Chapter 1

1. Coulomb's Law (Vector Form)

Coulomb's Law describes the electrostatic force between two charged particles.
The vector form of Coulomb's Law is given by

Explanation:
Coulomb's Law states that the force between two-point charges is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force acts along the
line joining the two charges and can be attractive or repulsive depending on the
nature of the charges (like charges repel, unlike charges attract).

2. Electric Flux
The total number of electric field lines crossing (or diverging) a surface normally is
called electric flux

Explanation:
Electric flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines crossing through a
surface. If the electric field is uniform, the electric flux can be simplified to:
3. Gauss's Law Statement
Gauss's law states that the net flux of an electric field through a closed surface is
proportional to the enclosed electric charge. It relates the electric fields at points
on a closed surface (known as a "Gaussian surface") and the net charge enclosed
by that surface

Explanation:
Gauss's Law provides a powerful tool for calculating electric fields, especially in
symmetrical situations (spherical, cylindrical, or planar symmetry). It states that
the electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the charge
enclosed within that surface, making it useful for understanding the behavior of
electric fields in various configurations.

Chapter 2
4. Properties of Conductors
1. Conductors are materials which contain large number of free
electrons which can move freely inside the conductor

2. Because there is no electric field inside the conductor so we

can say electrostatic field lines never exist within conducting
materials.
 3. Electric field is always perpendicular to conducting surface.

4. In electrostatics, conductors are always equipotential surfaces

5. For any conductor at its surface, V= constant

6. Charge always resides on the outer surface of a conductor.

7. If there is a cavity inside a charged conductor with the cavity

devoid of any charge then charge will always reside only on the
outer surface of the conductor

8. Electrostatic shielding is the method of protecting a certain

region from the effect of electric field.

5. Equipotential Surfaces and Their Properties

Definition:
Equipotential surfaces are surfaces on which the electric potential is
constant. No work is done when moving a charge along an
equipotential surface.

Key Properties:

• Perpendicular to Electric Field Lines: Equipotential surfaces are

always perpendicular to electric field lines.
 • No Work Done: Since the potential difference is zero, no work is
required to move a charge along an equipotential surface.
• Variation in Distance: Equipotential surfaces can be close
together in regions where the electric field is strong and farther
apart where the field is weak.
• Shapes: In the case of point charges, equipotential surfaces are
spherical; for uniform electric fields, they are parallel planes.

6. Dielectrics: Meaning and Property

Definition:
Dielectrics are insulating materials that can be polarized by an electric
field. They do not conduct electricity but can affect the electric field in
their vicinity.

Key Properties:

• Polarization: When placed in an electric field, dielectrics become

polarized, meaning that positive and negative charges within the material
shift slightly in opposite directions, creating an induced dipole moment.
• Dielectric Constant: This is a measure of a dielectric material’s ability to
store electrical energy in an electric field. It is defined as the ratio of the
capacitance of a capacitor with the dielectric to the capacitance without it.
• Applications: Dielectrics are used in capacitors to increase their
capacitance and in various electronic components to prevent unwanted
current flow.

Chapter 3
7. Drift Velocity

Definition:
Drift velocity is the average velocity that a charge carrier, such as an
electron, attains due to an electric field in a conductor.

Formula:
The drift velocity (Vd) can be expressed as:
Explanation:
Drift velocity is typically very small compared to the random thermal velocities of
the electrons. It represents the net flow of charge carriers in response to an electric
field.

8. Kirchhoff's Laws
Definition:
Kirchhoff’s laws are fundamental principles in circuit analysis that describe the
behavior of current and voltage in electrical circuits.

Key Laws:

· Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):

This law states that the total current entering a junction equals the total
current leaving the junction. Mathematically

· Explanation:
This law is based on the principle of conservation of charge, which states that
charge cannot accumulate at a junction.

· Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):

This law states that the sum of the electrical potential differences (voltages)
around any closed loop in a circuit is zero:
Explanation:
KVL is based on the conservation of energy, indicating that the energy supplied is
equal to the energy used in the loop.

Chapter 4
9. Biot-Savart Law
Definition:
The Biot-Savart Law describes the magnetic field (B)⃗ produced at a point in
space by a small segment of current-carrying wire. It states that the
magnetic field is directly proportional to the current (I) and the length of the
wire segment (dl), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
(r) from the wire to the point where the field is measured.

