Top SQL Interview Questions

1. Explain the differences between SQL and NoSQL databases. (Question #10)

2. Explain different types of joins with examples. (Question #27)

3. What is a primary key in SQL? (Question #3)

4. What is a foreign key? (Question #4)

5. How do you optimize SQL queries? (Question #29)

6. How do you create a stored procedure? (Question #44)

7. What is a trigger in SQL? (Question #23)

8. Explain ACID properties in SQL. (Question #32)

9. What is a transaction in SQL? (Question #33)

10. Explain normalization and denormalization. (Question #37)

11. What is a view in SQL? (Question #21)

12. How do you prevent SQL injection? (Question #39)

13. What are indexes in SQL? (Question #16)

14. What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL? (Question #30)

15. Describe the difference between WHERE and HAVING in SQL. (Question #20)

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1. What is SQL?

SQL means Structured Query Language and is used to communicate with relational databases. It
proposes a standardized way to interact with databases, allowing users to perform various
operations on the data, including retrieval, insertion, updating, and deletion.

2. What are the different types of SQL commands?

SELECT: Retrieves data from a database.

INSERT: Adds new records to a table.

UPDATE: Modifies existing records in a table.

DELETE: Removes records from a table.

CREATE: Creates a new database, table, or view.

ALTER: Modifies the existing database object structure.

DROP: Deletes an existing database object.

3. What is a primary key in SQL?

It is a unique identifier for each record in a table. It ensures that each row in the table has a
distinct and non-null value in the primary key column. Primary keys enforce data integrity and
create relationships between tables.

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4. What is a foreign key?

It is a field in one table referencing the primary key in another. It establishes a relationship
between the two tables, ensuring data consistency and enabling data retrieval across tables.

5. Explain the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE commands.

The DELETE command is used by professionals to remove particular rows from a table based on
The DELETE command is used by professionals to remove particular rows from a table based on
a condition, allowing you to selectively delete records. TRUNCATE, on the other hand, removes all
rows from a table without specifying conditions. TRUNCATE is faster and uses fewer system
resources than DELETE but does not log individual row deletions.

6. What is a JOIN in SQL, and what are its types?

A JOIN operation merges information from two or more tables by utilizing a common column
that links them together. Various types of JOINs exist, like INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN,
and FULL JOIN. These JOIN variations dictate the manner in which data from the involved tables
is paired and retrieved.

7. What do you mean by a NULL value in SQL?

A NULL value in SQL represents the absence of data in a column. It is not the same as an empty
string or zero; it signifies that the data is missing or unknown. NULL values can be used in
columns with optional data or when the actual data is unavailable.

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8. Define a Unique Key in SQL.

Often referred to as a unique constraint, a unique key guarantees that every value in a column (or
a combination of columns) remains distinct and cannot be replicated within a table. In contrast
to a primary key, a table has the flexibility to incorporate multiple unique keys.

9. What is a database?

A database is a systematically organized collection of data arranged into tables composed of

rows and columns. The primary purpose of databases is to efficiently store, manage, and retrieve
data.

10. Explain the differences between SQL and NoSQL databases.

SQL databases are characterized by their use of structured tables and strict adherence to a
predefined schema, making them ideal for managing structured data with a strong focus on data
consistency and transaction support. In contrast, NoSQL databases are non-relational and excel
in handling unstructured or semi-structured data, frequently employed for scalable, distributed,
and adaptable data storage solutions.

11 What is a table and a field in SQL?

11. What is a table and a field in SQL?

In SQL, a table is a structured data collection organized into rows and columns. Each column in a
table is called a field, representing a specific attribute or property of the data.

12. Describe the SELECT statement.

The SELECT statement serves the purpose of fetching data from one or multiple tables, enabling
you to specify the desired columns to retrieve, apply filters through the WHERE clause, and
manage the result's sorting using the ORDER BY clause.

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13. What is a constraint in SQL? Name a few.

A constraint in SQL defines rules or restrictions that apply to data in a table, ensuring data
integrity. Common constraints include:

PRIMARY KEY: Ensures the values’ uniqueness in a column.

FOREIGN KEY: Enforces referential integrity between tables.

UNIQUE: Ensures the uniqueness of values in a column.

CHECK: Defines a condition that data must meet to be inserted or updated.

NOT NULL: Ensures that there are no NULL values in a column.

14. What is normalization in SQL?

Normalization is the method used to streamline data storage within a database, reducing
redundancy and enhancing data integrity. This approach entails dividing tables into more
manageable, interrelated tables and establishing connections between them.

