Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP)

An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier usually consisting of

one or more differential amplifiers followed by a level transistor and an output stage.
The output stage is generally push-pull or complementary symmetry push-pull
amplifier.

The Operational Amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplify DC input
signal as well as AC input signal and was originally designed for performing
mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, integration and
differentiation. Thus, the name operational amplifier stems from its original use for
these mathematical operations due to the ability to perform these operations.
Operational Amplifier is the abbreviated as op-amp. With the addition of suitable
feedback components, op-amps can also be used as active filters, oscillators,
comparators, regulators, etc.

An operational amplifier is available as a single integrated circuit package.

1.1 Block Diagram

Since an op-amp is a multi-stage amplifier, it can be represented by a block diagram

as shown in the Figure 1.

The input stage is a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. This stage
provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes the input
resistance of the op-amp. The intermediate stage of op-amp is another differential
amplifier which is driven by the output of the first stage. This is usually dual input,
unbalanced output.
Because direct coupling is used, the dc voltage level at the output of intermediate
stage is well above ground potential. Therefore, level (translator) shifting circuit is used
after the intermediate stage to shift the dc level at the output of the intermediate stage
downward to zero with respect to ground. The output (final) stage is generally a
complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier. The output stage increases the output
voltage swing and raises the current supplying capability of the op-amp. It also
provides low output resistance.

1.2 Internal Circuit Diagram

Figure 2

1.3 Schematic Symbol

Since the input differential amplifier stage of the op-amp is designed to be operated in
the differential mode, the differential inputs are designated by the (+) and (-) notations.
The (+) input is the noninverting input. An ac signal (or dc voltage) applied to this input
produces an in-phase (or same polarity) signal at the output. On the other hand, the (-
) input is the inverting input because an ac signal (or dc voltage) applied to this input
produces an 180 out-of-phase (or opposite polarity) signal at the output.
 Figure 3
In Figure 3,
𝑣1 = voltage at the noninverting input (volts)
𝑣2 = voltage at the inverting input (volts)
𝑣𝑜 = output voltage (volts)
All these voltages are measured with respect to ground.

𝐴 = large-signal voltage gain (specified on the datasheet for op-amp).

1.4 Packaging and Pinouts

Pinouts

1.5 Pin Diagram (IC 741)

Figure 4
1.6 Schematic Symbol with Pin Numbers (IC 741)

Figure 5

1.7 Equivalent Circuit of an Op-amp

The equivalent circuit of op-amp shown in Figure 6 includes three significant

parameters A, Ri, and Ro. The equivalent circuit is useful in analyzing the basic
operating principles of op-amps and in observing the effects of feedback
arrangements.

Figure 6

The output voltage from the equivalent circuit is given by

𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
Where, A= large-signal voltage signal
𝑣𝑖𝑑 =difference input voltage
𝑣1 =voltage at the noninverting input terminal with respect to ground
𝑣2 =voltage at the inverting terminal with respect to ground
The output voltage 𝑣𝑜 is directly proportional to the algebraic difference between the
two input voltages. In other words, op-amp amplifies the difference between the two-
input voltage; it does not amplify the input voltages themselves.

1.8 Ideal Voltage Transfer Curves

Equation 𝒗𝒐 = 𝑨𝒗𝒊𝒅 = 𝑨(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 ) is the basic op-amp equation. This equation is

useful in studying the op-amp’s characteristics and in analyzing different circuit
configurations that employ feedback. The graphics representation of this equation is
shown in Figure 7, where the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 is plotted against input difference
voltage 𝑣𝑖𝑑 , keeping gain 𝐴 constant.

Figure 7

It should be noted that the output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative
saturation voltages. These saturation voltages are specified by an output voltage
swing rating of the op-amp for given values of supply voltages. This means that the
output voltage is directly proportional to the input difference voltage only until it
reaches the saturation voltages and that thereafter output voltage remains constant.

1.9 Open Loop Op-amp Configuration

In case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection, either direct or
via another network, exists between the output and input terminals. That is, the output
signal is not fed back in any form as part of the input signal, and the loop that would
have been formed with feedback is open. When connected in open-loop configuration,
there are three categories and these configurations are classed according to the
number of inputs used and the terminal to which the input is applied when a single
input used.
1.9.1 The Differential Amplifier

Figure 8, shows the open-loop differential amplifier in which input signal 𝑣𝑖𝑛 1 and 𝑣𝑖𝑛 2
are applied to the positive and negative input terminals. Since the op-amp amplifies
the difference between the input signals, this configuration is called the differential
amplifier.

Figure 8

The sources 𝑣𝑖𝑛 1 and 𝑣𝑖𝑛 2 could be either ac or dc voltages. The source resistances
𝑅𝑖𝑛 1 and 𝑅𝑖𝑛 2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance 𝑅𝑖 . Therefore,
the voltage drop across these resistors can be assumed to be zero, which implies that
𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 1 and 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 2 . Substituting these values of 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 in basic op-amp
equation
𝒗𝒐 = 𝑨𝒗𝒊𝒅 = 𝑨(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 ) = 𝑨(𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝟏 − 𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝟐 )

The polarity of the output voltage is dependent on the polarity of the input difference
voltage (𝑣𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛 2 ). In open loop configuration, gain 𝑨 is commonly referred to as
open-loop gain.

1.9.2 The Inverting Amplifier

In the inverting amplifier only one input is applied and that is to the inverting input
terminal. The noninverting input terminal is grounded as shown in Figure 9. Since 𝑣1 =
0 𝑉 and 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 , the op-amp equation is given as

𝒗𝒐 = 𝑨𝒗𝒊𝒅 = 𝑨(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 ) = 𝑨(𝟎 − 𝒗𝒊𝒏 ) = −𝑨𝒗𝒊𝒏

 Figure 9

The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input
by 180⁰ or is of opposite polarity. Thus, in the inverting amplifier the input signal is
amplified by gain 𝑨 and is also inverted at the output.

1.9.3 The Noninverting Amplifier

Figure 10 shows the open-loop noninverting amplifier. In this configuration the input is
applied to the noninverting input terminal, and the inverting terminal is connected to
ground. Here, 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 and 𝑣2 = 0 𝑉, the op-amp equation is given as

𝒗𝒐 = 𝑨𝒗𝒊𝒅 = 𝑨(𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 ) = 𝑨(𝒗𝒊𝒏 − 𝟎) = 𝑨𝒗𝒊𝒏

Figure 10

This means that the output voltage is larger than the input voltage by gain A and is in
phase with the input signal.