SOLA 3540 & 9001

Applied Photovoltaics

Dr Santosh Shrestha

(contributions from A. Prof Alistair Sproul

Dr Anna Bruce and Dr Matt Boreland)
Aim of Course:
To provide engineers with the basic information
needed to understand the principles of PV
system operation, to identify appropriate
applications and to undertake simple PV system
design.

Photovoltaics (PV):
Conversion of Sunlight to Electricity.

2
 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this course, students will be able to:
• Calculate the position of the sun and the incident solar
irradiation on a plane;
• Explain principles of solar cell operation;
• Describe module loss mechanisms and solar cell design;
• Calculate physical and electrical parameters of solar
cells and the impact of loss mechanisms;
• Discuss common applications for photovoltaic systems;
• Design simple PV systems.

3
 Why Photovoltaics (PV)?
• Low CO2 emissions per kWh electricity
• Large capacity to generate (many sites)
• Can often be located near point of use
– Reduced transmission & distribution
infrastructure requirements
– Reduced line losses
• Cost of PV is high but decreasing
Week Lecture Topic Tutorial/Lab
1 Characteristics of Sunlight
2 Semiconductors and p‐n Junctions Tutorial 1
3 Behaviour of Solar Cells Lab 1a ‐ Modelling Solar Cells
4 Cell Properties and Design Tutorial 2

5 PV Cell Interconnection & Module Fabrication Lab 1b ‐ Modelling Solar Cells

6 Specific Purpose PV Applications Lab 2a ‐ PV Systems

7 Topic 1 Test/ Stand‐Alone PV Systems Tutorial 3/ Lab 1 Due
8 Stand‐Alone PV Systems Design Lab 2b ‐ PV Systems
Mid‐Semester Break
9 Remote Area Power Supply Systems Tutorial 4/ Lab 2 Due
10 Grid‐Connected PV Systems Lab 3a ‐ Water Pumping
11 Topic 2 Test/ PV Water Pumping Systems Tutorial 5
12 PV Water Pumping Systems Design/ Review Lab 3b ‐ Water Pumping
13 Review Tutorial/ Lab 3 Due
 Assessment
Assessment task Length Weight Due date

Topic test 1 45 min 10% Wk 7

Topic test 2 45 min 10% Wk 11

Lab report 1 10% Wk 7

Lab report 2 10% Wk 9

Lab report 3 10% Wk 13

Final exam 3 hrs 50% TBA

Plagiarism: please visit www.lc.unsw.edu.au/plagiarism

 Resources

1. WENHAM, S., GREEN, M., WATT, M. &

CORKISH, R. (2006) Applied Photovoltaics ‐
Second Edition, Sydney, Australia, UNSW
Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering.

If you have an old version, errata available at:

http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/apv%5Fbook%5Frefs/

2. PV CDROM Website by Honsberg & Bowden

available from University of Delaware:
http://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom
 AC loads

Solar irradiation

Inverter

Electricity

Battery
System
PV module

Photovoltaic System‐ a simplistic view DC loads

 Blackbody radiation
Light • What is a blackbody
• Photons • Planck Distribution
• Wavelength • Spectral output
• Particle‐Wave Duality

APPLIED PV
The Characteristics of The Sun

Sunlight
Ch 1 Lect1
Greenhouse Effect
• Basis Air Mass
• Effect • Definition of Air Mass
• Spectral Effect of Air Mass

Direct & Diffuse Radiation

• Effect of atmosphere on sunlight
• Sources of diffuse sunlight
The Characteristics of Sunlight
Particle/wave duality of light:

• Light behaves as both a wave and a particle

• Wave properties: refraction, diffraction,
interference.
• Particle properties: Emission and absorption of
light (quantised energy levels), Blackbody
radiation, Photoelectric effect.
• E = hf = hc/λ
(E = energy, h = Planck’s constant, f = frequency,
c = velocity of light, & λ = wavelength)

10
The Sun & Its Radiation
Sun’s energy is derived by the fusion of H. This forms He and large amounts of
energy.
4 x 1026W 6.2 x 107W/m2
Air Mass Zero
AMO
1353 W/m2
Venus
Mercury 108 million km
57 million km 2586 W/m2
9228 W/m2

FUSION REACTOR
H  He
ABSORPTION
20 000 000 K
by H+

150,000,000 km
CONVECTION ZONE
Energy transfer to
surface

R2 Air Mass One

I  I sun  2 AM1 approx 1000 W/m2

d
PHOTOSPHERE
~6000K

Isun = intensity at sun’s surface, R = radius of the sun,

d = distance from the sun
The Sun and it’s Radiation

• Total output of the Sun = 4 x 1026 W

• Power reaching earth = 1.78 x 1017 W
• Intensity outside Earth’s atmosphere approx 1350 W/m2 (AM0)
– called ‘solar constant’
Iatm = IsunR2/d2,
Isun = intensity at sun’s surface,
Iatm = intensity at earth’s atmosphere,
R = radius of the sun,
d = distance from earth to sun (150 million km)
• Typical intensity (irradiance) on Earth’s surface (normal
incidence – clear summer day) ~ 1000 W/m2 (AM1).
• Radiation from the Sun is well described by Planck’s law for a
blackbody at ~5800K.