Mathematical Expression:

10. Ampere's Law

Definition:
Ampere's Law relates the magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric
current passing through the loop. It states that the line integral of the
magnetic field (B)⃗ around a closed path is equal to the permeability of free
space multiplied by the total current (I) enclosed by that path.

Mathematical Expression:
11. Define 1 Ampere
Definition:
One ampere of current is defined as the current that, when flowing through
each of two infinitely long, parallel conductors separated by one meter in a
vacuum, produces a force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per meter of length between
them; ne Ampere is defined as the current that flows when one coulomb of
charge passes through a conductor in one second. Mathematically, it can be
expressed as:

12. Moving Coil Galvanometer (MCG)

Principle:
A moving coil galvanometer operates on the principle that a current-carrying coil
placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque, causing it to rotate.

Diagram:
Working:
When a current passes through the coil, it generates a magnetic field that
interacts with the external magnetic field, causing the coil to rotate. The
amount of rotation is proportional to the current flowing through the coil,
which can be measured using a pointer on a scale.

Conversion to Ammeter:
To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, a low resistance (shunt
resistor) is connected in parallel with the galvanometer. This allows most
of the current to bypass the galvanometer, allowing it to measure larger
currents without damage.

Conversion to Voltmeter:
To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter, a high resistance is
connected in series with the galvanometer. This allows the galvanometer
to measure voltage by limiting the current through it.
Chapter 5
13. Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic, and Diamagnetic

Paramagnetic:
• Definition: Materials that are weakly attracted by a magnetic
field due to unpaired electrons.
• Properties:

o Exhibit a temporary magnetic effect.

o Magnetic susceptibility is positive but small.

Ferromagnetic:
• Definition: Materials that exhibit strong magnetic properties
and can retain magnetization even after the external field is
removed (e.g., iron, nickel).
• Properties:
o Exhibit spontaneous magnetization.
o High magnetic susceptibility.

Diamagnetic:
• Definition: Materials that are weakly repelled by a magnetic
field and have no unpaired electrons (e.g., copper, bismuth).
• Properties:
o Exhibit a very weak magnetic effect.
o Magnetic susceptibility is negative.

14. Susceptibility

Definition:
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) is a dimensionless quantity that indicates
how much a material will become magnetized in an applied magnetic
field. It is defined as the ratio of the magnetization (M) of the material
to the applied magnetic field strength (H):
 χ=M/H
Where:

• M is the magnetization of the material.

• H is the applied magnetic field strength.

Chapter 6

15. Faraday's Law

Definition:
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction states that a change in
magnetic flux through a circuit induces an electromotive force (emf) in
that circuit. The induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux.

Mathematical Expression:

16. Lenz's Law

Definition:
Lenz's Law states that the direction of the induced current (and hence
the induced emf) will be such that it opposes the change in magnetic
flux that produced it. This law is a manifestation of the conservation of
energy.
Explanation:
If the magnetic flux through a loop increases, the induced current will
flow in a direction to create a magnetic field opposing the increase.
Conversely, if the flux decreases, the induced current will flow to
reinforce the existing magnetic field.

17.Self and Mutual Induction

Self-Induction:

• Definition: Self-induction is the phenomenon where a changing

current in a coil induces an electromotive force (emf) in itself.
The inductance (L) quantifies this effect.
• Mathematical Expression:

Mutual Induction:

• Definition: Mutual induction occurs when a changing

current in one coil induces an emf in a nearby coil.

• Mathematical Expression:
Chapter 7
17. Power Factor
Definition:
The power factor (PF) is the ratio of the real power (P) flowing to the
load, to the apparent power (S) in the circuit. It is a measure of how
effectively electrical power is being converted into useful work output.

Formula:

Key Points:

• A power factor of 1 (or 100%) indicates all the power is being

used effectively.
• A low power factor indicates poor utilization of electrical power
and can lead to increased costs.

18. Transformer
Definition:
A transformer is an electrical device used to transfer electrical energy
between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction.

Principle:

Transformers operate on the principle of Faraday's law of

electromagnetic induction, where a changing current in one coil
generates a changing magnetic field, which induces a current in
another coil.

