O R G A N I Z A T I O N AL EFFECTIVENESS SERIES

Grant
Needs Program
Writing
Assessment Development
Fiscal Strategic Volunteer
Management Technology
Planning Management
Development
Human
Resources

Surviving an Audit

Board
Program Development
Evaluation

Faith-Based
Starting a
Leadership Nonprofit
Development

Leadership
Development

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
Dear Colleague,

On behalf of the National Minority AIDS Council (NMAC), thank you for picking up
this manual and taking a step toward increasing your capacity in this struggle.
As we enter the third decade of HIV/AIDS, it is more important than ever to
develop our skills and knowl- edge to better serve our communities and our
constituents.

NMAC, established in 1987 as the premier national organization dedicated to

developing leadership within communities of color to address the challenge of
HIV/AIDS, recognizes the challenge before all of us and works to proactively
produce and provide skills-building tools to our community. One such tool is the
manual that you hold in your hands.

The Technical Assistance and Training Division‘s mission to build the capacity
and strength of community-based organizations, community-planning groups for
HIV prevention, and health departments throughout the United States and its
territories is supported through a multifaceted approach. This approach includes
individualized capacity-building assistance, written information (manuals,
publications, and information provided through NMAC’s web- site and broadcast
e-mail messages and interactive learning experiences (trainings). All com-
ponents are integral to providing a comprehensive capacity-building assistance
experience, as opposed to offering isolated instances or random episodes of
assistance.

After undergoing a revision of existing curricula and publications, and an

expansion of our current catalog of subject areas to include more organization
infrastructure topics, NMAC
is proud to present you with this new manual, Program Development. One of 15
topic areas in which we provide capacity-building assistance, this manual will
provide you with detailed information, resources and the knowledge to enhance
your capacity to provide much- needed services in your community.

Our hope is that this revised manual will give you the skills and knowledge to
increase your capacity and serve your community at a greater level than ever
before. Please feel free to contact us if you would like further information on
what other services we can provide to you and your community.

Yours in the struggle,

Paul Akio
Kawata
Executive
Director
1
Contents

Preface...................................................................................................5

Introduction.........................................................................................7

UNIT 1: Introduction...........................................................................11
I. What Is Program Development?....................................................................13
II. Program Development Pre-test....................................................................14
III. Why Is Program Development Important?...................................................15
IV. Content of the Program Plan........................................................................15
V. The Planning Process......................................................................................16
VI. Program Development: The Seven-Step Model.........................................17

UNIT 2: The Needs Assessment.........................................................19

I. What Is a Needs Assessment?....................................................................21
II. Steps in Assessing Needs..............................................................................21
III. Suggestions for Developing a Questionnaire...............................................26
IV. Researching Existing Programs......................................................................27

UNIT 3: Developing Mission, Goals and Objectives.......................31

I. The Mission Statement..................................................................................33
II. Setting Goals..................................................................................................35
III. Developing Objectives.................................................................................37

UNIT 4: Identifying Funding Sources................................................39

I. Funding Sources..............................................................................................41
II. Community Fund-Raising..............................................................................41
III. Foundation Resources.....................................................................................43
IV. Government Sources....................................................................................45

UNIT 5: Assigning Leadership Tasks...............................................49

I. Factors that Influence Good Leadership.......................................................52
II. Create a Program Planning Team.................................................................55
III. Program Planning Team Roster.....................................................................55

3
 UNIT 6: Program Design....................................................................59
I. The Action Plan..............................................................................................61
II. Program Design Planning..............................................................................62
III. Intervention Activities Timeline....................................................................64
IV. Collaboration and Coordination.....................................................................65
V. Evaluation Plan...............................................................................................66
VI. Staffing Plan....................................................................................................67
VII.Budget............................................................................................................68

UNIT 7: Program Implementation......................................................73

I. Program Implementation.............................................................................75

UNIT 8: Evaluation.............................................................................79
I. Conducting Evaluations.................................................................................82
II. Helpful Tools..................................................................................................86

Appendix A: Glossary.......................................................................93

Appendix B: Frequently Asked Questions.......................................97

Appendix C: Bibliography...............................................................105

4
Preface

Organizational Effectiveness

S uccessful community-based organizations (CBOs) can attribute their success

to employing 15 key components that support organizational effectiveness.
See the
model below.

Ongoing learning and training in each of these areas will allow your
organization to meet the needs of your constituents.

For information regarding training in any of these areas, contact the National
Minority AIDS Council’s Technical Assistance, Training and Treatment Division by
telephone at
(202) 234-5120 or by e-mail at [email protected].

ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS MODEL

Board Development
Faith-Based Leadership
Development Fiscal Management
Grant Writing
HIV Prevention Community
Planning Human Resources
Leadership
Development Needs
Assessment
Program
Development
Program Evaluation
Organization Starting a Nonprofit
Strategic Planning
al Surviving an Audit
Technology
Effectivenes Development
s Volunteer
Management
5
Introduction PROGRAM
DEVELOPMENT
An ongoing,
compre- hensive
Purpose planning pro- cess
used to establish

Q uality program development must be supported by a well-thought-out and

documented plan of action. The purpose of this manual is to provide a step-
by-step outline of the planning process that communities, groups and
programs supported
by a well-thought-
out and
organizations should follow to develop action plans and successful
-documented plan of
programs.
action.

PROGRAM
Learning Objectives IMPLEMENTATION
The stage in
Upon completion of this manual, learners should be able to:
program planning
✓ Identify the steps and explain the importance of program development. where you develop
✓ Explain why program planning is essential to program development.
✓ Describe how knowledge of program development can support
community organization design and prevention program
implementation.
✓ Explain what a needs assessment determines and how the
information it generates can be used in program planning.
✓ Describe what should be included in a needs assessment.
✓ Explain the steps for conducting a needs assessment and describe
how this information will be applied in the context of an
organization.
✓ Identify who can conduct a needs assessment and prepare a list
of possible recommendations.
✓ Explain ways that a program assessment is useful and
describe how the assessment can enhance service delivery.
✓ Develop a needs assessment questionnaire.
✓ Explain why mission statements are essential.
✓ Write an effective mission statement.
✓ Explain why program goals are necessary.
✓ Explain how to write realistic, time-framed and measurable goals.
✓ Write realistic, time-framed and measurable goals.
✓ Write attainable program objectives.
✓ Identify the major sources of funding.
✓ Identify ways to develop and improve relationships with funding agencies.
✓ Explain why assigning leadership roles is an essential step in
building successful programs.
✓ Understand the different leadership styles and identify styles that
support your organization’s mission.
7
✓ Identify factors that influence good leadership and design activities for
implementing leadership-development training and group maintenance
roles.
✓ List the characteristics of a good leader.
✓ Explain the relationship between successful programs and competent leadership.
✓ Explain why program design is integral to overall program planning.
✓ Explain the major components of an action plan.
✓ Describe your interventions, outline the services that comprise your
interventions and present the activities you will engage in to
implement the interventions.
✓ Describe how your interventions will be implemented and by whom.
✓ Explain the importance of program implementation and outline an
implementation plan for a program.
✓ Identify the elements of program design necessary to ensure the
successful imple- mentation of program activities, and explain why they
are important.
✓ Explain program evaluation and describe how it is useful for making
programmatic decisions in a program.
✓ Describe the purpose of conducting evaluations and explain how each
purpose can impact a program.
✓ Explain impact assessment and identify which areas you would like to have
an impact on AIDS/HIV prevention and other sexually transmitted disease-
prevention programs.
8
 Program
Development

Pre-training Assessment
This Pre-training Assessment is an opportunity for you to check your knowledge
against the information that will be addressed in this manual. Take this test now
and again when you have finished the manual. Answers are found on page 91.

Pre-training Assessment
Please circle the following statements either True or False.

1. True Fals The first step in planning a needs assessment is to

e decide who will conduct the study.
2. True Fals A needs assessment identifies the extent and type of
e existing problems in your community and the services
available.
3. True Fals Outside consultants are the only ones capable of
e performing a needs assessment.
4. True Fals Collecting data on historical development helps you
e understand your community’s growth patterns and
population distribution.
5. True Fals Demographic data includes information such as age,
e character- istics, size, and race.
6. True Fals A needs assessment determines whether resources are
e adequate.
7. True Fals Dividing the responsibilities in creative ways may help in
e performing a cost-effective needs assessment.
8. True Fals One of the disadvantages in using volunteers to
e help with needs assessments is that they may
present a biased inter- pretation of what the
community needs.
9. True Fals A profile of the population you intend to serve should be
e included in the needs assessment.
10. True Fals A needs assessment is an essential part of the planning
e process when designing successful community
initiatives.
9
UNIT 1:
Introduction

Purpose:
This unit explains program development as an ongoing
comprehensive planning process used to establish programs.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Explain the importance of program development.

✓ Explain why program planning is essential to
program development.

✓ Describe how knowledge of program development

can support community organization design and help
implement prevention programs.

