=

·
-

O
-

Da
PC (IBM 5150 – Original IBM PC)

Released in 1981, this was the first widely popular personal computer.
Specifications:
• Processor: Intel 8088 @ 4.77 MHz
• RAM:
• Storage: 5.25-inch floppy drive (160 KB or 320 KB capacity)
• Graphics: Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) or Color Graphics Adapter (CGA)
• Operating System: PC-DOS 1.0
• Ports: Cassette port, parallel port for printer, expansion slots

PC XT (IBM 5160 – Extended Technology)

Released in 1983, it was an upgrade of the original IBM PC.

Specifications:
• Processor: Intel 8088 @ 4.77 MHz (same as IBM PC)
• RAM: 128 KB (expandable to 640 KB)
• Storage: 10 MB hard drive (first IBM PC with a built-in hard drive)
• Floppy Drive: 5.25-inch (360 KB capacity)
• Graphics: Monochrome or Color (CGA)
• Operating System: PC-DOS 2.0
• Expansion Slots: 8 expansion slots (versus 5 on the original PC)

The main difference between the PC and PC XT was the inclusion of a hard drive in the XT and more expansion capabilities,
making it better suited for business applications.
 Micro processor. An electronic device which can perform operation in microseconds

A micro processor is a multipurpose, programmable Clock driven, register based electronic device
that reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and
process data according to instructions and provides results as output, The microprocessor can an
analogy to the human Brain.
The microprocessor communicates and operates in binary numbers 0 and 1 Called binary digits or
bits.

1) Discuss about up on mothe board. The above diagram.

2) The I/O section gives input and produces output

3) a Memory Where we save the data, Can not do process

4) Store data …. . Program or data

5) Numerous Type of Memory primary memory and secondary memory

( In Decimal ( SIN BINARY 310
10
3
Kilo
20 - 1 -
1024 Locations 10 = 2

10 10 20

i8 . 8 = 106 -

Mega . 2
2 = 2 =
Megr
10 10 10 30
9-Gige . 2
2 .
2 = 2 =
10
Gigs
10 10 10 40
Tera ·2
2
·
2
%
2 = 2 = Tera

• Kilobyte (KB) = 1,024 bytes

• Megabyte (MB) = 1,024 KB ForExample 128 GB
• Gigabyte (GB) = 1,024 MB
• Terabyte (TB) = 1,024 GB 30
• Petabyte (PB) = 1,024 TB
• Exabyte (EB) = 1,024 PB 2
7
.
227 Byte
• Zettabyte (ZB) = 1,024 EB
• Yottabyte (YB) = 1,024 ZB

These units are based on binary

multiples, where each level represents
1,024 times the previous one.
 Bus: - used to performe the same function as like a bus use in transport i.e to transport human. Similar the Bus
in microprocessor transfer data from CPU to input-output device or memory and vice-versa
Technically the Bus is a group of wire used by the CPU or microprocessor to transfer data There are 3 type of
system bus use by the CPU or used by the system
1) Data Bus 2) Address-bus. 3) Control Bus

Data Bus:
This bus it used by the system/ Microprocessor to transfer or fetch data to or from the memory or devices
Address Bus: -
This bus as its name suggest carry the address of the memory location , I/O devices from where the micro
processor fetch the data or want to send the data. The exact location or addresses is loaded out the the Address
bus by the microprocessor

Control Bus: -
This bus generate various control uses by the mincroprocessor for reading/writing data in memory or to input
output devices . First of all minprocessor uses the address bus , then Control bus and in the end it use data bus
to do the operation
Computer architecture

• It is about designing a computer system to balance performance, efficiency, cost, and reliability. It describes
how a system is built from its components. This can be a high-level overview or a detailed explanation,
including the instruction set architecture, microarchitecture, logic design, and implementation.

Computer Organization

It is about how the components of a computer system, like the CPU, memory, and input/output devices, are
connected and work together to execute programs. It focuses on the operational aspects and how hardware
components are implemented to support the architecture.
&

Two line difference

between Architecture
a
organisation .
There are two type of Architecture used in up

1 Von Neumann
2 Harvard

me

me
Data Types
The term data refers to factual information used for analysis or reasoning. Data itself has no meaning, but becomes
information when it is assigned a meaning or interpreted.

Information is a collection of facts or data that is communicated. Binary information in digital computers is stored in
memory or processor registers

The data types of digital computers may be classified as being one of the following category
(1) numbers used in arithmetic computations,
(2) letters of the alphabet used in data processing,
(3) other discrete symbols used for specific purposes.

All types of data, except binary numbers, are represented in computer registers in binary-coded form.

NumberSystem: It is define as the group of digits used to express a number in that system by using only the given groups
of digits . These number of digits is termed as the base of the system. Following are the example of number systems.

1) DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

2) BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
3) OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
4) HEXA. DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM.

