Chap- 7

Data Analysis & Interpretation

Chapter objectives

After successful completion of this chapter the student will be able to:

define Data Analysis

Sorting and tabulation of data

Graphic and Diagrammatic presentation of data

Statistical techniques

Data Interpretation

Meaning and technique of interpretation

Basic Consideration

6.1. Data Processing And Analysis

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan.

This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for
making contemplated comparisons and analysis.

Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of

collected data so that they are amenable to analysis.

The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, “in the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses
should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data
can be said to indicate any conclusions”.

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6.1.1. PROCESSING OPERATIONS

With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis, we can
now proceed with the explanation of all the processing operations.

1. Editing:

Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to
detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing
involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules.

Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate
coding and tabulation.

With regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field
editing and central editing. Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by
the investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in
abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the respondents’ responses.
This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can
be difficult for others to decipher.

The sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the
very day or on the next day. While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain
himself and must not correct errors of omission by simply guessing what the informant
would have said if the question had been asked.

Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough
editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large
inquiry. Editors must keep in view several points while performing their work:

a. They should be familiar with instructions given to the interviewers and coders as
well as with the editing instructions supplied to them for the purpose.

b. While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they should just
draw a single line on it so that the same may remain legible.

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 c. They must make entries (if any) on the form in some distinctive colur and that too
in a standardized form.

d. They should initial all answers which they change or supply. (e) Editor’s initials
and the date of editing should be placed on each completed form or schedule.

2. Coding

Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration.

But in case of hand coding some standard method may be used. One such standard method
is to code in the margin with a colored pencil. The other method can be to transcribe the
data from the questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is adopted, one should see
that coding errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.

3. Classification

Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced
into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates
classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes
on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in
one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.
Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of the
phenomenon involved:

1. Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the

basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy,
sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.). Descriptive
characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured
quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed.
Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of
attributes and their classification is said to be classification according to attributes.

2. Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the

numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured

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 through some statistical units. Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc.
come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are
classified on the basis of class intervals. For instance, persons whose incomes, say,
are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 can form one group; those whose incomes are within
Rs 401 to Rs 600 can form another group and so on

4. Tabulation

When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to
arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as
tabulation. Thus, mtabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the
same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a
broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.

Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.

1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a

minimum.

2. It facilitates the process of comparison.

3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.

4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

Generally accepted principles of tabulation: Such principles of tabulation, particularly of

constructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:*

1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the table
intelligible without reference to the text and this title should always be placed just
above the body of the table.

2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.

3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should be
clear and brief.

4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be

indicated.

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 5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly
beneath the table, along with the reference symbols used in the table.

6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be
indicated

1. just below the table.

7. Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table
more readable and attractive. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the
table and below the captions.

8. There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class from the data under
another class and the lines separating the sub-divisions of the classes should be
comparatively thin lines.

6.1.2. ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS

Analysis is categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis

is often known as statistical analysis).

“Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study
provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of
a multiple of characteristics such as size

Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing
hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It
is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of
drawing inferences and conclusions) is
performed.

STATISTICS IN RESEARCH

The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research, analyzing its
data and drawing conclusions there from. Most research studies result in a large volume of
raw data which must be suitably reduced so that the same can be read easily and can be
used for further analysis. Clearly the science of statistics cannot be ignored by any research

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worker, even though he may not have occasion to use statistical methods in all their details
and ramifications.

If fact, there are two major areas of statistics :

descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics concern the

development of certain indices from the raw data, whereas inferential statistics concern
with the process of generalization.
Descriptive statistics are provided by frequencies, measures of central tendency, and
dispersion.

Frequencies: simply refers to the number of times various subcategories of a certain

phenomenon occurs, from which the percentage and the cumulative percentage of their
occurrence can be easily calculated.
Example:
 A marketing manager wants to know many units of each brand of coffee are sold in a
particular region during a given period
 A tax consultant desires to keep count of the number of times different sizes of firms-
small, medium and large are audited.
In all the foregoing cases, it may be noted that we desire to obtain the frequencies on a
nominally scaled variable.

Inferential statistics are also known as sampling statistics and are mainly concerned with
two major type of problems:

(i) the estimation of population parameters, and

(ii) The testing of statistical hypotheses.

The important statistical measures* that are used to summarize the survey/research data
are:

(1) measures of central tendency or statistical averages;

(2) measures of dispersion;

(3) measures of asymmetry (skewness)

(4) measures of relationship; and

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 (5) other measures.

Amongst the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are the
arithmetic average or mean, median and mode. Geometric mean and harmonic mean
are also sometimes used.

From among the measures of dispersion, variance, and its square root the standard
deviation are the most often used measures. Other measures such as mean deviation, range,
etc. are also used. For comparison purpose, we use mostly the coefficient of standard
deviation or the coefficient of variation

6.2. Interpretation

Meaning of interpretation

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical
and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings.
The task of interpretation has two major aspects:

(i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given
study with those of another, and

(ii) The establishment of some explanatory concepts.

In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data,
partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to
include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses. Thus, interpretation is the
device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by
researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a
theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION

The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns
through practice and experience.

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The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for
accomplishing the task of interpretation.

The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:

(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he

has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the
underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity
that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In
fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and
concepts be formulated.

(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be

considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it
may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under
consideration.

(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult

someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and
will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical
argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation
and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.

(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after

considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false
generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for
quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the
beginning, may not at all be accurate.

7.3. Writing Research Report

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Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or
written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well
designed and conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations
and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to
others.

The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made
known to others. Research results must invariably enter the general store of
knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing research report.

DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

The usual steps involved in writing report are:

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily
concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a
subject

logically: The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections

a associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis.

Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or

occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the
chronological order.

2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research
report “Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are

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 constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and
a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

3. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the
subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost
importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in
the context of his research study.

4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most
difficult part of all
formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the
rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre
and a good piece of writing.

5. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the
preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally
appended to the research report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to
the research which has been done.

For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:

1. Name of author, last name first.

2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.

3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.

4. Number of volumes.

for magazines and newspapers or research paper the order may be as

under:

1. Name of the author, last name first.

2. Title of article, in quotation marks.

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 3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.

4. The volume or volume and number

5. The date of the issue.

6. The pagination.

6. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should
be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language,
avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the
like ones.

7.3.2. Layout of the research Report writing

A. Preliminary Pages

In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should
be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the
decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate
the required information in the report.

B. Main Text

The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with
all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of
the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered
consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the
report should begin on a new page.

The main text of the report should have the following sections:

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(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research
project to the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the
objectives of research i.e.

 Enough background should be given to make clear to the reader

why the problem was considered worth investigating.

 A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so

that the present study can be seen in that context.

 The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major

concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the
introduction of the report.

 The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully

explained. The scientific reader would like to know in detail about
such thing:

 The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated.

 the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be
demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research
project was completed, must also be narrated.

(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the

research report must contain a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily
understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at
this point they should be put in the summarized form.

(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with

supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with a
validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text of the
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 report. This generally comprises the main body of the report,
extending over several chapters. The result section of the report
should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather
than the raw data. All the results should be resented in logical
sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections.

(iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the
researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly
and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the
results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the
implications for understanding the human behaviour.

(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report

with a very brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the
methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn
from the research results.

C. End Matter

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all

technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical
derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also
be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with
the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or
discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of
index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in
the report.

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