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CHAPTER 5
PETROLEUM CARGO EMERGENCY TRANSFER OPERATIONS

5-1 INTRODUCTION

Transfer operations may be divided into three categories by the method of moving the cargo:

• Transfers with installed equipment.

• Over-the-top transfers.

• Combined transfers.

In transfers with installed equipment, cargo is transferred by the casualty’s pumps through her
piping systems. These transfers most nearly approximate a normal cargo offloading operation.
For over-the-top transfers, portable hydraulic pumps are placed in the cargo tanks and pump
through portable hoses. In combined operations, portable pumps transfer cargo over-the-top from
damaged tanks to sound tanks. The cargo is in turn pumped from the sound tanks to the receiving
vessel with the casualty’s installed equipment.

5-2 TRANSFER OPERATIONS

No matter how the cargo is moved, there are general principles and considerations that apply to all
cargo transfer operations. All ship-to-ship operations are in fact two separate, simultaneous,
mutually-dependent operations: an offloading operation by one ship and a loading operation by
the other. Often the capabilities of the ships are very different. The entire operation must match
the least capable ship. The receiving vessel’s crew must not allow the relatively routine nature of
the loading operation to detract from a high level of care and vigilance.

All U.S. Navy ships have Engineering Operation Sequence System (EOSS) manuals that establish
detailed guidelines and procedures for normal POL transfer operations. The U.S. Coast Guard
requires merchant ships trading in U.S. ports to have a Cargo Transfer Procedures Book that can
usually be found in the Cargo Office. The guidelines and procedures found in these manuals have
been validated In operations. They should be followed explicitly by the salvage crew unless the
salvage officer orders deviation from them. Existing pre-transfer, transfer and post-transfer check-
lists should be completed.

All emergency POL cargo transfer operations carry a high degree of Risk. Mistakes are very
costly. The operations should proceed with deliberation, one step at a time. Each step should be
completed satisfactorily before going ahead to the next step. Actual transfers should begin very
slowly with very low pumping rates and work up gradually as the systems check out. Whenever
there is an abnormality or malfunction pumping must be secured until it is corrected and resumed
with the same step-by-step deliberation.

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Because tank suctions are located in the after part of the tank, the casualty should be trimmed by
the stern during transfers. In general, tanks should be pumped from forward aft unless operational
requirements dictate differently.

The sequence for tank offloading is based on the structural impact of the weight change and the
potential loss of POL from damaged tanks. Multi-product transfers are very likely to require a
specific discharge sequence that maintains acceptable stress levels while still preserving each
product’s integrity.

Pumping damaged tanks first minimizes pollution as well as saves cargo. Oil in damaged tanks
floats on top of and is replaced by floodwater as it is removed, resulting in little change in hull
stresses and ground reaction. Crude oil and some refined products break down in contact with sea-
water. Accordingly, it is desirable to quickly remove cargo from as many damaged tanks as possi-
ble to prevent loss of the cargo. Removal of cargo from intact tanks in stranded ships commonly
requires ballasting to maintain the ground reaction and prevent premature refloating. The impor-
tance of maintaining ground reaction in stranded ships is discussed in Chapter 6, U.S. Navy Ship
Salvage Manual, Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-010.

5-2.1 Stress Monitoring. Both loading and offloading tankers causes large changes in load that
result in changes of hull stresses. Hull stresses, effects of load changes and methods of calcula-
tions are discussed in Chapter 4, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-
010. Loading, offloading, ballasting and deballasting sequences must be planned carefully to pre-
vent excessive hull stresses and the possibility of catastrophic hull failure. Most modern tankers
are fitted with load computers that permit the determination of stress levels for various tank load-
ings. These computers are valuable in determining stress levels and working out sequencing for
intact, floating ships. Because they are programmed primarily for intact, floating ships they
should not be relied upon when the ship is aground or has hull damage and a loss of section mod-
ulus.

When the ship is aground or damaged, the stress levels in the hull and offloading sequences
should be worked out with the assistance of a salvage engineer.

Often there will be pressure from an interested party to fit strain gages on the tanker hull. Strain
gages will give an indication of changes in strain and rate of change of strain from an indetermi-
nate condition. Changes in stress and rates of change of stress can be determined from changes in
strain if the hull is intact. If the section modulus of the hull has been reduced by undefined dam-
age, only estimates of changes of stress can be made. Changes in hull deflection, as indicated by a
variation from a level line, are an excellent indicator of general changes in hull stresses. Determi-
nation of deflection with a level line is described in Chapter 6, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual,
Volume 1, S0300-A6-MAN-010.

Despite the difficulties of obtaining accurate estimates of hull stress levels, every attempt should
be made to acquire the most accurate information possible and to develop tank, load and ballast
sequence plans based on sound information.

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5-2.2 Transfer Hoses. Cargo moves between vessels through hose strings tailored to the particu-
lar circumstances of the operation. Hose strings must be long enough to accommodate the
changes that will occur during the transfer and must be of a diameter compatible with both ves-
sels. Commonly, there are two strings of 4- to 12-inch hose, long enough to handle all vertical and
horizontal movement between the vessels without adding or removing sections during the opera-
tion.

Hoses and associated hardware compatible with the installed system and cargo are usually found
aboard the casualty. If this equipment is not acceptable, hose and fittings may be brought to the
scene in the receiving ship or a support vessel.

If either the casualty or receiving vessel is a Navy oiler with refueling at sea (RAS) equipment
and multiple pump rooms in operating order, there may be several variations for rigging transfer
hoses. RAS hoses are collapsible and lightweight and come in 35-foot sections of 5-inch, 6-inch
and 7-inch diameters. They have three types of terminal fittings, all designed for quick release:

• The breakable spool (NATO).