✓ Identify the steps and describe the importance of

program planning in program development.
I. What Is Program Development? GOAL
The final outcome
of a long period of
activity. Goals

P rogram development is an ongoing, comprehensive planning process

used to establish projects. Quality program development is supported by
a well-thought-
describe how the
program will affect
the target
out and -documented plan of action. This manual provides a step-by-step population and
outline of the planning process to be used by communities, groups or should be SMART
organizations to develop successful programs. Written in plain language, (specific,
this is a resource that assists in de- signing and implementing programs. It measurable,
is created so that you will understand what achievable, realistic
a program is designed to do, what steps are required to design the and time-framed.
program, what resources are required to implement your plans and what
measures can be used to determine whether you have successfully ACTION PLAN
achieved your goals.
The summary of
Planning is an important step in the program development process. what you and
Often when we hear “program planning,” we think of a lengthy formal others in your
document filled with statistics, charts and technical reports. In fact, organization will
planning can be as simple or as complex as you desire, though an do to achieve your
elaborate document is usually unnecessary. Nevertheless, you will need objectives.
a planning strategy that requires identifying goals and objectives,
PROGRAM PLANNING
conducting a needs assessment to analyze the situation, setting
priorities based upon the needs identified, identifying stakeholders and A strategy that
resources, designing an action plan, implementing that plan and assessing involves identifying
your level of achievement. goals and objectives,
conducting a needs
assessment
to analyze the
situation, setting
priorities based upon
the identified needs,
identifying
stakeholders and
13
 II. Program Development Pre-test

Directions: Using the scale shown below, indicate your level of proficiency
for each of the following as a pre-test assessment.

Level of Proficiency: 1 = No Understanding; 2 = Basic

Understanding; 3 = Moderate Understanding; 4 = Full
Understanding

Level of
Proficien
Course Objectives cy Pre-
test
Understand the benefits of program planning for program
development.
Identify and define terms used in the program
development process.
Understand the steps in program development.
Explain the importance of the needs assessment.
Locate appropriate resources to implement program
development activities.
Develop a networking system for support when carrying
out program planning activities.
Develop mission, goals and objectives statements.
Organize materials for program development.
Use the Internet to locate needed resources and
appropriate funding sources.
Understand how to conduct a needs assessment.
Identify factors associated with good leadership.
Establish linkages and collaborations with other
community change agents.
Implement sound program design principles.
Understand the principles of process evaluation.
Understand the importance of identifying.
Able to write a SMART goal.
Able to develop a sound budget.
Use sound management strategies in developing a staffing
plan.
Able to write a capability statement.
Can construct intervention timelines.

14
 Program
Development

III. Why Is Program Development LEADERSHIP

Important? The process by

which an individual
causes a group to
follow and
Program development is essentially a road map, an action plan that accomplish certain
provides the guidance needed to develop and build effective community objectives.
programs. As an action plan, program development is an ongoing and
EVALUATION
continuous process. Because your pro- gram is fluid and likely to change
depending on your needs, it should continue to evolve. As we are charting a The systematic
course for change, program development allows us to document each collec- tion and
action or step so that we are able to conduct needed assessments and analysis of data
determine areas where modifications may be needed. In program planning, needed to make
we identify major needs, set objectives, establish priorities and generally decisions. Program
chart a direction for growth and development. Program planning also allows evaluation provides
us to identify shortcom- ings and weaknesses and chart a new course of information needed
action should priorities and needs change. Not only does the planning to determine the
process allow us to keep track of where we have been, but also continues to effec- tiveness of a
guide us in the direction we should be going. It tells us where we intend to project for
go next. Equally important in the program planning process is the need to participants, docu-
identify stakeholders and develop a sense of mutual ownership in ments that
successful goal achievement and outcomes. objectives have
been met, pro- vides
information about
service delivery that
will be useful to staff
and other audi-
ences, and enables
IV. Content of the Program Plan staff to make
changes that
improve program
effectiveness.
Planning need not be a cumbersome, lengthy process; it should be brief and
CAPABILITY
written in plain language. It should define what the program is designed to
STATEMENT
do, the resources required and the measures that will be used to determine
whether the program is achieving your objectives. The key to success is a A measure of your
systematic, realistic planning effort rather than a glossy, formal planning organization’s
document. ability to achieve its
mission, goals and
objectives.

INTERVENTION
A collection of
15
 NEEDS ASSESSMENT V. The Planning Process
An appraisal to
deter- mine what
programs and
services your com- The planning process provides the foundation for sound decision-making
munity needs. It in setting program priorities and using resources. By necessity it involves
pro- vides planners gathering, analyzing and interpreting data; identifying community needs,
with the information concerns and assets; and com- municating the results. Program planning
required to prioritize is an ongoing, comprehensive process that is intended to improve
goals according to effectiveness. Prioritizing needs is a critical part of program planning.
those identified Members of planning groups are expected to follow a logical method to
determine their highest priority. Planning should reflect an open, candid
and partici- patory process that is inclusive of differences in cultural and
ethnic background,
perspective, and experiences. Planning produces priorities that are responsive
to commu- nity-validated needs. Initiatives developed with input from affected
communities are likely to be successful in garnering the necessary public
support for effective implementation.

Questions to Be
Addressed During the
Planning
Planning
Process
Planning
Steps Issues
Conduct Needs What HIV/AIDS problems does the
Assessment community need to address?