ALL these system has the facility to represent the number as positive number as well as in negative number .
All these numbers system has the rules to do mathematically operations also

To determine the quantity that the number represents, it is necessary to multiply each digit by an integer power of r and then
form the sum of all weighted digits
the decimal number system in everyday use employs the radix 10 system. The 10 symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
The string of digits 724.5 is interpreted to represent the quantity

In a number, the integer part and radix part (or fractional part) are the two components separated by the radix point (which is
commonly a decimal point in base 10).
-

• Integer Part: The digits to the left of the radix point. This part represents whole numbers. In 123.45, the integer part is 123.
-

• Radix Part (Fractional Part): The digits to the right of the radix point. This part represents values less than 1. In 123.45, the
radix part is 0.45.

In number systems, weight refers to the value or importance assigned to a digit based on its position within a number. This is determined
-

by the positional value of the digit and the base (radix) of the number system.
the digif
position f
in
weight a number
system -
positional value X
(Base)
of the digit in refrence to the
The
positionof the digit is decided by the
position
radix point
starts frm o to n

For Integer part

the
position of digit
sharbs from (1) t EM)
the position of digic
for radix
part
For Example 782 . 75

positional weight
she are as below
782
For Integerpart ,

2x8
782 >
8x10
zx102
 For Radix part
75
5x102
·

2x10
will remain the same for all the number system
The
positional power
will be in the base of the number system .
The only change
For Decimal base is -10
base 1S-2
Bmary
Octal base 15-8
16
Heladenmal -

Important: We can convert Decimal number into any number system (Binary, Octal, Hexadecimd)using following two rules

1) For Integer part divide the decimal number by the base of the number system to which we want to convert into

and record the remainder

2) Again divide the quotient by the base again and record the remander again. When the division is completed,

Record the remainder. in the reverse order. like remainder from the first step will be written in last.

For radix part multiply the decimal part or fractional part by the base of the system to which we want to convert

into and record the overflow . Now next step discard the overflow and again multiply the remaining number by

the base as we do in previous step and record the overflow again, Here we record the overflow as per their

order, there is need to reverse the order as we do in integer part conversion process

Binary Number system:

The word BI itself means 'Two'. The binary number system uses two digit to represent any number. The two digit are 0 and 1
called Binary Digit or in short form BIT.
So the base or radix of Binary Number system is 2

Positional weight for Binary Number system

system we can find our the weight
As we discuss
in weight of the

Number system
or
positional weight In
binary
=> (bases
3
+ (baces + (bares + (base) (bases' + (base+ (bases
·

22 21 20 2 22 + 23
..... 2 + + + . +

8 + y + 2 + 1 -

1 +
4
+
5
 --

By multiply the positional weight with positional value of the bit we can easily find the Number. This method is a
&

fast way to Convert any Decimal Number to binary as well as from Binary to decimal Number system
-

Decimal Representation

The binary number system is the most natural system for a computer, but people are accustomed to the
&

decimal system. However, it is also possible for the computer to perform arithmetic operations directly with
decimal numbers provided they are placed in registers in a coded form.
A binary code is a group of n bits that assume up to 2" distinct combina- tions of 1's and O's with each
combination representing one element of the set that is being coded. For example, a set of four elements can
be coded by a 2-bit code with each element assigned one of the following bit combinations; 00, 01, 10, or 11
As we know we have 10 digit from 0 to 9 so we have to use 4 digits to represent any number from 0 to 9

In BCD called Binary Coded Decimal we replace each individual bit by its its 4 bit binary equivalent . By using
this method we can easily convert ant number decimal number to is BCD equivalent and do any digital
operation . The BCD code for
0— 0000 , 1——0001 similarly for 8 ——-1000 and for 9 it is 1001

Any Big number like 879 can be easily changed to represent in BCD code by replacing each individual digit by
4 bit binary equivalent
8——1000
7——-0111
9 ——1001
So the BCD code is. 100001111001

Alphanumeric Representation

Many applications of digital computers require the handling of data that consist not only of numbers, but also of the letters of
the alphabet and certain special characters.
An alphanumeric character set is a set of elements that includes the 10 decimal digits, the 26 letters of the alphabet and a
number of special characters, such as $, +, and = . Such a set contains between 32 and 64 elements (if only uppercase letters are
included) or between 64 and 128 (if both uppercase and lowercase letters are included). In the first case, the binary code will
require six bits and in the second case, seven bits. The standard alphanumeric binary code is the ASCII (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange), which uses seven bits to code 128 characters

decimal digits in ASCII can be converted to BCD by removing the three high-order bits, 011

Complements

Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operation and for logical manipulation.
There are two types of complements for each baser system: the r's complement and the (r1)'s complement.