Working:

• Primary Coil: The input coil receives alternating current (AC),

creating a magnetic field.
• Secondary Coil: The magnetic field induces a voltage in the
secondary coil.
• Turn Ratio: The voltage in the secondary coil is related to the
turns ratio of the primary and secondary coils.

Diagram:

19. AC Generator
Definition:
An AC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
using electromagnetic induction.

• Components: An AC generator consists of a rotor (armature), a

stator, and a magnetic field.
• Rotation: As the rotor spins within the magnetic field, an
alternating current is induced in the armature.
• Output: The generated AC can be used in various applications.
• Diagram:
• Working: As the armature coil rotates, the magnetic flux linked
with it changes and so an induced-current flows through it.
Suppose initially the coil PQRS be in the vertical position and it is
rotated in the clockwise direction. The side PQ moves downward
and SR moves upward. According to Fleming’s right-hand rule,
the induced current flows from Q to P and from S to R. So, during
the first half rotation of the coil, the induced current flows in the
direction SRQP, with brush B1 acting as positive terminal and
brush B2 as negative terminal. During the second half-rotation,
the current flows along PQRS, so that the brush B2 now
functions as the positive terminal and brush B1 as the negative
terminal. Thus, the direction of current in the external circuit is
reversed after every half cycle.
Chapter 8
20. Displacement Current

Definition:
Displacement current is a term introduced by James Clerk Maxwell to
account for the changing electric field in regions of space where there
is no conduction current.

Formula:

Explanation:
Displacement current plays a crucial role in explaining electromagnetic
waves and is essential in Maxwell's equations.

21. Properties and Spectrum of EM Waves

Properties:

• Transverse Waves: EM waves oscillate perpendicular to the

direction of energy propagation.
• Speed: All EM waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum
(c≈3×108 m/s )
• Frequency and Wavelength: EM waves have a wide range of
frequencies and wavelengths, corresponding to different types
of radiation.
•

•
•

•
Spectrum:
The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, each with
distinct properties and applications.

Chapter 9

22. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

Definition:
Total internal reflection occurs when a wave traveling in a medium hit
the boundary of a less dense medium at an angle greater than the
critical angle, causing the wave to reflect entirely within the denser
medium.

Conditions for TIR:

1. The light must travel from a denser to a rarer medium (e.g.,

water to air).
2. The angle of incidence must exceed the critical angle.

23. Working of Optical Fiber

Explanation:
Optical fibers use TIR to transmit light signals over long distances. The
core of the fiber is made of a material with a higher refractive index
than the cladding, ensuring that light signals remain within the core
through TIR.

Applications: Used in telecommunications, medical instruments, and

data transmission.

24. Telescope Diagram

-

If the final image is formed at infinity

If the final image is at D distance

25. Compound Microscope Diagram

If the final image is at D distance

If the final image is formed at infinity

Chapter 10
26. Huygens' Principle

Definition:
“Every point on a wavefront is in itself the source of spherical wavelets
which spread out in the forward direction at the speed of light. The
sum of these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront”.

27. Refraction (Rarer to Denser)

Explanation:
When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends
towards from the normal. This can be explained using Huygens'
Principle, as the wavelets travel at different speeds in different media,
causing the change in direction.
28. Intensity Graph (Interference vs. Diffraction)

Chapter 11

29. Photoelectric Effect

Definition:
It is a phenomenon of ejecting electrons by falling light of suitable
frequency or suitable wavelength on a metal. Ejected electron are
called photoelectrons and current flowing due to the photoelectrons is
called photoelectric current.

This effect was discovered by Hertz.

The 3 conditions for photoelectric effect are :

1. h  W0
2.   0
3.   0
1. Photoelectron : The electron emitted in photoelectric effect is
called photoelectron.
2. Photoelectric current : If current passes through the circuit in
photoelectric effect then the current is called photoelectric
current.
3. Work function : The minimum energy required to make an
electron free from the metal is called work function. It is
constant for a metal and denoted by 𝝋 or W. It is the minimum
for Cesium. It is relatively less for alkali metals.
4. Saturation current : When all the photo electrons emitted by
cathode reach the anode then current flowing in the circuit at
that instant is known as saturated current, this is the maximum
value of photoelectric current.
5. Stopping potential :Minimum magnitude of negative potential
of anode with respect to cathode for which current is zero is
called stopping potential. This is also known as cutoff voltage.
This voltage is independent of intensity
6. Retarding potential: Negative potential of anode with respect
to cathode which is less than stopping potential is called
retarding potential.
30. Failure of Wave Theory

Explanation:
Classical wave theory could not explain the discrete nature of energy
emitted from light, leading to the assertion that light has particle-like
properties.