• The combined quick release (Robb) coupling and valve.

• The fueling probe.

Any naval vessel capable of being refueled at sea is compatible with this equipment.

Commercial hose is available in three types:

• R -rough bore hose; heavy, robust hose with an internal steel wire helix.

• S -smooth bore hose; lighter than rough bore hose without the steel wire helix.

• L -lightweight hose, normally suitable for discharge and fueling only, but especially
suitable for emergency transfers and salvage where flexibility and light weight may
be important.

All three types are available as floating hoses. Floating hose is designed with sufficient buoyancy
to keep the hose afloat when it is filled with seawater. Alternatively, hoses can be supported by
flotation cells. Flotation cells must have enough buoyancy to support the hose when it is filled
with oil.

Hose should comply with API, ASA, British Standard, Japanese Industrial Standard, OCIMF or
MILSPEC specifications. The hose should be marked with:

• The manufacturer’s name and serial number.

• Specification or standard of manufacture.

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• Month and year of manufacture.

• Factory test pressure.

• Date of most recent pressure test.

• Whether electrically continuous or discontinuous.

The rated test pressure, maximum flow rate and oil temperatures of 180 ºF should not be exceeded.
The most recent pressure test should be within one year of the date of intended use. Before it is
connected, the hose string should be inspected for defects in the bore or outer covering. Defects
that disqualify the hose for service are: blister areas larger than the base of a cup, kinking, crack-
ing deeper than about 3/64-inch (one millimeter), severe abrasion, flattening, evidence of leaks
and badly corroded flanges.

Most vessels will have hose booms, cranes or other devices located near their POL handling con-
nections for hose handling while making the connection between ships. Properly radiused saddles
are necessary to support and suspend the transfer hose. As a rule of thumb, the minimum hose
bending radius is six times the nominal bore of the hose. Floating hoses are designed to bend with
the sea and must have tail strings of hoses without flotation where they come aboard the ships and
sharper bends are possible. The hose must not chafe or pinch between the two vessels. Chaffing
gear should be fitted if chaffing is observed. Pinching is a symptom of inadequate or improperly
rigged hose saddles.

When fenders are rigged from a support vessel it is common practice to bring the hoses to the site
in the same vessel and pass them to the receiving ship. Upon completion of the transfer, hoses are
normally left aboard the casualty and picked up from her by the support vessel before the latter’s
recovery of the fenders.

5-2.3 Inert Gas. Inert gas systems are important in salvage and emergency transfer operations as
either a tanker safety system or a firefighting unit. In salvage and emergency transfer operations,
inert gas systems:

• Fill ullage spaces of cargo tanks to prevent the tank atmosphere from entering the flam-
mable range during transfer operations.

• Provide an inert atmosphere in the ullage spaces of tanks where there is a danger of
sparks from hull damage.

• Reduce the oxygen content in holds already afire or where cargo has been heating.

Good inert gas should have:

• No soot.

• No solid particles in suspension.

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• Negligible traces of SO2 , NO and NO2.

• Minimum residues of O2 , CO and H2.

Crude oil tanks should always be inerted during emergency transfers. It is desirable to inert prod-
uct tanks. Some products, including some jet fuels, are color-critical and there is the possibility
that even slight contamination by soot from the inert gas will make the product valueless or use-
less. Before inerting a product tank that is not normally inerted, technical advice should be sought
and the effect of failure to inert on the safety and success of the salvage operation analyzed.

If the casualty’s inert gas system is inoperative, inert gas may be supplied from portable inert gas
generators. The Navy does not maintain inert gas generators in its inventory, but the Supervisor of
Salvage can arrange for them to be provided. Figure 5-1A is a schematic of a typical inert gas gen-
erator; Figure 5-1B illustrates a typical portable unit. A widely used commercial portable inert gas
generator is described in Appendix C. Gas may be delivered to the tanks with any type of hose.
Hose ranging from wire-reinforced plastic clothes dryer hose to spare fire hose has been used suc-
cessfully.

Portable inert gas generators burn marine diesel oil and, when operating as designed, produce
inert gas with only 0.50 percent oxygen by volume, traces of carbon monoxide and no measurable
soot. Because combustion is occurring in the inert gas generator, it is a potential ignition source
for flammable vapors. The inert gas generator itself should be located on the forecastle or stern or
on a ship alongside—well clear of areas where flammable gases are likely to collect.

Many ships are fitted with 10-inch (250 millimeter) nominal-pipe-size bolted flanges on the inert
gas main for connecting emergency inert gas supplies. The flange is isolated from the inert gas
main by a valve and is forward of the non-return valve. In the absence of such a fitting, consider-
able ingenuity may be required to adapt a portable system to inert gas main piping. It is usually
worth the effort.

Inert gas is heavier than air at the same temperature. Whenever possible, inert gas should be intro-
duced low in a space and the space should be vented at the top. The vent should be as far as possi-
ble from the introduction point. Vented gases should be led as high as possible and away from
accommodation areas, engine room intakes and portable diesel and electrical salvage machinery.
Neither flammable vapors or oxygen-deficient inert gas should be allowed to collect on deck.
With winds of more than five knots, gases dilute to a safe level 15 to 30 feet from the vent; with
winds above 10 knots, gases disperse quickly enough to be of no concern.

The oxygen discharge from the vent should be checked frequently and logged. Oxygen levels in
inerted spaces should be kept below eight percent.