When the value of the base r is substituted in the name, the two types are referred to as the 2's and 1's
complement for binary numbers and the 10's and 9's complement for decimal numbers.
The complement of complement of a number simply gives back original number

( r's) Complement : The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as r" N for N≠ 0 and 0 for N = 0

(r-1) Comlement : Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r—1)'s complement of N is defined as (r"—1)— N.
The 9's complement of a decimal number is obtained by subtracting each digit from 9.
 This is also called radix
find t complement complement
:
as
of

complement. Which is equal to (r 2 N)

is the
number and M
Where is radix n is length of the
number elself
For
Example & Complement of (7)10
Here n = 1 N= F r= 10
,
,

(rIM) + (10) -
7 - 10 7 = 3
-

n= 4 N = 5690
2 N = 5690 Here V = 10 ,

10's complement.
,

is called as
For decimal no System r
complement
so 10' is :
Complement of (5690)10
(10 -

5690) - 10000 - 5690-4310

3 find the ris complement of the binary Number

N= 110)
is n= 4 M= 110)
Binary Number 2
Here v= 2 radix
of
- ( -

M =
(24 -
1101) = (16 -
110)) = 10000 - 110) = 000

which is equel to 3

complement (r-11's complement

V= 10 10's as complement
comp
-

2's
V= 2
comp 1" complement
v= 8 8 7M cmp
16 comp .
r=
It's comp 15 or 'complement
 -

&

( r—1) Comlement
g

The (r -1)complement can be obtained by subtracting 1 from r complement

r"
-

Imp: While perform r's complement of a number we do face

r
complement = - N borrowing but in (r-1)'s comp we donot need borrow which
make the process fast and easy circuit design
(r -
1) = (v - N) -
1

(F-1) rs
=

complement
-
1

Cr-1) "Comp + 1 r's complement =

no 5674
Example 7's complement of a octal
: .

(r-11" Comp = r" N -

1 = 8 -

5674 -
1

=> (4096), 5674 1

-
-

# 10000 - 56A4-1
= 56747 2103
7777 -

Exa . >
- 8'complement of 5674
we know I's complement of 56742 2103

2103 + + 2104
8" Complement of 5674 =

Ex .
is complement of 1101 .
The is
complement is Cr-1's complement for Binary No .

so we can
directly find our the Cr-1)" Implement
1(11-1101-0010

Similarly we can find asimplement by simply adding I

if
2' complement - 0010t ball
Subtraction of Unsigned Numbers

The direct method of subtraction taught in elementary schools uses the borrow concept. In this method we borrow
a 1 from a higher significant position when the minuend digit is smaller than the corresponding subtrahend digit
When subtraction is implemented with digital hardware, this method is found to be less efficient than the method that
uses complements

The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M—N, (N#0) in base r can be done as follows:

1. Add the minuend M to the r's complement of the subtrahend N. This performs M + (r"—N), M —N + r".
2. If M> N, the sum will produce an end carry r" which is discarded, and what is left is the result M - N.

3. If M< N, the sum does not produce an end carry and is equal to r"— (N—M), which is the r's complement of (N—M).
To obtain the answer in a familiar form, take the r's complement of the sum and place a negative sign in front

minuend
10
is
Comp of suba
-

&

TheAnsweanatur i
-

There is no end carry. Answer is negative 59282 = 10' * s complement of 40718

The fast way to calculate two’s complement of a binary number is done in following way
1) If the LSB is 1 , keep the LSB 1 and complement all other bit in the number
Exa—— 1100001
Two’s complement = 0011111 , which is the -ve binary number of the number in the example

2) If the LSB is 0, then write 0 ,keep on writing the digits unless encountered a 1 after that complement all the bits

Exa:—111001000
Here LSB is 0
So. Two’s complement is 000111000

Fixed-Point Representation We use fixed point rep fur Real Numbers

.

Positive integers, including zero, can be represented as unsigned numbers. However, to represent negative integers, we
need a notation for negative values. In ordinary arithmetic, a negative number is indicated by a minus sign and a positive
number by a plus sign. Because of hardware limitations, com puters must represent everything with 1's and O's,
including the sign of a number. As a consequence, it is customary to represent the sign with a bit placed in the leftmost
position of the number. The convention is to make the sign bit equal to 0 for positive and to 1 for negative.

In addition to the sign, a number may have a binary (or decimal) point. The position of the binary point is needed to represent
fractions, integers, or mixed integer-fraction numbers.

The representation of the binary point in a register is complicated by the fact that it is characterized by a position in the
register. There are two ways of specifying the position of the binary point in a register:

1) By giving it a fixed position

2) By employing a floating-point representation.