What are the high-risk populations in your

community?

What populations are at greatest risk?

What are its met needs? What are its
unmet needs?
Develop What results can be achieved in the next
Goals year?
In the next three years?
Identify What resources does the program need to
Resources achieve its goals?

What social networks, educational

institutions, businesses or other
community-building activities are available
to address the problems?
Assign Leadership Who will be responsible for each part
Tasks of the
program?
How will the program be led and
coordinated?
16
 Program
Development

Planning Planning
Steps Issues
Implementation, What relationship do you need to establish
Linkages with other social service agencies,
and Collaborations community organiza- tions and faith-based
organizations? Does this program fit with
others? What procedures will

Identify Funding Where will the money come

Sources from?
Conduct How can you determine whether you
Evaluation have met
your objectives?
Program What changes are needed to
Revision improve the
program?

QUESTIONNAIRE
VI. Program Development: A list of
The Seven-Step Model questions to be
asked.

MISSION STATEMENT

Step 1: Conduct Needs Assessment A sentence that

states the
Tasks: Describe your target audience, identified problem, program fundamental guide
planning process and need for your agency to address the problem. for all future
program-
Key Players Responsible: Program planner development
decisions and
Products: Worksheets: Questions to Include in your Questionnaire;
includes: the pur-
Collecting Data on Existing Organizations
pose or needs your
group will address,
the business of your
Step 2: Develop Mission, Goals and Objectives
Tasks: Develop goals that accurately reflect potential solutions to the problems
found during the needs assessment. Establish realistic goals that describe how
the program will affect the target population.

Key Players Responsible: Program planner

Products: Worksheets: Write your Mission Statement; Write your Goal Statement

17
Step 3: Identify Funding Sources
Tasks: Determine how much money is needed and develop a list of funding sources.

Key Players Responsible: Executive director; finance expert; grant writer

Products: Worksheets: Resource Identification; Webbing Forms

Step 4: Assign Leadership Tasks

Tasks: Identify perspectives and people who will lead each

step. Key Players Responsible: Department director;

executive director Products: Worksheet: Program Planning

Team Roaster

Step 5: Design Program

Tasks: Establish the details of your final program. Identify collaborators.
Describe your staffing needs. Determine how you will evaluate it and how much
it will cost. Create a budget that includes salaries and benefits, shared costs,
program costs, and indirect costs.

Key Players Responsible: Program planner; program planning team and staff

Products: Worksheets: Interventions; Process and Outcome Objections;

Intervention Timeline; Collaboration and Coordination; Evaluation Plan;
Staffing Plan; Budget

Step 6: Implement Program

Tasks: Conduct media campaign, recruit volunteers, develop collaborations
and implement activities.

Key Players Responsible: Program director and staff

Products: Worksheets: Media Campaign; Volunteers; Management

Step 7: Evaluate Program

Tasks: Identify how you will verify documents and qualify program
activities and their effects.

Key Players Responsible: Program director or program evaluation consultant

Products: Worksheet: Outcome and Efficiency Questions

18
UNIT 2:
The Needs Assessment

Purpose:
This unit explains the purpose of conducting a needs
assessment and explains how program assessment can be
useful in documenting pro- grams and their effects,
determining gaps and unmet needs and im- proving the
service delivery in your community. A needs assessment
helps determine what programs and services your community
needs. It also provides planners with information needed for
prioritizing goals according to the identified needs.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Explain what the needs assessment determines and

how this information can be used in program
planning.

✓ Describe what should be included in a needs assessment.

✓ Explain the steps in conducting a needs assessment
and describe how this information will be applied in
the context of your organization.

✓ Explain who can conduct a needs assessment and

prepare a list of possible recommendations.

✓ Explain ways that a program assessment can be

useful and describe how the assessment can
 enhance service delivery.

✓ Develop a needs assessment questionnaire.

I. What Is a Needs Assessment?

A needs assessment determines what programs and services your community needs.
This assessment is an essential part of the planning process when designing
successful community initiatives. It also provides planners with the information
needed to prioritize goals according to identified needs. The needs assessment
determines:

✓ What needs exist in the community.

✓ What group (who) needs the services.
✓ What other programs and services already exist to address the problem.
✓ How the user community is changing.
✓ Whether resources are adequate.

II. Steps in Assessing Needs

What Are the Steps in the Needs Assessment?

The four steps in the needs assessment process require that you determine
who will conduct the study, what kind of information needs to be collected,
how the information will be collected and how the information will be used.

The following should be included in the needs assessment process:

✓ An overview of your community.