5-2.4 Cargo Temperature Control. Heavy, viscous products can become too thick to pump at
low temperatures. At low temperatures, it may be necessary to heat heavy cargoes to reduce their
viscosities to pump them. In a casualty, POL temperatures depend upon the ambient conditions,
the status of heating systems and whether the tanks are intact or leaking. When tanks are leaking,
the product temperature falls rapidly to the ambient sea temperature. Small tanks cool faster than

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Figure 5-1A. Inert Gas Generator Schematic.

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Figure 5-1B. Typical Portable Inert Gas Generator.

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large-volume tanks because of the higher ratio of surface area to volume. The cooling rate
increases as the volume of POL in the tank decreases. Because of the large number of variables
that cannot be measured with any accuracy, no guidance on cooling rates can be provided. Cool-
ing rates for a particular situation may be determined empirically on the scene by maintaining a
time-based temperature log. As cargo cools and becomes more viscous, transfer rates become
very low; eventually the cargo becomes unpumpable. Transfer of cooling, viscous cargo should
be expedited to move the maximum amount before the product becomes unpumpable. Work on
heating devices should go forward concurrently.

Vessels carrying viscous POL normally have permanently installed steam lines or coils in their
tanks to keep the product in its proper temperature range. These systems heat the product with sat-
urated steam from the main boilers or from a separate waste heat or auxiliary boiler. If the main
propulsion plant is inoperative, it may be practical to make the heating system operational with
the auxiliary boiler. Otherwise, portable steam generators may be brought on board or operated
from a ship alongside and steam supplied to the installed steam coils. Steam generators should
supply a minimum of 1,000 pounds of steam per hour; larger quantities are desirable. The porta-
ble steam generator in the ESSM System and described in Appendix C, provides substantially
more than this amount.

If steam coils in the tank are damaged or leaking, the product must be heated by emergency
means. Emergency tank heating systems include portable heating coils lowered into the tank Or
hot water or steam passing through loops of Butterworth hoses lowered into the tank.

When oil is to be pumped some distance after being removed or stripped from a tank, it may be
necessary to heat it again on deck. Suitable heat exchangers may be found in the machinery
spaces. These exchangers may be taken out of their position, brought on deck and piped to receive
oil and steam. Fuel oil heaters are particularly good candidates for this service. Alternatively, sim-
ple heat exchangers may be fabricated on site.

It is difficult to estimate with any accuracy the time required to raise product temperatures. Bring-
ing the contents of a tank to a specific temperature depends on the mass of the product, method
and amount of heat delivered, ambient temperatures, the desired temperature increase, the capac-
ity of the product to retain heat and the tank location in the ship. With emergency heating systems,
it is also very difficult to estimate the quantity of heat delivered to the tank. The only practical
way to estimate heating rates for a particular operation is to measure the temperature rise in one
tank and apply the results to other tanks. When extrapolating data in this manner, only approxi-
mate results can be expected. The time required to raise the temperatures of large quantities of
POL may be great. Transfer operations should not be delayed waiting for cargo temperatures to
increase, but should proceed even though the transfer rate is quite slow.

To ensure the transfer rates are maintained through the system, transfer lines should be heated or
insulated to keep the product temperature up. Transfer lines can be wrapped with steam coils or
electrical heaters and covered with insulation. When transfer lines are short, insulation alone may
be sufficient to maintain POL temperatures.

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All tank heating systems are closed systems. No open-ended steam lines should be placed in a
POL tank, nor should steam be put into a leaking installed system. Live steam is electrostatically
charged and is a potential ignition source if introduced into a vapor-laden atmosphere.

Sometimes salvors are required to strip all possible clingage, slops and residue from tanks before
the ship can be recovered or is allowed to enter port. Seawater may be flooded in on top of the res-
idue and circulated to a heat exchanger on deck by a salvage pump. Steam may be injected into
the seawater directly or the water may be heated in a heat exchanger. The seawater is then
returned to the tank to raise the temperature and reduce the viscosity of the residues so they may
be pumped. Figure 5-2 illustrates such a system.

Figure 5-2. System for Heating and Removing Residues.

5-2.5 Communications. Operational communications between vessels should be by Very High

Frequency (VHF) radiotelephone or other intrinsically safe short-range radio as directed by the
salvage officer. Only intrinsically safe Ultra High Frequency (UHF) portable hand-held transceiv-
ers are safe in areas that may contain concentrations of explosive vapor. All key personnel on both
ships should be equipped with such transceivers. The transceivers must be operable on the same
frequency. The power output of VHF and UHF radios should be one watt or less. Low, medium
and high frequency radio transmissions are normally secured during POL transfer. Emergency
communications systems should be with satellite communications. Satellite systems normally
operate at 1.6 Ghz at power levels that do not normally present an ignition hazard. Transmissions
should be limited to essential traffic.

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Radars aboard the transferring ships do not normally present ignition hazards. High-powered
radars operated nearby have the potential for inducing currents should not be operated during
transfer operations.

If voice communications between vessels fail during transfer operations, the affected vessel
sounds “Kilo” on her whistle and hoists the “Kilo” flag. Operations are suspended until communi-
cations are reestablished.

5-2.6 Manning. Salvage personnel are expected to be familiar with—but not expert in—tanker
operations and safety. The salvage team should include a Safety Officer who has detailed knowl-
edge of tanker operations and safety. The Safety Officer should be free to give his undivided
attention to supervision of the safety aspects of cargo transfer operations.