1. According to wave theory when light incident on a surface,

energy is distributed continuously over the surface. So that
electron must take a time interval to accumulate sufficient
energy to come out. But in experiment there is no time lag.
2. When intensity is increased, more energetic electrons should be
emitted. So that stopping potential should be intensity
dependent. But it is not observed.
3. According to wave theory, if intensity is sufficient then, at each
frequency, electron emission is possible. It means there should
not be existence of threshold frequency
31.Einstein's Equation

Formula:

Where:

• E is the energy of the emitted electron,

• h is Planck's constant,
• ф is the work function of metal

32. De-Broglie Hypothesis

Moving particles of matter should display wave like properties under

suitable conditions. Because nature loves symmetry and the two basic
physical entities- matter and energy, must have symmetrical character

1) Waves associated with a moving particle are matter waves. (not

with stationary particles).
2) Matter waves are neither EM waves nor mechanical waves
3) Matter waves are also known as de-Broglie waves. Because
their concept was given by physicist Louis Victor de Broglie
4) Macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like
properties because their wavelength are so small (beyond any
measurement). But the wave character of microscopic particles
(subatomic particles) is significant and measurable.
For Electron 𝝀=

For Proton 𝝀=

For Deuteron 𝝀=

For Alpha particle 𝝀=

For unchanged particles like neutron and gas atoms

Mean kinetic energy of electrons

Chapter 12
33. Outcomes of Alpha Particle Scattering

1. Most Part of the atom is empty space (Hollow).

2. There is some +ve Charge inside atom in a very small space.

3. The +ve charge inside atom is concentrated to an extremely small

space called Nucleus.
34.Distance of closest approach (nuclear dimension)
The minimum distance from the center of the nucleus upto which the
-particle approaches is called the distance of closest approach (r0 ).
From the figure,

1 2Z e2
ro=
2. Bohr Model
4 π 0 KE

35. Impact parameter (b):

The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector 𝐯⃗ of the α-particles

from the center of the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is
known as impact parameter.

2 𝜽
1 Z e cot⁡ ( )
𝟐
b=
4 π 0 (𝟏m𝑽𝟐 )
𝟐
𝜽
 b  cot ( )
𝟐
36. Bohr’s model

Bohr’s first postulate

An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without

the emission of radiant energy. Hence, these orbits are also called
“stationary orbits”.

Bohr’s second postulate

Electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the
angular momentum (L) is some integral multiple of h/2, where h is
the Planck's constant.

i.e., 𝐧𝐡
L=
𝟐𝛑

where n = 1,2,3,....
Bohr’s third postulate
An electron might make a transition from one of its specified non
radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon
is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the
initial and final states.

h = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊
 1. Limitations of Bohr Model

Explanation:
The Bohr model cannot explain the spectra of multi-electron
atoms or the fine structure of spectral lines, as it oversimplifies

37. De-Broglie Explanation of Bohr's Second Postulate

Explanation:
According to De Broglie electron revolves round the nucleus in the
form of stationary waves (i. e. wave packet) in the similar fashion as
stationary waves in a vibrating string.

Electron revolves in those circular orbits whose circumference is an

integral multiple of de–Broglie wavelength associated with the
electron,

2𝝅r = nλ
Chapter 13

38. Nuclear Density is Independent of Mass Number

Explanation:
The density of nuclear matter remains constant regardless of the mass
number due to the compact arrangement of nucleons within the
nucleus.

39. Mass Defect and Binding Energy

Definition:
Mass defect is the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the
sum of the masses of its individual nucleons. It is related to binding
energy by Einstein's equation E=mc2.

(i) Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to split it into

its nucleons (free).