✓ A profile of the population you intend to serve (your “target” population).
✓ A risk profile of the target population that includes information on risk
factors for HIV infection, substance abuse and/or related problems.
✓ Data on the current trends of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in your community,
especially HIV transmission and new HIV infections. For example:
– Local data on relevant risk behaviors, such as use of alcohol and
other drugs, use of injection drugs, prevalence of sexually
transmitted diseases and use of condoms.
– Other data related to safer sex practices.
– Other local epidemiological data related to HIV transmission.
✓ An assessment of resiliency and protective factors. Include information on
individual protective factors, family protective factors and community
protective factors.
21
 ✓ Current capacity of local service providers. You should examine or
determine what services are already available in your community.
✓ Unmet needs. Identify the gaps in community services that you intend to fill.
✓ Relevant services needed by your target population. Identify other services
needed by your target population, such as transportation,
educational/vocational/employment services and child care.

Before performing a needs assessment, you must decide who will conduct
the study. A needs assessment study can be carried out by outside consultants
and volunteers. Available resources, your time frame and your comfort level with
performing research may influence your decision.

Outside consultants have expertise in conducting research studies. They

provide ob- jectivity in the needs assessment process by offering an outsider’s
view. Since consultants are experienced at performing research, this option can
make better use of your limited time. The primary disadvantage of using
outside consultants is the cost. Consultants are your most expensive option.

Using volunteers from the community is another possibility. Volunteers

don’t cost anything. However, one of the disadvantages in using volunteers to
help with needs as- sessments is that they may present a biased interpretation
of what the community
needs. Thus, it is important to select volunteers who reflect a broad cross-
BUDGET section of the community. In addition, it may be difficult to find volunteers
Exhibits that who are willing to devote their time to this process and who have previous
provide justification experience in this type of research.
for all subcontract
You need to weigh the pros and cons for each method and decide
expenses, listed by
which will be the most effective approach for your organization. Often,
line item.
budget is the major factor restricting your choices. It may be a good idea
to use a combination of these meth-
ods. For example, you might hire a consultant to help you set up the needs
assessment study, but then use volunteers to actually implement the study.
Dividing the responsibilities in creative ways may help in performing a cost-
effective needs assessment.

A needs assessment helps you identify the extent and type of existing
problems in the community, the services available and the unmet needs. In even
simpler terms, a needs as- sessment is a process to determine the need, which
can be defined as the gap between the problem and the efforts, resources and
programs that exist to deal with the need.

You must also decide what you hope to learn about your community and
what kind of information you plan to collect. For example, do you hope to
perform a broad-based study or one that is focused on your problem? Some of
the categories of information you may be interested in collecting include:

Historical development: To help you understand how the community

became what it is today and to provide insight into the kinds of resources you
need to collect and those that you need to weed out.
22
 Program
Development

Geographical and transportation information: To help you understand

COMMUNITY FORUMS
your community’s growth patterns and population distribution.
A means of collecting
Demographic data: To help you recognize which groups make up the information about
popu- lation of your community, identify population distribution changes, the needs of the
and collect information such as age, characteristics, size, race and commu- nity through
transience of the population. a series of public
meetings. They may
Economic data: To help you identify your community’s economic base.
rely on information
Social, cultural, educational and recreational organization: To from both key
help you determine your community’s values and social patterns. inform- ants and
people in the general
population.

Ways to Conduct a Needs Assessment: SOCIAL INDICATORS

Choosing the Approach
An approach to data
Community Forums and Hearings collection that relies
on inferences,
This approach is designed around a series of public meetings and estimates of need
relies on information from key groups and individuals within the general drawn from
population. descriptive data
found in public
Advantages: records, and reports
✓ Easy to arrange. such as crime
✓ Least expensive approach.
✓ Educates attendees.
✓ Describes needs to public to obtain validation.
✓ Allows citizen input.
✓ Data easily available at low cost.

Disadvantages:
✓ Attendees may not represent the population in need of services.
✓ Attendees’ perceptions of need may be incorrect.
✓ Can turn into a “gripe” session.
✓ Can raise expectations too high.

Social Indicators

This approach is based on inferences, estimates of need drawn from

de- scriptive data found in public records, and reports such as crime
statistics, employment and disease.

Advantages:
✓ Vast existing data pools.
✓ Low cost.
✓ Flexible design.
✓ Foundation on which to build other needs assessments.
23
 SERVICE PROVIDER Disadvantages:
SURVEY ✓ Must verify with other evidence that need really exists.
A survey of those ✓ Data are only indirect measures of need.
who actually ✓ Personal or class bias of researchers can be introduced.
✓ Few indicator series have been developed; therefore,
provide serv- ices
specialized staff skills are required to create them.
to a population in
your community.
Service Provider Surveys
KEY INFORMANT
SURVEY Research is directed at those who actually provide services to a
A research population in your community (administrative program staff at
activity that seeks other agencies).
information from
Advantages:
those who are not
participants in ✓ Provides information on problems or service needs which
the service may not be widely recognized.
delivery system but ✓ Validates information on existing community resources.
✓ Helps develop an overview of existing problems.
who repre- sent and
✓ Simple and inexpensive.
speak for various
constituencies in the Disadvantages:
community, such as
✓ Problems identified may reflect cultural or class biases of
clergymen, elected
providers rather than real problems.
officials, advisory
✓ Data may reflect needs only of those already being served.
✓ Needs identified may reflect vested interests of providers.

