Practicals

a12 Experiment
Refraction of Light through Glass Slab
OBJECTIVE
Tracing the path of ray oflight passing through arectangular glass slab for
different angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle
of emergence and interpret the result.

THEORY X
Refraction of light
1 The
When light passes through a transparent medium, it undergoes refraction.bends
and
ray of light bends towards the normal, when it gets into glass from air
away as it gets out ofglass into air.
2. If the refracting surfaces are parallel, then the
emergent and incident angles will
be equal.
refraction in aglass slab.
3. There willbe a lateral displacementof light or
ray of light travels along the normal, it does not suffer any refraction,
4. When a
medium to another optical medium.
while travelling from one optical and the normal
refraction of light: (i) The incident ray, the refracted ray in the
5. Law of at the point of incidents, all lie
separation of two media
to the surface of
same plane.
incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is
angle of refraction (r) are related
(ii) The ratio of sine of and the angle of
incidence (i)
constant. Thus, angle of
as:
sini
= n1 constant is equal to
of light & that
sin r
medium and given colour
For given pair of medium.
refractive index ofgiven pair of
n1
V
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Science - 10
Lab Manual
 Lateral displacement : The perpendicular shift in the path of incident light,
6.
some denser medium iscalled lateral displaceme
whileemergingoutfrom
REQUIRED
APPARATUS AND MATERIALS board, few
Glass slab, two white sheets of paper,
a drawing drawing pins,
rectangular glass slab.
pencil, scale, protactorand

PROCEDURE
on adrawing board using drawing pins at the corners.
1. Fix the sheetof paper
given glass slab on paper and markits boundary as ABCD.
2 Keep the
normal NN' at O.
3. Mark a point O on ABand drawa
4. Draw a lineOFE at O° an angle Zicalled
angle of incidence,say 30°.
5 Place the slab back in ABCD.
incidence ray.
6. Fix two pins at Oand Eon OE, and call it is
opposite side CD.
7. See the two pins standing in aline from the
pins at O',G, Hand O are in a
8 Now,fix two pins at Gand H such that all the four
straight line.
9. Remove the pins out and encircle those points.
10. ConnectG and H to the points O' in CD by a line.
refracted ray.
11. Join the points O in ABand O in CD and call O0' as the
12. Call O'H as the emergent ray.
13. Measure the angle MOH, called the emergent angle.
Pi
P
Incident Pin
ray N

Air

Refracted Glass
slab
ray

B
Pin
Pin

Emergent
ray

78
 Recordthe value of 'e against the angle of incidence taken in thetable.
14
Findthe difference between e and ii.e.(e-i)
15.
Repeatthe above steps for different value of i and do at least four trials.
16. Recordthe value in the table in each case and find (e-i).
17.
OBSERVATIONS:

Angleof Angle of Angle of Difference between angle

S. No. incidence refraction emergence (e) of incidence and angle
(i) (r) of emergence

30° 30°
1.
40° 40°
2
50° 50°
3.
600 60° =

(e-i) is expected to be zero.

CONCLUSION

() Angle of incidence =Angle of emergence

of incidernce when the rays of light
Angle of refraction is less than anglemedium.
() denser
travels from the rarer to the
emergent ray.
(ii) Incident ray is parallel to the
angle of incidence, the angle of refraction increases.
(iv) With the increase in the

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS

well within the outline marked.
1. The glass slab should be placed
2. Pins should be fixed exactly vertically.
placed in straight line.
3. Foot of pins on the papers should be
some soft wood.
4 The drawing board should be of
protractor is not of a good quality.
5 Measurement of angle can be wrong, if the pin point as soon
a small circle around the
6 Remove the pins one by one. Draw
as the pin is removed.
its boundary, thereby giving incorrect
7. Glass slab may get displaced from
readings.
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Lab Manual Science - 10
 'racticals

OBJECTIVE
(Focal
Experi
Focal ment
Length-1
Length of aConcave
Mirror)
A1ã) -2
To
determine the
distant object. focal length of a
concave mirror by
THEORY X
obtaining the image of a
Mirror:
on it
Ahighly
polished and
is called a
mirror. smooth surface that reflects most of
1. the light thrown
Spherical mirror Is a part of a
silvered and the other surface hollow sphere, such that its one
2.
Concave mirror - This mirrorcauses reflection.
is silvered
surface is
3.
reflecting surface is towards the hollow from the outer side,
side is called concave such that its
Convex mirror- This mirror is mirror.
silvered
reflecting surface is towards the outer side is from the hollow side, such that its
4.
Pole-The mid point of aspherical mirror is called called convex mirror.
5.
Principal Axis - An imaginary line passing pole.
curvature of a spherical mirror is called principalthrough
axis.
the pole and centre of