There must be sufficient personnel to maintain a full cargo transfer watch on each ship throughout
the transfer operation. The cargo transfer watch on each ship should consist of at least one officer
and enough sailors to perform the watch tasks. This watch is in addition to navigation and engi-
neering watches. Watches should not be doubled up. Both salvage crew and ships’ crews make up
the watch depending on the task. The watch duties include:

• Carrying out transfer operations in the cargo control room and on deck.

• Gaging and sampling.

• Watching and adjusting mooring lines, fenders and gangways.

• Monitoring and adjusting cargo transfer hose strings.

• Operating installed shipboard equipment.

• Operating portable salvage machinery and equipment.

• Atmospheric monitoring.

• Spill prevention.

• Safety.

Taut watches should be stood. The salvage officer should make frequent random rounds and
ensure all watches are being properly stood. He should be particularly alert for slackness on the
receiving ship where the operation may be perceived as a routine loading operation. If the transfer
is being made in a standoff mooring, an assistant salvage officer may be stationed aboard the
receiving ship.

5-2.7 Gaging. Oil handled during emergency cargo transfers has great commercial and military
value that must be retained. Value is measured by both the quantity of the oil and its quality. The
quantities of oil transferred must be gaged on both the casualty and the receiving ship and agree-

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ment reached on the amount. The quality of the oil must be maintained throughout the transfer
and contamination prevented as much as possible.

Oil in casualties has a tendency to migrate. All tanks, including segregated ballast tanks, should
be gaged as part of the initial survey. Oil samples should be taken and all tanks checked for water
bottoms or the presence of water.

Tankers with inert gas systems have closed or automatic ullage systems. With these systems, it is
not necessary to open ullage openings. In casualties, automatic ullage systems may be inoperative
or questionable. In these cases, readings from automatic ullage systems should be backed up man-
ually. Persons taking manual ullages should be aware that fumes in the tanks will vent and should
always stand 90 degrees to the direction of the wind from the ullage opening.

Accurate ullages must be taken in each tank in both vessels before beginning the transfer. The
ullages should be taken in the presence of a cargo surveyor or owner’s or type commander’s rep-
resentative. Temperatures of the oil should be recorded. Measurements should be recorded in both
gross and net units.

Tanks should be gaged regularly during the transfer operation. It is particularly important to gage
tanks after shifting offloading or loading to a new tank to determine if oil is actually being taken
from or loaded into that tank. All tanks should be gaged on the casualty to determine if there is
free communication between tanks. Where free communication between tanks exists, changes in
hull stress that occur with simultaneous offload of the tanks in free communication should be
determined.

Upon completion of the transfer, another complete set of ullages should be taken, all corrections
applied and the amount transferred agreed upon.

The receiving vessel’s tanks should be inspected and passed as fit for the particular product being
received as part of the procedure for accepting the receiving vessel. This inspection should not be
waived except under the most severe conditions. If waiver is necessary, the amount and type of
residue in each tank should be recorded.

Samples from the casualty’s tanks should be taken and checked for contamination before and dur-
ing the transfer. Samples may also be taken at the cargo pump. A sampling bleeder is found just
off the casing on the discharge side. By sampling at the cargo pump, breaching the inert gas integ-
rity of the tank is avoided. All samples should be retained.

5-28 Explosive Gas Buildup. During transfer operations, enough gas may flow from the tank
vents to form explosive mixtures in the atmosphere. If these mixtures reach an ignition source
they can explode. Gas venting from the tanks of the ship being loaded are a major source of explo-
sive fumes, but fumes may also originate on the casualty. The presence and proper use of an inert
gas system does not completely eliminate the possibility of explosive vapors existing in the atmo-
sphere. Most fumes are heavier than air and will settle along the deck and in other low areas. In
ship-to-ship transfers, explosive mixtures are especially likely to accumulate in the relatively
poorly ventilated space between ships. The potential presence of fumes requires four things:

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• Control of ignition sources.

• Monitoring.

• Dispersion.

• Barriers.

Ignition sources should be restricted in areas where fumes are likely to exist or accumulate. Die-
sel-driven salvage machinery, portable inert gas generators, steam generators and other such
equipment is best sited on salvage ships alongside. If it must be placed on board the tanker, it
should be clear of the tank deck on the stern or forecastle and upwind of vents or openings where
fume concentrations are likely. Any equipment that is a potential ignition source, whether aboard
the tanker or a salvage ship alongside, should be shut down at least every 24 hours and the
exhausts blown through with compressed air to remove carbon build up. If the fuel is dirty or low-
grade, the interval should be reduced. Machinery should be operated within design conditions.
A watch should be set on all operating portable machinery.

Areas where gases might accumulate should be monitored frequently with suitable gas-detecting
instruments such as those described in Paragraph 5-2.12. Areas of particular concern are the lees
of deckhouses and structures, the break in the forecastle and the gap between the ships. Special
attention should be paid to the areas around ignition sources.

Gas rises from vents or leaks in a plume that bends to leeward and settles downward. The plume
of gases is diluted by the atmosphere until the explosive gas content is below the Lower Explosive
Limit. The process is aided by wind. The higher the wind velocity, the more quickly the vapors
disperse. At wind speeds of 10 knots and above there is little risk from explosive gases in the
open, but the possibility of gas pockets developing in the lee of structures remains. Portable blow-
ers for dispersing fume should be intrinsically safe and not a potential ignition source themselves.

Doorways, ventilation intakes and ports into the accommodation, engine room, pump rooms and
other portions of the interior of the ships should be kept closed to form a barrier to fumes. Doors
for personnel transit should be designated and should be closed as soon as transfers are complete.
Air conditioning systems should be in the recirculation mode.