12
Blackbody Radiation
Blackbody…
Ideally absorbs/emits radiation
The hotter the blackbody, the
more radiation it emits
At higher temperatures, the peak
of the spectrum moves to What is a
lower wavelength
blackbody?
Explained by quantum physics

White Hot Steel

~1200°C

Yellow Hot Steel

~1000°C

Red Hot Steel

~500°C

HEAT COLOUR
FOR STEEL
 Planck’s law of Blackbody Radiation 2.5

Spect. Irr . kW m‐2 m‐1

2.0

2
2πhc 1
1.5
AM0
E   1.0

 5
 hc 
exp  1
0.5

 λkT  0.0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

m

Sun = 5800K Blackbody

Stefan‐Boltzman… 1.00
6000K
Total Power Out  T4
Wein’s Law
Spectral Emmissive Power

(= area under curve) 0.80

(108 Wm‐2 m‐1)

Wien’s Law…
max  1/T 0.60
(spectrum shifts to
shorter/bluer wavelength) 0.40 5000K
Stefan‐Boltzmann
4500K
0.20
Sun is a ~5800K Blackbody 4000K

400nm 700nm
3000K
0.00
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
wavelength (m)
 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface
definition • The direct beam intensity
Sun angle
(angle between
decreases as the pathlength of
zenith and sun) light through the atmosphere
AM0 increases.
• Definition of air‐mass
extra air – Path‐length through the
mass
air AM1 atmosphere relative to vertical
z
mass
(=1)
air mass (AM) thickness of the atmosphere
– AM = 1/cos z
atmosphere – AM0 = outside atmosphere
Earth (integrated = 1367 W/m2 intensity)
– AM1 : z = 0°
definition definition – AM1.5 : z = 48.2°
vertical air mass = 1 Air Mass =AM
(AM1.5 is often used as a standard
1 1 reference spectrum ‐>
cos  z  AM  Normalised to 1000 W/m2
AM cos  z irradiance)
Solar Radiation at the Earth’s surface...
2
s 
Air Mass: AM  1   sunlight
h  

atmosphere

Z Earth
sunlight
h

z

s
16
 Direct & Diffuse Radiation
Atmosphere reduces direct
beam solar radiation at Earth’s
surface by ~ 30% due to: EXTRA TERRESTIAL R0
SCATTERING
1. Rayleigh scattering by air
molecules (very strong at
short wavelengths due to
1/4 dependence).
2. Scattering by aerosols
(pollution, fog and dust
particles).
3. Clouds (all wavelengths ‐
white) ABSORPTION SCATTERING
CO2, O2 molecules (Rayleigh)
ABSORPTION aerosols, dust
3. Absorption by gases such Ozone, H2O
as O2, ozone, H2O & CO2
(reduces the intensity of DIFFUSE Rd
SCATTERING
the sunlight). DIRECT low altitude cumulus
Effects 1 and 2 give rise to:
a) blue sky ‐ diffuse
component of sunlight ALBEDO
b) red sunrise/sunset
 Solar Radiation ‐ AM & Spectrum
Atmosphere reduces the direct solar radiation received on the Earth’s surface due
to scattering and absorption.
Maximum direct radiation reaches the Earth’s surface when the sun is directly
overhead and the sky is clear (no clouds, no particulates (eg dust, pollution, etc), &
low water vapour (ie low humidity))
Atmospheric gases cause AM0
2000 AM0
absorption bands
<0.3 m Ozone O3, aerosols, dust…
1800
~1‐2 m water & CO2
1500 Scattering stronger at
shorter wavelength
AM1
Irradiance W cm‐2 m‐1

Dust & aerosol scattering 1400 compared to longer

wavelengths
and absorption reduces AM1 atmosphere
1200
overall irradiance AM1.5 O2
Earth
Scattering stronger at short 1000
AM2
(blue) wavelengths
800 H2O
‐> Spectrum of diffuse
(scattered) light is blue (hence 600
blue sky)
400 H2O, CO2
Colour of direct light depends on
distance through atmosphere 200
‐> Remaining spectrum is
0
“redder” at higher air mass 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
(hence red sunsets) Wavelength m‐1
Direct and Diffuse Radiation...

• The total radiation (“global”) has two components: direct and

diffuse i.e global = direct + diffuse

• For example when the sun is directly overhead (AM1.0), the

diffuse component is about 10% of the total (or global) AM1.0
spectrum.
• Under clear sky conditions, the diffuse radiation is typically
“more blue” than the direct radiation.
• The percentage of diffuse radiation increases with increasing AM
or when skies are not clear.
• On a cloudy day, the total radiation is 100% diffuse, and the
diffuse intensity is about 20% of the maximum possible direct
radiation.