Key Informant Surveys

This research activity collects information from those who are not
partici- pants in the service delivery system but who represent and
speak for various constituencies in the community, such as
clergymen, elected officials, advi- sory group members and
commissioners.

Advantages:
✓ Provides for simple and inexpensive input of many
well-placed individuals.
✓ Identifies problems that can become public issues and
receive widespread exposure.
✓ Indicates programs likely to be supported — or
opposed — by community leaders.
✓ Highlights issues of importance to vocal and active
segment of community.

24
 Program
Development

Disadvantages: SURVEY
✓ Identification of problems may stem from political or Research technique
personal sensitivity. based on a
✓ May exclude some leaders who should have been included. collection of data
✓ May exclude parts of community having no access to a leader. from a sample or
the entire popula-
Surveys tion of a
community. This
Based on a collection of data from a sample or the entire population of approach is de-
a community, this approach is designed to elicit information from signed to obtain
respon- dents about their needs. infor- mation from
respondents about
Advantages:
✓ Most scientifically valid and reliable approach.
✓ Most direct way to learn the information on needs of individuals.
✓ Expands way to obtain information found through other techniques.
✓ Flexible costs and timeframe, depending on whether
general or target population is surveyed.

Disadvantages:
✓ Most expensive approach.
✓ Individuals chosen may be reluctant to respond.
✓ Requires extreme care in selecting a sample.
✓ Requires specialized research skills.
✓ Can require greatest amount of time.
✓ Choice of methods (person-to-person, mail, telephone)
must be clear and applicable to your community.

25
 III. Suggestions for Developing
a Questionnaire

Your questions and concerns should be clearly addressed in your

questionnaire. The wording should be your own, but you might use the
following questions to stimulate ideas about what to include in your
questionnaire. If you plan to interview several cate- gories of respondents (e.g.,
youth and adults), you will need to develop a distinct survey
for each type. It is extremely helpful to pre-test your questionnaire
INTERVIEW with several people you know before finalizing it and beginning the
interviews.
A
conversation
between two (or Sample Questions
occasionally
✓ What are the problems that affect residents in your community?
more) individuals
✓ Are any of these problems related to HIV/AIDS or other sexually
in which one
transmitted diseases?
party attempts to ✓ Are any of these problems related to alcohol or drug abuse?
gain information ✓ Which drugs are used the most? The least?
from the other(s) ✓ What are the characteristics of alcohol and other drug users
by asking a (age, habits, hangouts or role models)?
✓ At what age do young people begin engaging in promiscuous sexual behavior?
✓ In what contexts and settings are people more likely to use alcohol and other drugs?
✓ What community norms may exist that promote HIV/AIDS or other sexually
transmitted diseases?
✓ What norms and practices exist which help protect individuals from
engaging in risky behaviors?
✓ Do patterns of HIV/AIDS exposure and infections reflect ethnic differences?

26
 Program
Development

IV. Researching Existing Programs

You should also perform an inventory of prevention programs and services

already operat- ing in your community. In doing so, you should not duplicate the
work of others, but look for opportunities to collaborate with other groups and
ensure that your efforts complement what is already being done.

Once you have collected information on the extent of the problem, its
impact on the community and existing programs and services, planners must
decide which problems need the most attention.

In your own words, list some questions you might include in your questionnaire:

27
How to Design a
Questionnaire that Is Easy to
Administer and Answer
✓ Include on the first page: identification number; interviewer identity;
interviewee address, name and telephone number (for making
appointment); introduction; list for contact and outcome; and
respondent selection key.
✓ Print questions on one side of paper only.
✓ Make the introduction short, non-threatening and simple.
✓ Ask warm-up questions first. These are the ones that are the least
sensitive or most interesting to respondent. For example, length of
time at current residence or respondent’s opinion about community
problems.
✓ Ask demographic questions last. Don’t ask them if you don’t need the information.
✓ List the questions in a logical sequence.
✓ Use transitions such as “Now, here’s a different kind of question…” or
“Turning to another subject…” They dispel boredom and allow you to
change subjects easily.
✓ Use “Now, here are a few final questions,” to indicate the end is in sight.
✓ Do not crowd the questionnaire page with too many questions.
✓ Keep format consistent throughout the questionnaire.
✓ Ask only as many questions as you need. (Twenty questions will take
no longer than 10 minutes to answer. A well-spaced 10-page
questionnaire takes 30 minutes to answer.)
✓ Use white paper for the body of the questionnaire.
✓ Use colored pages to mark the beginning of different sections for the
interviewer, who might have to skip a whole section if it’s not
applicable to the respondent.
✓ Use symbols to guide the interviewer through the questionnaire (an
ellipsis indi- cates a pause, an asterisk indicates the answer leads to
another question, arrows indicate direction, vertical lines separate or
group items together).
✓ Write instructions for interviewer in capital letters; box them or put
them in parentheses.
✓ Leave room in the left-hand margin for coded column and response numbers.
✓ Provide several lines to answer open-ended questions.
✓ Line up responses vertically. This makes it easier to respond and input.
✓ Use horizontal listing of responses when several questions have
identical re- sponse categories.
✓ Use small dots (…) to guide the eye across the page toward the space for answers.
✓ End the questionnaire with “Thank you.”

