.
– Diffusion can occur when there is no hydraulic gradient driving flow and the
pore water is static.
– Diffusion in groundwater systems is a very slow process

Dispersion is the process of mechanical mixing that takes place in porous

media as a result of the movement of fluids through the pore space.
Since a contaminant plume follows irregular pathways as it moves, some
finding large pore spaces in which it can move quickly, while other
portions of the plume have to force their way through more confining
voids, there will be a difference in speed of an advancing plume that
tends to cause the plume to spread out.
Hydrodynamic dispersion is a term used to include both diffusion and
dispersion

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 35 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 36 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

6
 15-01-2022

Transverse and Longitudinal Continuous vs instantaneous

Dispersion release
Longitudinal Dispersion

Transverse
Dispersion

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 37 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 38 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Retardation Retardation

• Absorption and Adsorption • When the amount sorbed reaches equilibrium in the
aquifer
• Retardation factor: The ratio of total contaminant in a unit
volume of aquifer to the contaminant dissolved in
groundwater
A retardation factor of 5 means the groundwater travels five times as far in a
given period of time as does the contaminant
• A retardation factor of 5 for some contaminant means 20
percent is dissolved in groundwater, and 80 percent is
sorbed to the aquifer solids.

• Less the retardation factor = more the contaminant

concentration in groundwater

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 39 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 40 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Dispersion and Diffusion Dispersion and Retardation

• Steady-state flow regime in a column

longitudinal
packed with a homogeneous granular
dispersion
material and then introducing a
continuous stream of a nonreactive
tracer

Dispersion and retardation as a continuous feed of tracer passes through a column.

With no dispersion, the tracer emerges all at once. With retardation and dispersion,
the tracer smears out and emerges with some delay

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 41 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 42 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

7
 15-01-2022

Influence of sorption on contaminant

Dispersion and Diffusion transport

• As the plume
moves down
gradient,
dispersion
causes the
plume to
spread in the
longitudinal as substance sorbs at
well as a rate proportional
to its concentration
orthogonal
directions

An instantaneous (pulse) source in a flow field creates a plume that spreads as Influence of sorption on contaminant Plume separation for chloride (CL),
it moves down gradient: (a) in one dimension, (b) in two dimensions transport. A pulse of contaminant shows up carbon tetrachloride (CTET), and
in the monitoring well at different times tetrachloroethylene (PCE) 21
depending on the extent of sorption. months after injection

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 43 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 44 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Control of Groundwater Plumes Ground water Pollutants

• Organic and inorganic
hydrodynamic control Contaminants

• Lead (Pb), chromium

(Cr), zinc (Zn), arsenic
(As), cadmium (Cd),
Manipulating the hydraulic gradient with manganese(Mn),
multiple wells copper (Cu), barium
• Combination of extraction wells and injection wells. (Ba), and nickel (Ni).
• Extraction wells are used to lower the water table (or
piezometric surface), creating a hydraulic gradient that
draws the plume to the wells.
• Injection wells raise the water table and push the plume
away.
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 45 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 46 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids

Nonaqueous-phase liquids do not dissolve very well in groundwater:

(a) LNAPLs float on top of groundwater; (b) DNAPLs form pools.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 47 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 48 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

8
 15-01-2022

Problem 2.9 Groundwater Remediation

Technologies
Suppose 1 m3 of aquifer is contaminated with 30 L of
trichloroethylene (TCE). The aquifer has porosity of 0.3, • Pump and treat technology
groundwater moves through it with an actual speed of 0.03 • Soil vapor extraction
m/day, and the TCE has a dissolved concentration equal to • In-situ bioremediation
10 percent of its aqueous solubility.
• Permeable reactive barriers
a. Find the mass of dissolved TCE and the mass of
• Many emerging technologies
undissolved DNAPL.
b. Estimate the time for TCE to be removed.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 49 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 50 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Control of Groundwater plumes-

Soil vapor extraction
Pump and treat technology
• Extraction wells and injection wells

F.I. Khan et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 71 (2004) 95–122

http://slideplayer.com/slide/6849778/

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 51 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 52 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Control of Groundwater plumes -

In-situ Bioremediation
Permeable reactive barriers

http://i nfohouse.p2ric.org/ref/14/0_initiatives/init/winter99/images/Barrier.gif

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 53 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 54 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