Aray of light Concave Concave

mirror A
ray of light passing Concave
parallel to the axis mirrer Aray of lighl miror
A through the centre passing through
of curvature C A focus F
X
PrincipalC
axis (Focus)
G

(a) (6) (e)

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Lab Manual Science- 10
 6. Principal focus - The principal focus of a spherical mirror is fixed point on its
principal axis.
7. Focal length - The distance between the pole and principal focus of a
mirror is called focal length. curved
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Concave mirror, spherical mirror stand, glass sCreen on which is fixed a stit
white cardboard, a half metre scale, candle and wooden bench.

PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the mirror in wooden bench.
2. Keep the mirror to face a distance object, for example branch of tree, window
etc.

3. Fix the screen on another holder and keep it in the direction in which miror
reflects.
4. Now adjust the screen in such away that the image of distance object falls on
it.
5. Find the separation between the mirror and screen and record it as focal
length.
6. Repeat the above steps for many more objects and record the focal length.
7. Find the mean value of focal length.

OBSERVATIONAND CALCULATIONS
Least count of scale used = mm.

S. No Position of concave Position of white

Focal length of concave mirror Q-P
mirror Screen 0

1. 5 cm Cm
--5cm = Cm
2. 10cm Cm --10cm= Cm
3. 15 cm
Cm f,= -- 150cm = Cm

Averaged focal length of concavemirror; f= TT=+_t_==+ cn

3 3

70
Lab Manual Science - 10
 lengthof a givern concave mirror is found to be
focal
fhe Cm.

PRECAUTIONSAND SOURCES OF ERROR

focussingof distant object should
The
flame of candle could be put off
give a sharp image.
The by fan, so it should be shut off.
measurement of distance from pole should be made
The
Metrescale should be held horizontally while accurately.
4 measuring distance of bench.
Viva-Voce
Nameethe differenttypes of mirror.
Q1.
mirror (i) Spherical mirror
Ans. ()Plarne
0.2 Defineimage.
Whenanumber of rays starting from apoint after reflection or refraction meet at
another point, the second pointis called the image of thefirst point.
03. Whatisthe focal length of aspherical mirror?
Ans. Focallength of aspherical mirror =½ofits radius of curvature.
04. Give the mirror formula.
Ans. 1 1 1
V u f

Q.5. Give two uses of concave mirrors.

Ans. () They are used as shaving mirrors.
() They are used as reflectors in torch and headlights.
0. What type of mirror always gives a virtual, erect and diminished image of
object?
Ans. Convex mirror.
0.7. Convex mirrors are preferred as rear-view mirrors in vehicles. Why?
Ans. Because they give an erect image of the objects.
.8. Define magnification.
Ans. The ratio of the size of the image to size of the object is called magnification.

71
Lab Manual Science - 10
 maximuth
Inwhichmedium is speed of light
Q.9.
Ans. Vacuum.
convexmirror havingradiussof
of ci
curvature 32 cm?
Q.10. Whatis the focal length ofthe
Ans. 16 cm.

Practicals

Experiment
1b) Expuirut-3
Focal Length - 2
(Focal Length of aConvex Lens)
OBJECTIVE
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by
distant object. obtaining the image of a

THEORY
1.
Lens is a piece of optical material
one or twospherical surfaces. having
2.
Convex lens - is an optical material
one or twO spherical having
middle and tapered atsurfaces,
it is thick in
3. the edges.
Concave lens -They are thinner in the (a)
(b)
middle and thick at the edges.
4. (a)Convex
Principal axis of lens - The line (b) Concave
the spherical
surfaces passing through the centre of
5.
Optical centre of lens forming a lens is called its
principal curvatures of
1 11
- The
centre of lens is called its axis.
optical centre.