When a concentration of explosive fumes is detected, the transfer operation should be secured.
Transfer should not resume until the fumes have dispersed.

5-2.9 Stray Electric Charges and Currents. Static electricity is generated during normal and
emergency offloading, most commonly by friction between a pipe and a flowing product or by
internal friction in the product. Because of their low conductivity, the problem is most severe in
products that are static accumulators. Products may pick up a static charge from flow, when
sprayed or splashed against a metal surface, as a cargo first entering a tank, from solids or non-
mixing liquids settling through the oil or by rubbing and sudden separation of synthetic poly-
mers—such as synthetic fiber line and gloves. Charge generation and accumulation increases as
the rate of flow increases, as the agitation in the tank increases and as the amount of entrained

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water increases. Charged products are sources of ignition. Explosions occur when all the follow-
ing conditions are met:

• A static charge is generated.

• Enough static electricity has been generated to cause an incendiary spark.

• There is a spark gap.

• The atmosphere in the spark gap is explosive.

The accumulated static charge may be kept too low to produce an incendiary spark by low initial
and maximum flow rates. Spark gaps may be eliminated by excluding foreign objects from the
tanks and by delaying manual ullaging until the static charge is dissipated. A properly inerted tank
cannot contain an explosive atmosphere.

Entrained water is of particular concern in emergency offloading operations. A large petroleum

transfer with entrained water may generate a large static charge from friction between the oil and
water. Charging may be limited by keeping transfer velocities low and minimizing the drop into
the receiving tank.

Static charges dissipate with time. Normally, a relaxation time of 30 minutes is enough time for a
static charge to dissipate.

Oils that have high internal conductivity present less of a danger than those oils that are static
accumulators. Oils with high internal conductivity include: crudes, residual fuels, black diesel oils
and asphalts. Clean oils (distillates) have low internal conductivity and require antistatic proce-
dures unless the tanks are inerted.

During the initial loading when there is considerable splashing and turbulence, flow velocity of
static accumulator oils should be kept below about three feet per second. Table 5-1 gives flow
rates in gallons per minute that correspond to a flow velocity of three feet per second for various
nominal pipe sizes.

Large electrical currents can flow through conducting pipework, hoses or mooring lines between
ships and between ship and shore. The currents result from DC-impressed current or sacrificial
anode cathodic protection systems, galvanic potential differences between ships or between ship
and shore or current leakage from electrical power sources or equipment. The currents may cause
incendiary arcs if the current path is interrupted suddenly, as when hoses are disconnected.

When transferring oils that are not static accumulators, ships are isolated electrically from one
another by using nonconducting mooring lines and nonconducting hose or by inserting an insulat-

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ing flange in the hoseline. Impressed current cathodic protection systems are shut down to mini-
mize electric charge buildup. When transferring oils that are static accumulators:

Table 5-1. Flow Rates for Flow Velocity of 3 FT/SEC.

NOMINAL PIPE OR HOSE DIAMETER (INCHES) FLOW RATE (GPM)

3 75

4 128

6 295

8 510

10 805

12 1,153

14 1,408

16 1,866

18 2,385

20 2,974

24 4,342

• There should be an insulating flange or length of nonconducting hose between the

ships. Care must be taken to ensure that nonconducting and conducting hose lengths
are not mixed or more than one insulating flange used—this would permit an electri-
cally insulated length of conducting hose to build up a static charge.

• Properly operating impressed current cathodic protection systems should remain in

operation when both ships have impressed current systems or if one has an impressed
current system and the other a sacrificial anode system.

• Impressed current systems should be shut down if one ship has no cathodic protection
or either impressed current system is not operating properly.

• All equipment for ullaging, sampling or dipping should be nonmetallic or should be

properly bonded and grounded.

• Only natural fiber lines should be used for lowering equipment into tanks.

5-2.10 Pollution Control. There is always a risk of oil spills during cargo transfers. When the
transfer is an emergency, conducted by out-of-the-ordinary methods and procedures, the risk of a
spill is increased. Pollution control precautions include:

• Ensuring that transfer hoses are properly supported by saddles and that support lines
are stopped off on cleats, not left on winches or capstans.

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• Ensuring that hose strings are made up properly with new gaskets and locked, Pinned
or lashed couplings.

• Blocking all scuppers so that spilled oil does not flow over the side and making
arrangements for drainage of rain accumulation.

• Having quantities of sawdust, sorbent mats and approved binding agents, coagulants
and dispersants available for immediate application to spills.

• Taking frequent ullages or soundings.

• Ensuring relief valve settings are proper.

• Constant attention to places where spills may occur and to practices that may set up a
spill.

Oily sawdust and sorbents spread to clean up spills should be disposed of immediately. Spillage
between ships should be covered by a layer of foam to reduce the risk of ignition from sparks gen-
erated by wire ropes supporting the fenders scraping along the hull, sprayed with approved deter-
gents and agitated with water jets. All spills must be reported to the appropriate authorities.

Whenever practical, transfer operations should be boomed. Gates should be provided in the boom
to allow boat traffic. Booms are appropriate in calm or sheltered waters when vessels are statio-
nery. They are not appropriate when the transferring ships are underway or drifting. Boom and
skimmers at the scene of any transfer operation are a good investment. No hard and fast rules can
be made for determining the amount and Type of pollution control equipment at any transfer site.
The risk of pollution, environmental sensitivity and requirements of local authorities all enter into
the equation.

The transfer operation should be secured whenever a spill occurs. Transfer should not be resumed
until the spill has been cleaned up. Guidance for response to oil spills appears in the U.S. Navy
Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 6, S0300-A6-MAN-060.