9
 15-01-2022

Control of Groundwater Pumping in groundwater

plumes - Slurry cut off walls Wells
• Pumping well leads to
a lowering of the
hydraulic head,
forming a cone of
depression
• If pumping continues:
• The cone of depression is
expended
• The radius of influence of the
well increases
• The cone expands and
deepens more slowly with
http://www.geoengineer.org/education/web-based-class-
projects/geoenvironmental-remediation-technologies/impermeable-
time
barriers?showall=1&limitstart=
• At equilibrium - no
http://slideplayer.com/slide/4139584/ further expansion of Flow to the well passes through a cylinder
the cone of area A
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 55 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 56 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Pumping in groundwater Confined aquifer

Wells-Unconfined

depth

Flow to the well passes through a cylinder

of area A
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 57 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 58 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Problem 2.10 Capture-Zone Curve

Suppose a well 0.30 m in diameter has been pumped at a rate of 6000
m3/day for a long enough time that steady-state conditions apply. An
observation well located 30 m from the pumped well has been drawn
down by 1.0 m, and another well at 100 m is drawn down by 0.50 m. The
well extends completely through an unconfined aquifer 30.0 m thick.
a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity K.
b. Estimate the drawdown at the well.

A single extraction well located at x=0, y=0, in an aquifer with regional

flow along the x-axis. The capture zone is the region in which all flow
lines converge on the extraction well. Drawn for (Q/Bv) = 2,000

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 59 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 60 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

10
 15-01-2022

Capture-Zone Curve model

• Javandel and Tsang (1986) developed the use of capture-

zone type curves as an aid to the design of extraction well
fields for aquifer cleanup.

Assumptions
• Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, uniform in cross-section,
and infinite in width.
• Either confined or unconfined with an insignificant
drawdown relative to the total thickness of the aquifer.
• Extraction wells that extend downward through the entire
thickness of the aquifer and are screened to extract
uniformly from every level. Capture-zone curve for a single extraction well located at the origin in an
aquifer with regional flow velocity v, thickness B, and pumping rate Q.
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 61 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 62 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Problem 2.11
Consider a confined aquifer having thickness 20 m,
• The width of the capture zone is directly proportional to hydraulic conductivity of 1×10-3 m/sec, and a regional
the pumping rate Q and inversely proportional to the hydraulic gradient equal to 0.002. The maximum pumping
product of the regional (without the effect of the well) rate has been determined to be 0.004 m3/sec. The aquifer
Darcy flow velocity and the aquifer thickness B. has been contaminated and, for simplicity, consider the
plume to be rectangular, with width 80 m. Locate a single
• Higher regional flow velocities therefore require higher extraction well so that it can totally remove the plume.
pumping rates to capture the same area of plume.

• Usually there will be some maximum pumping rate

determined by the acceptable amount of drawdown at
the well that restricts the size of the capture zone

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 63 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 64 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Capture-Zone Curve model Problem 2.12

• A general equation for the positive half of the capture-zone Consider the same plume that was described in problem 2.11—that is, it is
rectangular with width 80 m in a confined aquifer with thickness B=20 m
type curve for n optimally spaced wells arranged and Darcy velocity v=2×10-6 m/sec.
symmetrically along the y-axis is: a. If two optimally located wells are aligned along the leading edge of the
plume, what minimum pumping rate Q would assure complete plume
capture? How far apart should the wells be?
b. If the plume is 1,000 m long, and the aquifer porosity is 0.30, how long
would it take to pump an amount of water equal to the volume of water
contained in the plume?

Capture-zone type curves for optimally spaced wells along the y-axis, each
pumping at the rate Q: (a) two wells; (b) three wells
2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 65 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 66 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

11
 15-01-2022

Problem 2.12 Water Quality

Water Quality Parameters

Physical: Chemical:
1. Suspended 1. pH
solids 2. Alkalinity
2. Turbidity 3. Hardness Microbiological:
3. Color 4. Dissolved Oxygen 1. Coliforms
4. Taste and 5. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (Total & Fecal)
Odor 6. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
5. Temperature 7. Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
8. Nitrogen [Org.-N, NH 4+, NO 2-, NO 3-, (TKN)]
9. Phosphorous
10. Cations including heavy metals (Na, K,
Ca, Mg, Al, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, As, Hg, etc.)
Notice that it would take much, much longer to pump out the whole plume
11. Anions (F -, Cl -, SO 42-, S 2-, CN -)
than this estimate would suggest since there will be some uncontaminated 12. Dissolved solids
groundwater removed with the plume, and we are ignoring retardation.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 67 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 68 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS Water Quality