Source: Public Management Institute, 358 Brannan Street, San Francisco CA 94107,
(415) 896-1900.
28
 Program
Development

Collecting Data on Existing

Programs and Services
Name:
Contact Person:
Telephone Number:
E-mail:
Address:
Project Title:
Project Description:
Audience Targeted by Project:

Does program have a clear non-use policy and message? ❏ Yes ❏ No

Services Provided (Check all that apply)

❏ Prevention ❏ Intervention ❏ Both ❏ Education ❏ Legislative Action

❏ Referral ❏ Networking ❏ Alternative Funding ❏ Activities ❏ Training
❏ Treatment ❏ Counseling ❏ Skill Building ❏ Programs for Related Problems
❏ Support Group

Notes:

Source: Public Management Institute, 358 Brannan Street, San Francisco, CA 94107,
(415) 896-1900.

29
UNIT 3:
Developing Mission,
Goals and Objectives

Purpose:
This unit explains the purpose of conducting a needs
assessment and how program assessments can be useful in
documenting programs and their effects, determining gaps
and unmet needs, and improving the service delivery in your
community. A needs assessment helps you determine what
programs and services your community needs.
It also provides planners with information needed for prioritizing
goals according to the needs identified.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Explain why mission statements are essential.

✓ Write an effective mission statement.
✓ Explain why program goals are necessary.
✓ Explain how to write realistic, time-framed and measurable goals.
✓ Write realistic, time-framed and measurable goals.
✓ Write attainable program objectives.
I. The Mission Statement 501(c)(3)
The section of the US
tax code that defines
nonprofit, charitable

A fter completing a needs assessment, you will have the information you needand tax-exempt
to develop reasonable goals. You should establish goals that accurately
reflect po-
organi- zations;
501(c)(3) organ-
tential solutions to the problems found during the needs assessment. After izations are further
success- fully completing the needs assessment, you should be ready to defined as public
define the underlying assumptions and expectations on which the program chari- ties, private
depends for its success. You should be able to answer the questions of operating
“how” and “why” the program’s concept will bring about the intended foundations and
results. Once stakeholders have agreed on the basic premise of the
program, they should develop a formal mission statement. The pro- gram
mission is the fundamental guide for all future program-development
decisions.
The mission statement must be written so that it reflects the ideals of the
people working in and for your organization. Everyone should feel ownership
in, value and be committed to the mission of the organization.

The mission statement should be brief, clear and concise. It should state the
organiza- tion’s name, that it is a nonprofit, the type of organization, what it does, for
whom and where.

Example: BMCC is a community-based, 501(c)(3) nonprofit agency

committed to reducing the incidence of HIV/AIDS by delivering
comprehensive education and outreach services to all Jacksonians
infected and affected by HIV/AIDS.

Effective mission statements have four parts:

✓ Purpose or needs that the your group will address

✓ The business of your group
✓ Your guiding values
✓ Who will benefit from your work

Purpose

Usually indicates a desire to effect a change in status and identifies the

problems or condi- tions to be changed. It generally focuses on outcomes and
results. Key words are reduce, improve, decrease, increase and enhance.

Example: To reduce the incidence of HIV/AIDS.

Business

This statement outlines your business activity or program. It should include

action words such as provide and may include linking words such as by or
through.

Example: By educating and advocating HIV/AIDS prevention.

33
 Values

This statement communicates what your group members hold in common and
are attempt- ing to implement. It is the basic shared belief of an organization.

Example: We are committed to reducing the incidence and spread of

HIV/AIDS.

Beneficiaries

This part of the mission statement identifies who will receive the services and
who will benefit from the implementation of those services.

Example: Among high-risk populations.

Your Mission Statement Should:

✓ Communicate your purpose in a way that inspires support and ongoing commitment.
✓ Motivate those who are connected to the organization.
✓ Articulate a concept in a way that is convincing and easy to grasp.
✓ Use proactive verbs to describe what you do.
✓ Be free of jargon.
✓ Be short enough so that anyone connected to the organization can readily repeat it.