5-2.11 Boat and Helicopter Operations. Boat operations during transfers should be limited to
those that are operationally necessary. No unnecessary craft of any sort should be allowed along-
side either ship. Boats in the vicinity should be considered as potential ignition sources. Safety
precautions to reduce ignition sources should be enforced on boats in the vicinity as they are on
the tankers.

Helicopter operations should be permitted over the tank deck only when all transfer operations
have been secured and all cargo tank openings closed.

5-2.12 Salvage Equipment. Major equipment for over-the-top transfers are described in Appen-
dix C. In addition to this equipment salvors should bring several special items of safety equipment
to all emergency transfer operations. This equipment is for the help avoid mistakes while handling
cargo. Many of the items can be found aboard the tankers, but the salvors should have their own

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to be sure they have equipment that is in operable condition, rigged like they want it and that is
equipment they know. Much of the equipment is not available through the Federal Stock System,
but can be purchased commercially. The equipment and its purpose in the operation includes:

• Explosimeter - To indicate the presence of flammability of atmospheres. This is a sin-

gle function device. It does not indicate the presence of toxic gases or if the atmosphere
can support life.

• Oxygen Analyzer - To measure the oxygen content of an atmosphere to indicate if it

has enough oxygen to support life and to measure the oxygen content of inerted tanks
atmospheres and of inert gas.

• Multi-Gas Detector - To detect the presence of dangerous concentrations of hydrogen

sulfide and the presence of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and
chlorine—all of which may be present aboard a tanker.

• Anemometer - To measure the wind velocity across the deck and in sheltered loca-
tions. Air movement across the deck is critical to dispersal of toxic and explosive
fumes. Normal flow patterns are changed by ships alongside.

• Interface Detectors - To detect the presence of water bottoms in cargo and bunker
tanks. All tanks should be checked with both interface indicators and water-indicating
paste.

• Linen Ullage Tapes - In place of metal ullage tapes as a safety measure in a salvage
situation.

• Dispersant - Two plastic five-gallon cans of an approved oil dispersant and two small
eductors for clean up of small spills on or near the casualty.

• Hand-Held Transceivers - Intrinsically safe portable hand-held UHF transceivers fit-

ted with intrinsically safe rechargeable battery packs for communications within the
salvage team and with the ships.

• Loud-Hailer - One intrinsically safe portable loud hailer for communicating on deck
when radio communications are for any reason unavailable.

• Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA) - Air-supplied SCBA similar to those discussed in

Chapter 4, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 3, S0300-A6-MAN-030 for
entering spaces with nonbreathable atmospheres. The Oxygen Breathing Apparatus
(OBA) is not suitable for this purpose as the heat generated by the oxygen production
process is a potential ignition source.

• Protective Clothing - Either the fireman’s outfit or the salvage firefighter’s outfit
described in Chapter 4, U.S. Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 3, S0300-A6-

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MAN-030, should be available for working helicopters, handling toxic hydrocarbon

and firefighting.

• Resuscitator - The tanker will have resuscitators on board, but salvors should have one
they know is in good condition and that they know.

• Rescue Stretcher - Set up as the salvors and helicopter operators prefer.

• Nonsparking Hand Tools.

5-2.13 Securing. Both ships should be prepared to secure the operation at any time. The conse-
quences of an accident are so severe that the operation should be shut down whenever:

• Conditions deteriorate beyond those established during the operational planning.

• Electrical storms are in the vicinity.

• Key equipment fails.

• There is an emergency.

• There is any doubt about the operation.

To facilitate shutting down, all tools and equipment, especially tools for breaking the transfer
hose connections and axes for cutting the fiber rope tails of mooring lines, should be on station. If
the receiving vessel is a barge, a tug should be standing by to move it clear on immediate notice.

The operation is secured normally upon the completion of all planned transfer and stripping. Nor-
mal securing includes:

• Draining all hoses into one of the ships and blowing them down with compressed air.

• Disconnecting hoses, ensuring any remaining oil drains into drip trays under the mani-
fold and is cleaned up.

• Blanking all hoses on manifolds and hoses.

• Clearing the sides.

• Checking all mooring equipment.

• Getting underway in compliance with the transfer plan.

Hoses must be blown down carefully to avoid destroying the inert atmosphere in the tanks. When
the cargo is a static accumulator, hoses should never be blown down. With these cargoes, hoses
are drained into the drip trays and the drip tray contents are subsequently drained or pumped into

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the slop tank. As noted in Paragraph 5-2.2, upon completion of the transfer, hoses are usually
left aboard the casualty and picked up from her by the support vessel. Hoses may also be left in
place aboard the casualty for subsequent transfers.

5-3 EMERGENCY TRANSFERS WITH INSTALLED EQUIPMENT

The casualty’s installed cargo handling systems provide the fastest and safest method of emer-
gency cargo transfer, because they emulate normal cargo operations. Optimally, these systems are
operated by people trained and experienced in the specific systems. The casualty’s crew can pro-
vide invaluable assistance to salvors during emergency transfers. Type commanders’ or owners’
staffs, builders and other specialists can provide technical information and assistance.

Salvors should follow EOSS and other directives relative to operation of the transfer system that
delineate systems operation, pressures, temperatures, valve lineups, etc., as closely as practical
under the operational conditions.