Sl. Characteristic Requirement Permissible limit in the
No. (Acceptable absence of alternate
limit) source Physical water quality parameters are as follows:
1 Color, Hazen units, max 5 15
Suspended solids
2 Odor and Taste Agreeable Agreeable
3 pH value 6.5-8.5 No relaxation
4 Turbidity, NTU, Max 1 5 Turbidity
5 Total dissolved solids, mg/l, max 500 2000
6 Calcium (as Ca), mg/l, max 75 200 Color
7 Chloride (as Cl), mg/l, Max 250 1000
8 Free residual chlorine, mg/l, Min 0.2 1 Odor and Taste
9 Nitrate (as NO3), mg/l, Max 45 No relaxation
10 Sulphate (as SO4) mg/l, Max 200 400
Temperature
11 Total alkalinity as calcium 200 600
carbonate, mg/l, Max
12 Total hardness (as CaCO3), mg/l, 200 600
Max

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering

(Source: IS 10500:2012)
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
69 70

 Solids
Solids
 Solids in water is due to the presence of the following:
Solids are defined as the matter that remains as residue upon
• Inorganic particles like silt, clay etc.
• Organic particles like plant fibres, algae, etc.
evaporation and drying at 103°C to 105°C overnight.
• Immiscible solids like oil, grease etc. Total Solids in a sample consist of total dissolved solids and
 The possible effects of solids in water are as follows:
total suspended solids.
• It gives water a muddy appearance. Total dissolved solids are materials in liquid that will pass
• It provide adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents. through a filter paper with 1.5 µm pore size and remains as
• It leads to incrustation in pipes. residue upon evaporation and drying at 103°C to 105°C
• Suspended organic solids may be degraded biologically, resulting overnight.
in objectionable by products.
• Biologically active suspended solids may include disease-causing
Fixed solids correspond to the matter that remains as residue
organisms upon muffling (ignition) at 550°C to 600°C for 1 h.
While Volatile solids correspond to the matter loss upon
muffling or high temperature oxidation and volatilization.

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 71 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 72 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

12
 15-01-2022

Measurement of solids
Gravimetric analysis
Note down the
Switch on the balance initial dry weight
Switch on
the balance of the crucible
along with filter
Note down the
paper
initial dry weight
of the crucible

Take the filter paper

and place it on the
Place the Filter 50 mL of field
evaporating dish
crucible water sample using
inside the Take 20 mL of filter paper
Total solids: The material left in a sample vessel after evaporation and oven drying at a oven at water sample in
103 oC
specified temperature. the crucible
Place the
evaporating
Total dissolved solids (TDS): Under the specific condition, the part of total solids that pass dish inside the
Cool it to
through a filter 1. 5 µm pore size. oven at 103 oC
room
Cool it to
temperature
Total suspended solids (TSS): The part of total solids in the form of an aqueous sample which room
in desiccator
temperature
is retained on the filter. in desiccator

Volatile solids— At a defined time and temperature, the total, dissolved, or solids are removed
Note down the final dry
from a sample after ignition. Note down the weight of the filter
final dry weight paper
Fixed solids: After the ignition for a specific duration at a certain temperature, the total of the crucible

suspended or dissolved solids remaining in the sample. Total solids (TS) Total suspended solids (TSS)

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 73 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 74 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

References
Switch on the
balance
Note down the
initial dry weight of
Portable TDS meter
the crucible  It is best suited for field
measurements.
• Masters, G.M. and Ela, W.P., 2015. Introduction to
Environmental Science & Technology–3rd edition, Pearson
Take 20 mL of
water sample in the
crucible Filter 50 mL of
Education.
field water
sample using
filter paper

Place the
When the well’s dry, we
know the worth of water.
crucible inside
the oven at
Cool it to room
103 oC
temperature in

—Ben Franklin
desiccator

Note down the

final dry weight
of the crucible

Total dissolved solids (TDS) Portable TDS meter

2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 75 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus 2/9/2025 CE F323 Introduction to Environmental Engineering 76 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

13