72
Lab Manual
Science - 10
 P=
1
f(inm) reiprocal of the focal length
APPARATUS AND expres ed in
Convex lens,asheet
a MATERIofApaper,L REQUImeteRr ED
PROCEDURE scale and
1. Holdthe lens
wooden bench
over the
2.
table.
Keep the lens in
Fix the
a woode n
holder facing
a
bench and arrange
screen
horizontal y on a
3. SCreen on
another holder dista nt obj ect say tree
4. Adjust the position of the and keep on the
it
distant object falls on it. screen such a way that bench.
in
branches.
asharp
5 Note down the image of the given
differences andposition
of the lens in
record the same. the table and the screen, and find the
6. The difference will
give the focal length of the
7. Focus the lens towards given convex lens.
find the position of sharp various distant object and repeat the
8.
image and thereby the focal length.experiment to
Add all the focal length found out and
find the mean value of focal length of
convex lens.

Distant object
Incident ray
Lens

Refracted ray

Screen
Image of the
distant object
Optical centre (inverted)
Screen
Lens stand stand

(0)

(a)
 OBSERVATION
Focallength of the convex
Position of screen (0) lens f= Q-P
of convex
S. No. Position
lens (P)
f, =----2- 5cm =----- Cm
cm
Cm
1. 5 cm f, = -----10cm = -----
-- Cm
2. 10cm f, = ----- 15 cm = ----- Cm
---Cm
3. 15 cm t,=---- - 20 cmn = - - - Cm

4 20 cm Total = )f

-Xf=....cm.
Mean value of focal length of convex lens
Cm
4 4

RESULT
value is
The focal length of the given convex lens is found by using distant object. Its
found to be = ..... Cm,

PRECAUTIONS
1. Both screen and lens should be held vertically in the lens holder.
2 The wooden bench should be placed on a horizontal table perfectly.
3. The position of screen should be adjusted for a sharp image.
4. More trials may be taken to reduce errors.
5. Record the position of the lens and screen only when a
is formed on the screen. well-defined sharp image

SOURCES OF ERROR
If the bases of the lens stand
and screen are not in the same line, then the
wrong position for them. record

74
 Practicals

Experiment
Temporary Mount Preparation
OBJECTIVE
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.
THEORY
Leaf is the "kitchen of the plant".Leaves need sunlight for
photosynthesis. The
epidermis tissue is the outermost layer that extends over the entire surface of the plant
body. Epidermal cells are thin walled and parenchymatous. In a transverse section,
they appear more or less rectangular. Epidermis contains minute openings called
"stomata". The outer wall of epidermis is thick and cuticulised called "cuticle".
Epidermis is protective in nature. It protects the inner tissues against excessive
evaporation, bacterial and fungal attack and in some cases against even
animals. Stomata are small pores in the lower epidermis grazing
called "guard cells". They are bean shaped. Guard cellssurrounded
by special cells
inner walls are thick and outer walls are thin. They contain chloroplast. Their
stomata. Stomata have a mechanism to open and closecontrol opening and closing of
with the help of pair of guard
cells.

MATERIAL REOUIRED
Leaf of plant like lily, plain slides,
petridish, cover slip, forceps, Leaf apex
needles, a pair of scissors, filter brush,
paper, Leaf margin
safranine and glycerine. Leaf blade

Mid-rib
PROCEDURE:
1.
Take a fresh lily leaf and peel off it Petiole
from its under surface. Put the
Leafbase
peel in a watch glass
water. containing
51
Lab Manual Science - 10
 Pore

-Stoma

Guard
celis

Open stomata
Closed stomata
Open and closed stomata (Under low power of
microscope.

Subsidiary cell
Guard cel!
Outer
thin wall

Inner
thick wal

Open and closed stomata (Under high

puwer of mieroscope).
2. Adda few drops of safranine stain intothe
3. Put the peel on a clean slide watch glass to stain the peel.
after staining and cut it in a
4.
shape. rectangular or square
Remove the excess of stain and water with the
5.
Put a drop of glycerine on the peel help of a filter paper.
using needle to prevent air bubbles.and cover it carefully with a cover slip by
6. Wait for about 2 minutes for the
peel to take up
7.
Remove the excess glycerine with help of a the stain.
filter paper.
OBSERVATIONS
1.
Epidermis is made of a single layer of
cells that are closely
distinct cell walls. packed together witn

52
Lab Manual Scie
2
Minute apertures are seen which are
stomata.
embedded in the epidermal cells called
Cach stomata is guarded by a
3.
pair of
wall ofguard cells is thicker: kidney
4.
Inner shaped'guard
as compared to cells'.
outer wall.
5. Each guard cell has anucleus and
many chloroplasts.
RESULT:
Leafpeell has stomata distributed in it.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The epidermalpeel should be taken froma fresh leaf.
2. Always hold the slide by its edges.
3. Alwaysuse a brush to transfer the peel to the slide.
4. Never fold the peel.
5. Always use a clean slide and acover slip.
6. Place the cover slip on the slide gently and gradually to avoid the entry of air
bubbles.