It is most practical to transfer cargo with installed systems when the casualty is basically intact.
Damage to the hull and piping systems may require the over-the-top transfers or combined trans-
fers that are described in Sections 5-4 and 5-5. Whenever it is possible to use a portion of the
casualty’s installed systems, every reasonable effort should be made to do so. Power, steam or air
needed to operate some pumps may be supplied from a salvage ship or portable sources. Small
deep well and standard reciprocating pumps can often be activated relatively easily. Turbine-
driven main cargo pumps that have been burned out, flooded out or are misaligned are a serious
problem. The work required to reactivate them is seldom justified. Balancing risk, time, return
and effort is an early and very necessary step in determining the practicality of reactivating ship-
board equipment for a transfer with installed equipment.

5-4 OVER-THE-TOP TRANSFERS

The casualty’s transfer systems may be inoperable or ineffective because of damage to the hull or
piping systems, flooding or burned-out machinery. The transfer may be accomplished by insert-
ing portable hydraulic pumps designed to fit through standard 12.5-inch (318 mm) diameter But-
terworth openings and pumping over-the-top. An over-the-top offloading operation is an
emergency method that is to be resorted to only if installed handling systems cannot be made
functional. Pumping over-the-top is required from damaged tanks with pump suctions below the
oil-water interface and where piping is broken.

5-4.1 Pumps. There are several types of hydraulic submersible pumps available commercially
that are designed specifically for over-the-top pumping. These pumps have been designed to fit
through the Butterworth opening because that opening provides clear access into the tank. The
opening also limits the size and thus the capacity of the pumps. All of the pumps are powered by
submersible hydraulic motors powered by hydraulic fluid provided through hoses from a diesel or
electrically powered hydraulic pump. The output of the pumps are varied by changing the hydrau-
lic flow. The pumps are placed in the tanks with the assistance of a tripod and handling system.

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The standard Navy pump is the Thune-Eureka CCN-150 hydraulic, submersible, single-stage,
centrifugal pump. This pump is capable of pumping water, crude oils, refined products and chem-
icals. The pump is stocked in the ESSM system; Appendix C gives full specifications. It is nor-
mally shipped with all accessories necessary for operation, including:

• One 60-foot length of 6-inch diameter collapsible discharge hose with quick connect
(Cam-Lok) couplings.

• Five 20-foot lengths each of 5- and 6-inch rigid suction hose are also available with the
pumping systems. The 5-inch hose is for pumping fluids and oils with viscosities less
than 1,500 centipoise; the 6-inch hose for pumping oils with viscosities between 1,500
and 30,000 centipoise.

• One Mod 6 NAVSEA Hydraulic Power Supply.

• Lifting tripod and accessories.

• Four lengths of 100 feet each, 1-inch hydraulic hose.

• Miscellaneous fittings and hardware.

The pump and power supply system is illustrated in Figure 5-3. Figure 5-4 shows the pump and
hose subsystem. As the discharge hose length must reach from the bottom of the casualty’s tanks
across the main deck to the discharge point, additional lengths of hose are available in the ESSM
system as are additional lengths of hydraulic supply and return hose.

Figure 5-3. Hydraulic Pump and Power System.

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Figure 5-4. Hydraulic Submersible Pump and Hose Subsystem.

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Pump capacity varies with static lift and the viscosity of the fluid being pumped. Figure 5-5 is a
performance curve for the CCN-150 hydraulic, submersible pump for three viscosities:

Figure 5-5. Six-Inch Hydraulic Submersible Pump Performance Curve.

• Curve A for water (viscosity less than 2 centipoise).

• Curve B for oils with viscosity less than 1,500 centipoise.

• Curve C for oils with viscosities between 1,500 and 30,000 centipoise.

Examples of determining pumping rates with performance curves are given in Chapter 5, U.S.
Navy Ship Salvage Manual, Volume 2, S0300-A6-MAN-020.

POL may be pumped with the modified Prosser 4-inch electric submersible pump. This pump is
available in the ESSM System and is issued to salvage ships and units. Only the modified pump is
provided with impellers suitable for pumping POL. Appendix C contains detailed information on
this pump and performance curves for POL service.

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The double-diaphragm pneumatic pump finds widespread application in salvage defueling opera-
tions as described in Paragraph 3-3.1.6. These pumps are seldom suitable for large cargo trans-
fers because they do not have the capacity to offload tankers in a reasonable amount of time.

Reciprocating steam pumps are suitable for pumping oil cargoes directly from the tanks or for
serving as booster pumps when cargoes must be pumped considerable distances. These pumps
may be operated on air but their pumping capacity is reduced.

5-4.2 Prime Movers. The prime mover for the hydraulic, submersible pump is the NAVSEA
Model 6 Hydraulic Power Supply. This diesel-driven unit provides a maximum of 50 gpm
hydraulic flow at 2,500 psi, enough to operate one hydraulic pump. The unit should operate for
six hours on the integral fuel supply.

The normal prime mover for the Prosser 4-inch submersible electric pump is the 30-kw diesel-
driven salvage generator. Any 220- or 440-volt three-phase, 60 hertz power supply capable of
supplying 30-35 amps at 440 volts or 60-70 amps at 220 volts is suitable.

Both the hydraulic power supply and the 30 kw generator are described in Appendix C. Neither of
these machines are designed specifically for service in emergency transfers from tankers. All pre-
cautions in this Manual regarding siting and reducing ignition hazards must be followed precisely.

5-4.3 Sealing Openings. Butterworth openings must be sealed around the hose and pump power
leads to prevent leakage of petroleum fumes or inert gas from the tanks. A gas escape prevention
collar should be placed around the discharge hose. As no collar is provided with either Navy
pump, the collar should be fabricated in the field from sheet rubber or similar material wrapped
and lashed around the discharge hose. Small leaks may be slowed down with rags or sheet rubber.
A totally gas-tight seal cannot be expected. If there is no inert gas blanket in the tank, the gas con-
centration around the opening should be monitored frequently and operations should be stopped if
the concentration of fumes is dangerous. Inert gas blanketing during over-the-top pumping is
practical. Inert gas should be provided by installed or portable systems whenever possible.

