1) Analog data to Digital signals : Analog data is a continuous stream of information

that changes over time or place, such as sound, light, temperature, etc. Digital signals
are discrete collections of binary values that encode data as ones and zeros. Because
they are more noise-resistant, more effective, and more flexible than analog signals,
digital signals are favored for communication and processing. However, we require a
procedure known as analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) to transform analog data into
digital signals. PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) is the most widely used
method for converting an analog signal to digital data. The following three operations
take place in a PCM encoder: Sampling, Quantization and Encoding. But as our
assignment we are going to discuss about samapling and quantization.

Sampling: is the initial stage of PCM. A continuous-time signal's amplitude is

measured at discrete points in time during the sampling process, which turns the
continuous signal into a discrete signal. There are three types of sampling: Ideal
Sampling (i) Pulses from the analog signal are sampled in perfect sampling, also
known as instantaneous sampling. This is the best sampling technique, however it is
difficult to use. (ii) Natural Sampling: This practical sampling technique uses pulses
with a limited width equal to T.The outcome is a series of samples that keep the
analog signal's form.(iii) Flat top sampling: This type of sample is simpler to get than
natural sampling. This sampling method uses a circuit to keep the samples' tops
constant. The most used sampling technique is this one. (iii) Flat top sampling: This
type of sample is simpler to get than natural sampling. This sampling method uses a
circuit to keep the samples' tops constant. The most used sampling technique is this
one.
The sample frequency or rate is a crucial factor. The Nyquist theorem states that the
sampling rate must be at least twice as high as the signal's maximum frequency. The
formula is: Fs = 2*fh, commonly known as the minimum sampling rate.
Quantization: A series of pulses with amplitude values between the maximum and
minimum of the signal are produced as a result of quantization. With non-integral
values falling between two limits, the set of amplitudes may be infinite. Quantizing is
the process of constricting the data and removing extraneous bits. When the sampled
output is sent into the Quantizer, the unnecessary bits are removed and the value is
compressed.
The steps in quantization are as follows:
The signal's amplitudes are assumed to be between Vmax and Vmin.
We separate it into L zones of height d each, where d=(Vmax- Vmin)/L
The real amplitude is displayed in the graph at the top of each sample.

The formula amplitude/d is used to calculate the normalized pulse amplitude

modulation (PAM) value.
The quantized value that the procedure chooses from the center of each zone is then
calculated.
The difference between the quantized value and the normalized PAM value is what
determines the quantized error.
Based on the quantization levels at the left of the graph, the Quantization code for
each sample.

Both pulse code modulation (PCM) and delta modulation (DM) are methods for
transforming analog signals into digital signals. But there are some distinctions
between them in terms of complexity, bandwidth, and signal strength.
One of the significant differences, according to 1, is that:

While DM only uses one bit each sample, PCM employs 4, 8, or 16 bits.
The maximum transmitter bandwidth requirement is for PCM, while the lowest is for
DM.
PCM has a higher signal-to-noise ratio than DM, which is less effective.
The implementation of PCM is complicated, whereas the implementation of DM is
straightforward.
Because DM is more effective and reliable at sending signals over noisy channels, this
is one reason it has superior output than PCM. Additionally, DM can prevent the
quantization noise issue that PCM faces when a signal's amplitude reaches the
maximum level2. Granular noise and slope overload distortion are two drawbacks of
DM, though.

2) Digital data to analog signals: The practice of altering an aspect of an analog signal
based on information in digital data is known as digital-to-analog conversion. Three
characteristics—amplitude, frequency, and phase—define a sine wave. Change to
each one of these attributes results in a new wave with varied properties. Therefore,
we can use a simple electric signal to represent digital data by altering one of its
properties.
Amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying
(PSK) are three methods for modulating digital data into an analog signal. In addition,
a fourth (and superior) technique known as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
combines amplitude and phase changes.
Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which the data to be modulated is digital
and the carrier signal is analog. To reflect binary data, the analog carrier signal's
amplitude is changed.When modulated, the binary signal produces the carrier output
when the binary data is 1, and a zero value when the binary data is 0. The carrier
signal's frequency and phase don't change.
Amplitude shift keying benefits:
Digital data can be transmitted through optical fiber using this method.
The basic design of the receiver and transmitter also contributes to its affordable
price.
It offers good bandwidth efficiency because it utilizes less bandwidth than FSK.
Issues with amplitude shift typing -
It is prone to noise interference, which could result in complete broadcasts being lost.
Its power efficiency is poor.

Frequency shift keying : The frequency of the carrier signal changes when the digital
signal changes when using the frequency shift keying (FSK) method of digital
modulation. FSK is a frequency modulation method. The following are a few benefits
of FSK:
It is straightforward and simple to use.
Amplification shift keying (ASK) is less resistant to noise and interference than this
method.
It uses multiple frequency shift keying (MFSK) to transmit several bits per symbol.
The following are some of FSK's drawbacks:
In comparison to ASK and PSK, it needs greater bandwidth.
Synchronization and complicated receivers are needed.
It experiences frequency drift and inter-symbol interference (ISI).

Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is
modified to reflect binary data.The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal
remains constant.Several benefits of PSK include:
In terms of bandwidth and power, it is more effective than amplitude shift keying
(ASK) and frequency shift keying (FSK).
Using multiple phase shift keying (MPSK), it is capable of transmitting several bits
per symbol.
Both large data rates and low error rates are achievable.
There are several drawbacks to PSK, including:
Synchronization and complicated receivers are needed.
Phase uncertainty and noise interference are problems.
Compared to ASK and FSK, it demands a higher signal-to-noise ratio.
PSK in binary (BPSK):

The two signal elements in binary PSK, one with a phase of 0° and the other with a
phase of 180°, are the only ones present. The conceptual view of PSK is provided in
the accompanying figure. The only significant difference between binary PSK and
binary ASK is that the latter is less vulnerable to noise. The amplitude of the signal
serves as the bit detection criterion in ASK. However, it is the phase in PSK. Noise is
more likely to modify the amplitude than the phase. In other words, compared to
ASK, PSK is less sensitive to noise. Because we do not require two carrier signals,
PSK is better than FSK.
A carrier wave can be modulated in both amplitude and phase using the quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) modulation technique. Both analog and digital
modulation techniques can make use of QAM.

Phase shift keying (PSK) and QAM differ from one another in the following ways:

Information is encoded using both amplitude and phase in QAM while only phase is
used in PSK.
By utilizing various amplitude and phase combinations, QAM may transfer more bits
per symbol than PSK.
QAM requires more complicated receivers and a higher signal to noise ratio than
PSK.