19
 Direct & Diffuse Radiation
AM1.0 Clear Sky
Absorption & Scattering
ABSORPTION SCATTERING
Ozone 3% scattered
20‐40km 2% to space
0.5%
Upper dust layer
15‐25km 1%
1.0%
Air molecules 1%
0‐30km 18%
8%
0.5%
4%
Water vapour
0‐3km 6% 1.0%
1%
Lower dust
1%
0‐3km
1%

70% direct 7% scattered

atmosphere to Earth to Earth
Earth
 The Greenhouse effect

• Most of the solar energy reaching the earth is

reflected or absorbed and then re‐radiated back into
space at longer wavelengths (The Earth acts as a
blackbody at
~300K).
• Earth’s atmosphere absorbs quite strongly in the
infrared (i.e. heat).
H2O absorbs  ~ 4‐7 m band
CO2 absorbs  ~ 13‐19 m band
• Most energy escapes in the “window”  = 7 ‐ 13 m.
• This energy balance gives us liveable temperatures.

21
The Greenhouse effect (cont.)
1.0
Normalised spectral irradiance
0.8
(arbitrary units) 6000 K 300 K

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.1 1 10 100
wavelength (  m)

Approximate spectral distribution of incoming and outgoing radiation

at the Earth’s surface (if both the Earth and the Sun are treated as
black bodies). Not to scale! Both curves are normalised so that their
peak equals 1. 22
23
Projected Rise in Temperature

24
http://www.who.int/globalchange/climate/summary/en/
The Greenhouse effect (cont.)

• Increasing levels of CO2 in the Earth’s atmosphere, primarily from

burning of fossil fuels. (NSW: 93% electricity from coal).
Global CO2: ~ 280 ppm before 1860,
~ 380 ppm today and increasing (~1.5 ppm/yr)
• Other Greenhouse gases are also increasing due to human activity
(methane, ozone (near the Earth’s surface), nitrous oxides, and
CFCs).
• IPCC estimates will increase the Earth’s average temperature by 4‐
6C over the next 100 years.
• Potentially disastrous for many eco‐systems (eg corals, low lying
islands, river deltas), agriculture, increased frequency of extreme
weather events (cyclones, droughts, flooding).
• Renewable energy technologies (and energy efficiency) are
therefore expected to become increasingly important.
25
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2000 by Sector
(Stern 2007)
 The Earth’s Carbon Reservoirs
Reservoir Size (Gt C)
Atmosphere 750
Forests 610
Soils 1580
Surface ocean 1020
Deep ocean 38,100
Fossil fuels
Coal 4,000
Oil 500
Natural gas 500
Total fossil fuel 5,000
• About 5 percent of the available fossil fuel reservoir has been used
• The fossil fuel reservoir contains more than twice as much carbon
as is now stored in forests and soils combined.
• Concentrations of atmospheric CO2 could eventually increase to six
or seven times the pre‐industrial level

27
 Human Effects on the Global Carbon Budget

CO2 sources Flux (Gt C/yr)

Fossil fuels and cement production 5.5 ± 0.5
Tropical deforestation 1.6 ± 1.0
Total anthropogenic emissions 7.1 ± 1.1

CO2 sinks
Storage in the atmosphere 3.3 ± 0.2
Uptake by the ocean 2.0 ± 0.8
Northern hemisphere forest regrowth 0.5 ± 0.5
Other terrestrial sinks (CO2 fertilization,
nitrogen fertilization) 1.3 ± 1.5

28
 IPCC
2007

29
World CO2 Emissions by Region 2003‐2030
(EIA/DOE 2007)
Tallys with (IEA
2007) projection of
42 Gt by 2030
 6C temp
increase (long
term) according to
IPCC modelling

IEA Alternative
scenario 33 Gt by
2030
 CO2
concentration
550ppm (3C
increase
CO2 Emissions 2005‐2030 and Measures for 450
(2.4°C increase) stabilisation Scenario
(IEA 2007)
Efficiency, CCS,
Nuclear have a big
role to play
 References
• CSIRO and ABM (2007). Climate Change in Australia ‐ observed changes
and projections, CSIRO and Australian Bureau of Metereology for the
Australian Climate Change Science Programme.
• IPCC (2007). The AR4 Synthesis Report, Summary for Policymakers. IPCC
Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) ‐ Climate Change 2007, United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
• EIA/DOE (2007). Inernational Energy Outlook 2007, Energy Information
Administration (EIA) of the US Department of Energy (DOE).
• IEA (2007). World Energy Outlook 2007: China and India Insights,
OECD/IEA.
• Stern, N. (2007). STERN REVIEW: The Economics of Climate Change.
Report to the Prime Minister and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, UK
Treasury.