(ii) 𝞓Eb = 𝞓 m.c2

(iii) It is always positive and numerically equal to the energy

equivalent of mass defect (or equal to the energy liberated when it
was formed)
40.Nuclear Force Properties

1. The strongest force in the universe.

2. Works only between the nucleons.
3. Very short range : only upto size of nucleus (3 or 4 fermi). More
than this distance, nuclear force is almost zero.
4. Very much depends upon distance :– Small variation in distance
may cause of large change in nuclear force while electrostatic force
remains almost unaffected.
5. Independent of charge :– Interacts between n–n as well as
between p–p and also between n–p.
6. Spin dependent :– It is stronger between nucleons having same
sense of spin than between nucleons having opposite sense of spin.
7. It is not a central force: – Definition of central force (Fc) : Whose
line of action always passes through a fixed point and its magnitude
depends only on distance, if medium is same. Electrostatic and
gravitational forces are central forces.
8. Nature: – (i) Attractive – If distance is greater than 0.8 fm or
above. (ii) Repulsive – If distance is lesser than 0.8 fm.

41.Binding Energy per Nucleon vs. Mass Number Curve

Explanation:
(i) The value of binding energy per nucleon decides the stability of a
nucleus. It is obtained by dividing binding energy by the mass number
of given nucleus.

(ii) The following figure shows the binding energy per nucleon
plotted against the mass number of various atoms nuclei

Greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the nucleus.

(iii) It is maximum for isotope of iron – 56 Fe2 6 and is 8.8

MeV/nucleon. It is the most stable nucleus.

(iv) For Uranium, binding energy per nucleon is about 7.7

MeV/nucleon and it is unstable.

(v) The medium size nuclei are more stable than light or heavy
nuclei.

Chapter 14

42. Doping (P-type & N-type)

Definition:
Doping involves adding impurities to a semiconductor to change its
electrical properties.

• P-type: Doping with elements that have fewer valence electrons

(e.g., boron).
• N-type: Doping with elements that have extra valence electrons
(e.g., phosphorus).

43.P-N Junction

Explanation:
A P-N junction is formed when P-type and N-type semiconductors are
joined, creating a depletion region that allows current to flow in one
direction.
 1. At the junction there is diffusion of charge carriers due to
thermal agitation; so that some of electrons of n-region
diffuse to p-region while some of holes of p-region diffuse
into n-region.

2. Some charge carriers combine with opposite charges to

neutralize each other.

3. Thus near the junction there is an excess of positively

charged ions in n region and an excess of negatively
charged ions in p-region.

4. This sets up a potential difference called potential

barrier and hence an internal electric field Ei across the
junctions.

5. The field Ei is directed from n-region to p-region.

6. This field stops the further diffusion of charge carriers.

7. Thus the layers (≈10-4cm to 10-6cm) on either side of
the junction becomes free from mobile charge carriers and
hence is called the depletion layer

44. Biasing (Forward & Reverse)

• Forward Biasing: When the P-side is connected to a higher

voltage than the N-side, allowing current to flow.
• Reverse Biasing: When the N-side is connected to a higher
voltage, preventing current flow.

45. Characteristics (Forward & Reverse)

Explanation:

• Forward Bias: Current increases exponentially with voltage.

• Reverse Bias: Minimal current flows until breakdown occurs.
46. Rectifier (Half & Full Wave)

Definition: Rectifiers convert AC to DC.

Half-Wave Rectifier:

• During the first half (positive) of the input signal, S1 is at positive

and S2 is at negative potential. So, the PN junction diode D is
forward biased. The current flows through the load resistance RL
and output voltage is obtained across the RL.
• During the second half (negative) of the input signal, S1 is at
negative potential and S2 is at positive potential. The PN
junction diode will be reversed biased. In this case, practically no
 current would flow through the load resistance. So, there will be
no output across the RL.
• Thus, corresponding to an alternating input signal, we get a
unidirectional pulsating output called rectified output
• 40.6% for an ideal diode

•
• Full wave rectifier

During the positive half of the input signal : S1 positive

and S2 negative. In this case diode D1 is forward biased
and D2 is reverse biased. So only D1 conducts and hence
the flow of current in the load resistance RL is from A to
B.

During the negative half of the input signal : S1 is

negative and S2 is positive. So D1 is reverse-biased and
D2 is forward biased. So only D2 conducts and hence the
current flows through the load resistance RL again from
A to B.

It is clear that whether the input signal is positive or

negative, the current always flows through the load
resistance in the same direction and thus output is called
full wave rectified.

max = 81.2% for an ideal diode.