Normalization is the process for assigning attributes to The DISTINCT clause is used in the SELECT statem

entities. Reduces data redundancy- Improves data to remove duplicate rows from a result set.
integrity-Simplifies database maintenance- Enhances SELECT DISTINCT column_1
query performance. FROM table_name;

1NF- is a table in which the intersection of every column

and record contains only one value. The conditions are used to filter the rows returned fr
2NF- A table is in 2NF if each non-key (non primary the SELECT statement. (=,>,<,>=,<=, <> or !. no
and/or candidate keys) column depends on ALL candidate equal, AND, OR)
keys, NOT on a subset of ANY candidate key.>Remove SELECT column_1, column_2 … column_n
partial dependencies- Every non-key attribute should be FROM table_name
fully dependent on the primary key. WHERE conditions;
3NF- is a table that is in 1NF and 2NF and in which no
non-primarykey column is transitively dependent on the LIMIT is used in the SELECT statement to get a subs
primary key. >Remove transitive dependencies- Non-key rows returned by the query.
attributes should depend only on the primary key. SELECT *
BCNF- A table is in Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) FROM TABLE
when it is in 3NF and every determinant in the table is a LIMIT n;
candidate key. For example, if the table is in 3NF and it returns n number of rows generated by the query.
contains a nonprime attribute that determines a prime zero
attribute, the BCNF requirements are not met. > If a table or NULL, it produces the result that is same as omitt
is in 3NF and it contains only one candidate key, 3NF and the
BCNF are equivalent. > BCNF can be violated only if the LIMIT clause.
table contains more than one candidate key.
SELECT *
1nf.ex- A table with multiple phone numbers per FROM table
customer is not in 1NF. It should be split into separate LIMIT n OFFSET m;
rows or a related table. First skips m rows before returning n row generated
2nf.ex- A table where a non-key column depends only on the
part of a composite key should be split to remove partial query.
dependencies.
3nf.ex- If a table has columns where a non-key column The IN operator is used in the WHERE clause to chec
depends on another non-key column, it needs to be split. value matches any value in a list.
1 value IN (value1, value2, ...);
BCNF.ex- A table where a non-primary key column
determines another column should be split. The ORDER BY clause allows sorting rows returned
FD- A relationship where one attribute uniquely the SELECT statement in ascending or descending or
determines another. PD- when a non-key attribute 1 SELECT column_1, column_2
depends on part of a composite key. Must be removed in 2 FROM table_name
2NF. 3 ORDER BY column_1 ASC, column_2 DESC
Adv.- Reduces redundancy-Improves consistency-Makes
database updates easier. Disad- ore complex queries- The BETWEEN operator is used to match a value ag
Additional table joins- Potential performance issues. a
range of values.
The insertion anomaly: Occurs when extra data beyond 1 value BETWEEN low AND high;
the desired data must be added to the database. The
update anomaly: Occurs when it is necessary to change The LIKE operator is used to find rows that match a
multiple rows to modify ONLY a single fact. The deletion pattern.
anomaly: Occurs whenever deleting a row inadvertently 1 SELECT column_1
causes other data to be deleted. 2 FROM table_name
Transitive D- consider a table with columns A, B, and C. 3 WHERE column_1 LIKE 'pattern%';
If B is functionally dependent on A (A → B) and C is Percent ( % ) for matching any sequence of charact
functionally dependent on B (B →C), then C is transitively Underscore ( _ ) for matching any single character.
dependent on A via B (provided that A is not functionally
dependent on B or C). The GROUP BY clause divides rows returned from
theSELECT statement into groups to apply aggregate
SELECT statement to query data from a table functions.
SELECT column_1, column_2, 1 SELECT column_1, aggregate_function(column_2)
FROM table_name 2 FROM table_name
3 GROUP BY column_1;
The HAVING clause filters group rows that do not satisfy
a
specified condition.
1 SELECT column_1, aggregate_function(column_2)
2 FROM table_name
3 GROUP BY column_1
4 HAVING condition;

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new

table
in PostgreSQL.
1 CREATE TABLE table_name (
2 column_name TYPE column_constraint,
3 table_constraint
4 );