5-4.4 Sequencing. The tank pumping sequence is determined primarily by the urgency of pump-
ing certain tanks and the effect of load changes on hull stresses. Portable systems introduce
another factor into sequencing—the movement of pumps and prime mover units about the ship.
An otherwise workable plan can translate into backbreaking work when pumps and prime movers
must be moved about decks with large quantities of piping—especially on very large ships. Long
or difficult movements unnecessarily tire the salvage crew. Tired crews make mistakes and get
hurt. The initial sequencing plan should be walked through and revised to eliminate unnecessary
pump and prime mover relocations.

5-4.5 Manifolding. With a large number of salvage pumps, it can be advantageous to manifold
discharges together. A typical manifolding arrangement is shown in Figure 5-6. Several advan-
tages from manifolding are:

• The overall discharge rate can be increased by having several pumps discharging into a
single line.

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Figure 5-6. Offloading or Stripping with Manifolds.

• The number of hoses strung out on deck is reduced.

• A positive cut off is introduced between the pump discharge and the transfer hose.

Manifolds may be made up on site to fit the job.

5-4.6 Stripping. Stripping of tanks is an essential part of over-the-top pumping operations. The
key part of a stripping operation is keeping the pump suction in the oil. The location of the oil-
water interface should be checked at frequent intervals with the interface detector. In tanks that
are not ruptured the pump can lay near the bottom of the tank during the entire operation. Pumps
may begin to lose suction as the fluid level drops. Lowering the pump will keep the suction in the
oil. When stripping or pumping tank washings or residues, the pump should not be allowed to tip

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more than 30 degrees from the vertical. If the tank can be ballasted to half its depth the pump suc-
tion may be held in the oil and the pump efficiency will be increased by the reduced discharge
head.

In tanks with a water bottom, the pump may be held fairly high in the oil because the level in the
tank will remain approximately the same as the sea replaces the oil being pumped out. As the oil
layer becomes very shallow, it will be necessary to raise the pump to keep the suction in the nar-
row layer. If the layer is narrower than the pump suction, the pump will pickup both oil and water.
With careful operation of standard Navy pumps, oil layer thickness can be reduced to signifi-
cantly less than one inch. Hydraulic stripping pumps and special skimming attachments are avail-
able commercially.

5-4.7 Operational Notes. The collection of miscellaneous notes in this paragraph have proven
their practical value in numerous emergency transfer operations.

Though not a recommended or desirable practice, on occasion it may be necessary to place pumps
into the tanks through the tank hatches rather than the Butterworth openings. The tank hatches are
a poor second choice because, unlike the Butterworth openings, they are obstructed by the tank
access ladder. Pump hoses and power leads may become fouled on this ladder. Also, tank hatch
openings are much larger than Butterworth openings and are nearly impossible to seal against
fume leakage.

The pump discharge hose and the hydraulic hoses should be married to the lowering wire at three-
foot intervals with timber hitches in fiber line. If the hoses are not lashed together, the hydraulic
hoses may wrap around the discharge hose and collapse them. Rigging for a pump is shown in
Figure 5-7.

Pumps should be secured, removed from tanks and the tanks sealed when:

• Electrical storms are in the vicinity.

• Ships are coming alongside or getting underway.

• Pumping operations are secured for long periods.

Hydraulic pumps should not be dropped, banged or operated lying on their sides.

Pumps should not be allowed to thrash or vibrate unnecessarily in cargo tanks.

No hose guide to keep the discharge hose running fair and to avoid kinking is provided with either
the 4-inch electric or the 6-inch hydraulic pump. Sandbags or 55-gallon drums may serve as hose
guides, but this does not guarantee either the correct bending radius or the proper support for the
hose. It is preferable to field-fabricate a hose guide, such as the one shown in Figure 5-8. The
guide is set on a rubber mat and wedged against the Butterworth opening manhole to prevent the
hose from flattening or kinking as it comes out of the tank.

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Figure 5-7. Rigging for Hydraulic Salvage Pump.

sea, but her after tanks, piping systems and machinery intact, is a good candidate for a combined
pumping operation. In such a case, the oil in the forward tanks would be pumped over-the-top to
the sound after tanks then pumped over-the-side with installed equipment. Figure 5-9 is a sche-
matic of such an arrangement. Combined transfers have all the dangers, difficulties and complex-
ities of over-the-top transfers combined with the relative simplicity of a transfer with installed
equipment. Special vigilance is required. All the comments of Sections 5-3 and 5-4 apply.

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Figure 5-8. Pump Discharge Hose Guide for 6” Pump.

Combined transfers are, in effect, two offloading and two discharge operations; the first contained
in the casualty and the second a ship-to-ship transfer. The ship-to-ship transfer will proceed more
rapidly than the intership transfer because the installed pumps have a greater capacity than the
over-the-top pumps. To keep the operation simple and under control, it is often better to do one
operation at a time, completing the over-the-top transfer and then undertaking the ship-to-ship
transfer. If the crew is sufficiently large, skilled and practiced, the two transfers may be attempted
simultaneously. Because of the seriousness of an accident, in most cases, it is better to proceed
slowly, in simple steps, with the operation under full control.

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Figure 5-9. Combined Transfer Schematic.

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