15. How do you use the WHERE clause?

The WHERE clause within SQL queries serves the purpose of selectively filtering rows according
to specified conditions, thereby enabling you to fetch exclusively those rows that align with the
criteria you define. For example:

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = 'HR';

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = HR ;

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16. What are indexes in SQL?

Indexes improve the data retrieval operations speed. They provide a quick way to locate specific
rows in a table by creating a sorted data structure based on one or more columns. Indexes are
essential for optimizing query performance.

17. Explain GROUP BY in SQL.

The GROUP BY clause organizes rows from a table into groups based on the values in one or
more columns. It is commonly employed alongside aggregate functions like SUM, COUNT, AVG,
MIN, and MAX to perform computations on data that has been grouped together.

18. What is an SQL alias?

An SQL alias serves as a transitory label bestowed upon either a table or a column within a query,
with the primary purpose of enhancing the clarity of query outcomes or simplifying the process
of renaming columns for improved referencing. For example:

SELECT first_name AS "First Name", last_name AS "Last Name" FROM employees;

19. Explain ORDER BY in SQL.

The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the result set of a query based on one or more columns.
You can specify each column's sorting order (ascending or descending). For example:

SELECT * FROM products ORDER BY price DESC;

20. Describe the difference between WHERE and HAVING in SQL.

The WHERE clause is employed to restrict individual rows before they are grouped, such as when
filtering rows prior to a GROUP BY operation. Conversely, the HAVING clause is utilized to filter
groups of rows after they have been grouped, like filtering groups based on aggregate values.

21. What is a view in SQL?

An SQL view is essentially a virtual table that derives its data from the outcome of a SELECT
query Views serve multiple purposes including simplifying intricate queries enhancing data
query. Views serve multiple purposes, including simplifying intricate queries, enhancing data
security through an added layer, and enabling the presentation of targeted data subsets to users,
all while keeping the underlying table structure hidden.

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22. What is a stored procedure?

A SQL stored procedure comprises precompiled SQL statements that can be executed together
as a unified entity. These procedures are commonly used to encapsulate business logic, improve
performance, and ensure consistent data manipulation practices.

23. What is a trigger in SQL?

An SQL trigger consists of a predefined sequence of actions that are executed automatically
when a particular event occurs, such as when an INSERT or DELETE operation is performed on a
table. Triggers are employed to ensure data consistency, conduct auditing, and streamline
various tasks.

24. What are aggregate functions? Can you name a few?

Aggregate functions in SQL perform calculations on a set of values and return a single result.

SUM: To calculate the sum of values in a column.

COUNT: To count a column's number of rows or non-null values.

AVG: To calculate the average of values in a column.

MIN: To retrieve the minimum value in a column.

MAX: To retrieve the maximum value in a column.

25. How do you update a value in SQL?

The UPDATE statement serves the purpose of altering pre-existing records within a table. It
involves specifying the target table for the update, the specific columns to be modified, and the
desired new values to be applied. For example:

UPDATE employees SET salary = 60000 WHERE department = 'IT';

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Intermediate SQL Interview Questions and Answers

26. What is a self-join, and how would you use it?

A self-join is a type of join where a table is joined with itself. It is useful when creating
relationships within the same table, such as finding hierarchical relationships or comparing rows
with related data.

27. Explain different types of joins with examples.

INNER JOIN: Gathers rows that have matching values in both tables.

RIGHT JOIN: Gathers all rows from the right table and any matching rows from the left table.

LEFT JOIN: Gathers all rows from the left table and any matching rows from the right table.

FULL JOIN: Gathers all rows when there's a match in either table, including unmatched rows
from both tables.

Example:

SELECT employees.name, departments.name

FROM employees

LEFT JOIN departments ON employees.department_id = departments.id;

28. What is a subquery? Provide an example.

A subquery refers to a query that is embedded within another query, serving the purpose of
fetching information that will subsequently be employed as a condition or value within the
encompassing outer query. For example, to find employees with salaries greater than the average
salary:

SELECT name

FROM employees

WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees);

29. How do you optimize SQL queries?

SQL query optimization involves improving the performance of SQL queries by reducing resource
usage and execution time. Strategies include using appropriate indexes, optimizing query
structure, and avoiding costly operations like full table scans.

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30. What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL?

UNION merges the outcomes of two or more SELECT statements, removing duplicate rows,
whereas UNION ALL merges the results without removing duplicates. While UNION ALL is faster,
it may include duplicate rows.

31. What are correlated subqueries?

It is a type of subquery that makes reference to columns from the surrounding outer query. This
subquery is executed repeatedly, once for each row being processed by the outer query, and its
execution depends on the outcomes of the outer query.