Viva-Voce

Q.1. What is stomata?

guarded by guard cells.
Ans. Stomata are minute-pores present in leaves
Q.2. What are guard cells?
the stomatalopening.
Ans. They are kidney-shaped cells surrounding
Q.3. Which part of leaf has stomata?
Ans. Epidermis
Why is the peel of leaf kept in water before staining?
Q.4.
Ans. Toprevent it from drying. is coloured by safranin.
which
Q.5. Name the partofcell
Ans. Cell wall.
Q.6. What is the role of stomata?
Ans. They help in exchange of gases.
 8 Experiment
Respiration
OBJECTIVE
Toshow experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.

THEORY
1. Respiration is a catabolic process in which carbohydrates like glucose are
broken down to release energy. Main four steps involved in respiration are:
(i) Intake of oxygen
(iü) Oxidation of glucose
(iii) Release of energy
(iv) Release of carbon dioxide and a small amount of water.
CH,O,+ 60,>6 C0, + 6H,0+ energy
2. There are two types of respiration
a. Aerobic respiration
b. Anaerobic respiration
(a) Aerobic respiration : It takes place in the presence of oxygen and occurs in
mitochondria. It is a complete oxidation of food to releaseenergy.
(b) Anaerobicrespiration :It takes place in the absence of oxygen and occurs in
the cytoplasm. It is an incomplete oxidation of food to release partial energy. Anaerobic
respiration can be represented as
yeast
CH,O,- -’2C, H, OH+2CO, + energy
Ethanal

CH,
muscle
C,H,,O, - ’ 2H ’ ’- Ç - OH t energy
COOH
Lactic acid

56
 Respiration may be
considered as theasreverse of
Respiration differs from
enzymecontrolled stepssat combustion it is photos ynthesis in
compar ativel
low y carried out plants.
stepwise through
the entry and
Inplants,stomata.
through
exit of
ldtrees,
.Inold it oxygen and temper
carbon ature.
takes placethrough dioxide usually takes place
lenticels
APPAATUSAND MATERIALSS
flask. beaker, atube REQUIRED
Aconical bent twice at right angles, a
seedsofpea or gram, vaseline, lime water and cork. small test tube, soaked
PROCEDURE

1.
In a conical flask, put some Delivery
germinated seeds. tube

2. Suspend a tube containing

KOHby string in the conical Final
water
flask as shown in the figure. ievel

3. Close the mouth of the flask KOH

solution
initiai
water
with a cork. evel

4. Take a bent tube and insert

its one end in the beaker and
other end in the conical
flask. Germinating soods Lime watar

5 Pour water in the beaker.

6. Make all the connection air tightusing vaseline.
7.
Keep the whole apparatus set for 1-2 hours without disturbing,.

OBSERVATION
Nater level in the delivery tube kept in the beaker rises.

RESULT
1. The rising of water level shows that CO, is producedTby germinatingseed which is
absorbed by KOH solution.
A e n the water level will be proportional to the quantity of CO, produced by
the germinating seeds.
PRECAUTIONS airtight.
be
apparatusshould soaked.
whole shouldl be
b water
L.The seeds
Germinating prepared.
2 shouldbe freshly
water
3 Lime
o o O Viva-Voce O0

Q.1. Whatisrespiration? outside the bod

oxygen from
Ans. It is the process of acquiring breakdown of food sourcesfor
simpleragents in the process of
Q.2 Name the two types of respiration.
Ans. ()Aerobic respiration. (ii) Anaerobic respiration
Q.3. Define aerobic respiration.
Ans. The proces in which glucose is completely broken downin
presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration.
Q.4. Define anaerobicrespiration.
Ans. The process in which food (glucose) is broken down inc
alcohol or lactic acid in oxygern is calledanaerobic
Q.5. Whatis the function of absenceof
Ans. KOHabsorbs CO,. KOH in your experiment?
Q.6. Givethe
Ans. reaction that takes place in aerobiccrespiration.
Q.7.
CH,Name0,+the60,+6H,0+
Glucose Energy (38 ATP)
Ans. ATP. energy of the