The fixed-point method assumes that the binary point is always fixed in one position. The two positions most widely used are
(1) A binary point in the extreme left of the register to make the stored number a fraction,
(2) A binary point in the extreme right of the register to make the stored number an integer.
In either case, the binary point is not actually present, but its presence is assumed from the fact that the number stored in the
register is treated as a fraction or as an integer
 &

Representation of Numbers in computer

I
Integers
Y
V

Y
Real Number
UnSigned Signed
Y
V
Fixed Point
(0-n). ( -n to +n) Floating point •
Representation

Convert the The signed number are those

which carry -ve, or -ve
number
in binary form These numbers are expressed in following way
1) signed magnitude representation
2) 1’s complement
3) 2’s complement

positive numbers
signed magnitude representation of
In this method the MSB
number
of the buary represent the
bid
sign
,

the number is the the or

syn of the number .

If
MSB the number will be 'o' of the number is be the sign
of
' . Due to the use of the MSB
bit the number will be
of stared in
the number that can
as the sign bit S
the range of
is reduced a
to bit only
8 But register
& 6599210

msB-represent
O
bit
the sign
MSB = Number
0
the

=
Number - re (

The + signed number represented using signed magnitude representation , one’s complements and 2’s
complement will remain same.
 Representation of (— ) number using signed magnitude , one’s complement and 2’s
complement are totally different

In SMR we simply replace the sign bit or MSB of the register with 1 means number is -ve and remaining

bits will give the magnitude of the number.

Due this sign bit we have +0 and -0 in the smr Representation 1 I 001
168421
Representation of (-25) in one's complement

I Write (+25) first 00011001

↓
Sign bir
Now Do the 1’s complement <
1110 0110

sign bit
Representation of (-25) in two's complement

I Write (+25) first 00011001

↓
Sign bir
Now Do the 2’s complement
<%1001-
2
 as complement .
Arithmetic Addition
using
The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system follows the rules of ordinary arithmetic. If the
signs are the same, we add the two magnitudes and give the sum the common sign

If the signs are different, we subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger and give the result the sign of the
larger magnitude. For example, (+25) + (-37)= (-37-25) = 12

n=4 -

8 to 7 Range
15
,

n =5
S
-

166 to -

Beyond range overflow

 Floating Point Number also called as Fractional number. A single number can not be floating point
number, As its name suggest the decimal points in the given number will be at floating position or at different
position in all numbers

As the data is not a single identity in Computers, we deals with numbers having decimal point at different
location . Som we have to convert floating point numbers to a fixed point number to do operation .

The position is changing .so we can not

Fixed Point number Floating point number 3
do operation on such data as we do not
have any way to store the decimal point
26.75 94.3
in computer.

75.75 .657

85.75 1.843

5.62
The position of the decimal
is fixed. So it is easy to do
Operation by ignoring the
Decimal point during operation
and can place the decimal point
in the result

When we have fixed point we con do earthmatic.

3 3 3
4×10 + 2x10. = 6x10

3 3 3
4x10 -2x10. = 2×10

The normal way to work on floating point number is to first convert the floating number into fixed point number then it
become easy to work on the numbers. There is one rule for the coverted fixed number that there must be a-single non zero
digit in the left side of the decimal point . This process is called Normalisation

Example: When we move (.) point to left it carry (+)power

When we move (.) point to right it carry (-) power

XI0e
2

94.3———9.43
-
is power
657 ——— 6.57
>
-
.843———- 8.43 Xiot I 943 &
exponent
5.62———- 5-62X100 in the Normalised No

Ex ponent
Mantessa ~

A
X Mantessa is the
number .
&

Normalization
&

FloatingNumber
point After position ofthe point
If the exponent is 0 the decimal point on the Number is at is Normalized position

If the exponent is +1 then the original can be obtained by shifting the decimal to right hand side from the
normalized position .For -1 exponent we shift the decimal to left hand side
FLOATING POINT NUMBERS
In some numbers, which have a fractional part, the position of the decimal point is not fixed as the
number of bits before (or after) the decimal point may vary.
Eg: 0010.01001, 0.0001101, -1001001.01 etc.
As shown above, the position of the decimal point is not fixed, instead it "floats" in the number. Such
numbers are called Floating Point Numbers.
Floating Point Numbers are stored in a "Normalized" form.

I m
-
-

-
↑

For the number

S-0 For-ve number .

In a floating point number , the number as well as its exponent can be negative . For storing the sign of the
number we use sign that will be 0 for positive number and 1 for negative number.But for exponent part we do
biasing to make all number positive before operation
A = 32 bit

·
I() ↑
For Numerical problem do

of the number

into
binary form
·
·
=

3
·

following steps
is in Decimal number system convert
64 bif

Sobir

the number

(1) Now Do the Normalization of the binary number

calculating biased exponent of
value the
III For compare
with sollowing value as per the
the binary number

requirement of the question

in the binary value
exponent
En single precision E 127
= =

E = 127 + exponent in the bingy value

E-1023 =
exponent
in the binary volle
For double precisions
The value sign will be
of o for the number
&

for-re number
The value of sign will be 1