32. Explain ACID properties in SQL.

ACID - Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. They are essential properties that ensure
the reliability and integrity of database transactions:

Atomicity (single, indivisible unit of transactions)

Consistency (transactions bring the DB from one consistent state to another)

Isolation (transactions are isolated from each other)

Durability (committed transactions are permanent and survive system failures.)

33. What is a transaction in SQL?

A transaction in SQL is a sequence of one or more SQL operations treated as a single unit of
work. Transactions ensure that database operations are either completed successfully or rolled
back entirely in case of failure.

34. How do you implement error handling in SQL?

Error handling in SQL is typically achieved using try-catch blocks (in SQL Server) or EXCEPTION
blocks (in Oracle). These blocks allow you to handle and log errors gracefully to prevent
application crashes.

35. What is a cursor, and how is it used?

In SQL, a cursor is a database element employed for the purpose of fetching and controlling data
one row at a time from a result set. Cursors find frequent application within stored procedures or
triggers when it becomes necessary to process data in a sequential manner.

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36. Describe the data types in SQL.

SQL supports various data types, including numeric, character, date/time, and binary types.
Common data types include INT, VARCHAR, DATE, and BLOB, among others. Data types define
the kind of values a column can hold.

37. Explain normalization and denormalization.

Normalization is the method used to streamline data in a database, decreasing redundancy and
enhancing data integrity. This procedure includes dividing large tables into smaller,
interconnected ones to eliminate duplicated data. Conversely, denormalization is the deliberate
act of introducing redundancy to enhance query performance.

38. What is a clustered index?

A clustered index in SQL determines the physical order of data rows in a table. Each table can
have only one clustered index, which impacts the table's storage structure. Rows in a table are
physically stored in the same order as the clustered index key.

39. How do you prevent SQL injection?

SQL injection represents a security flaw that arises when SQL queries mishandle untrusted data,
posing a risk of unauthorized access or data tampering. To ward off SQL injection, employ
techniques like parameterized queries, prepared statements, input validation, and the
enforcement of stringent access controls.

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40. What are the different types of triggers?

DML triggers: These triggers fire in response to data manipulation language (DML) operations
such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE.

DDL triggers: These triggers fire in response to data definition language (DDL) events, such as
table or view creation.

41. Explain the concept of a database schema.

In SQL, a database schema functions as a conceptual container for housing various database
elements, such as tables, views, indexes, and procedures. Its primary purpose is to facilitate the
organization and segregation of these database elements while specifying their structure and
interconnections.

42. How is data integrity ensured in SQL?

Data integrity in SQL is ensured through various means, including constraints (e.g., primary keys,
foreign keys, check constraints), normalization, transactions, and referential integrity constraints.
These mechanisms prevent invalid or inconsistent data from being stored in the database.

43. What is an SQL injection?

SQL injection is a cybersecurity attack method that involves the insertion of malicious SQL code
into an application's input fields or parameters. This unauthorized action enables attackers to
illicitly access a database, extract confidential information, or manipulate data.

44. How do you create a stored procedure?

You use the CREATE PROCEDURE statement to create a stored procedure in SQL. A stored
procedure can contain SQL statements, parameters, and variables. Here's a simple example:

CREATE PROCEDURE GetEmployeeByID(@EmployeeID INT)

AS

BEGIN
BEGIN

SELECT * FROM employees WHERE employee_id = @EmployeeID;

END;

45. What is a deadlock in SQL? How can it be prevented?

A deadlock in SQL occurs when two or more transactions cannot proceed because they are
waiting for resources held by each other. Deadlocks can be prevented or resolved by using
techniques such as locking hierarchies, timeouts, or deadlock detection and resolution
mechanisms.

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SQL Interview Questions for Experienced

46. Explain different isolation levels in SQL.

Isolation levels define the visibility of data changes one transaction makes to other concurrent
transactions. There are four commonly used isolation levels in SQL:

READ UNCOMMITTED: At this isolation level, transactions are allowed to read changes made
by other transactions even if those changes have not been committed. While this provides the
highest level of concurrency, it also introduces the risk of encountering dirty reads.

READ COMMITTED: In this level, transactions can only read committed data, avoiding dirty
reads. However, it may still suffer from non-repeatable reads and phantom reads.

REPEATABLE READ: Transactions at this level ensure that any data read during the transaction
remains unchanged throughout the transaction's lifetime. It prevents non-repeatable reads but
may still allow phantom reads.

SERIALIZABLE: This represents the utmost isolation level, guaranteeing absolute isolation
between transactions. While it eradicates all concurrency problems, it may exhibit reduced
efficiency due to locking mechanisms.

47. How does a clustered index work and how is it different from a non-clustered index?

A clustered index defines the actual storage order of rows within a table, allowing for only one
clustered index per table and directly influencing the on-disk data organization. Conversely, a non-