Mission Statement Exercise

Write your mission statement. Be sure to include the purpose, business,
guiding principle(s) and beneficiaries.

Purpose:

Business:

Guiding Principles:

Beneficiaries:

34
 Program
Development

II. Setting Goals

Establishing realistic goals that describe how a program will affect its target
population is essential to solving the identified problem. You must develop
specific strategies to achieve those goals based on evidence about methods that
have demonstrated success with the program’s target population.

Next, state your program’s ultimate objectives in measurable terms. This sets
the stage for analyzing program results later on. The project goal statement
should be the driving force behind the project. It should be the cornerstone
against which everything done on the project is measured. A good project goal
statement is SMART:

✓ Specific
✓ Measurable
✓ Achievable
✓ Realistic
✓ Time-framed

✓ Specific: A specific goal is usually better than a general goal. The specific
goal should be as precise and detailed as possible, stating exactly what the
project aims to achieve. It should be phrased using action words such as
“plan,” “construct” and “execute.”
A specific goal should answer the questions who, what, where, when, which and why.
As an example, a general goal would state, “Get your education.” A specific
goal would state, “Get accepted and enroll in a four-year university and take
at least twelve hours of classes per semester.”

✓ Measurable: If you cannot measure it, you cannot control it. In other
words, a goal must be quantifiable. The goal statement is a yardstick for
the project; if the goal is
completed, the project is a success. Measuring progress keeps you focused
on the goal. A good way to measure your goal is to ask questions such as
“How much?” and “How many?” and “How will I know when my goal is
accomplished?” There are usually several temporary or small measurements
that can be built into your goal. Since words such as “improve,” “increase”
and “reduce” can be misinterpreted; whenever you include them, be sure to
incorporate the ways in which they will be measured. For example, you may
want to state the number of persons targeted for services. It is also important
to avoid jargon because this also is easily misinterpreted. When your progress
is measured properly, it becomes easier to stay on track and meet target
dates.

✓ Agreeable: Your goal should be achievable, acceptable and agreed upon.

You should be able to recognize its strong points and weak points. These
things can be used to in- crease your level of achievement. Everyone in the
organization does not have to agree that the project is essential and
pleasing. But those who have made a commitment to
35
 the project must agree that the project is needed. Recognizing goals that are
of signifi- cance to you amplifies your likelihood of accomplishing them. You
can achieve almost any aim when you set specific and measurable goals.
Those goals that you thought were impossible soon become possible.

✓ Realistic: A goal must correspond to a task that you have the motivation
and capa- bility to complete. A goal must be doable. Do not plan to do
something if you cannot follow through. In addition, make sure you set your
goals high. The higher the goal, the greater the motivation, and the greater
the motivation, the higher your chances of completion. But, make sure the
skills required to perform the work are obtainable. A good way to determine
workable goals is to look back on past projects and see whether they were
possible, or so farfetched that they would never have worked.

✓ Time-framed: A goal must have a beginning and an end. Very little is ever
accomplished without a deadline, and one of the easier parts of setting a goal
is establishing the dead- line. This is particularly true of work that is piled on
top of everything else you do on a daily basis. Building the delivery deadline
into the project goal keeps it in front of the team and lets members of the
organization know when they can expect to see results.

Exercise: Set Your Organization’s

Goal Using the SMART Technique
Write your organization’s goal:

Characteristi Variables to Achieve Your Goal

c
✓ Who — is involved?
Specific ✓ What — do we want to accomplish?
✓ Where — is the program located?
✓ When — do we expect to complete?
✓ Which — requirements and
constraints?
✓ Why — specific reasons,
purpose or benefit of
accomplishing the goal?
Measurabl
✓ How much or how many?
e ✓ Do team members agree with the
goal?
Agreeable
✓ Is it doable?
Realistic
✓ Timeline
Time

Frame
36
 Program
Development

III. Developing Objectives OBJECTIVE

A specific
accomplish- ment to
be achieved during a
People tend to think of goals and objectives as the same thing. But in given period of time.
planning, these words carry different meanings. A goal is the final outcome An objective helps
of a long period of activity. It sets the directions for the work to be attain goals by
performed. An objective is a specific accom- plishment to be achieved translat- ing a
during a given period. It helps attain the goal by translating a general general purpose into
purpose into a series of specific, manageable steps. For example, the basic a series of specific,
question in developing objectives for preventing HIV/AIDS is, “What
quantifiable re- sults can be achieved in the near future?” In effect, the
objectives associated with a
given prevention goal are really the milestones that must be attained in reaching that goal.

Objectives are written in quantifiable terms so there is no question about

when and whether they have been achieved. For example, if an HIV/AIDS-
prevention program pro- poses to distribute materials to at-risk groups, it is
useful to specify a set number of at-risk people designated to receive the
literature. Without a target number, the objective might be perceived as fulfilled
if two-dozen people received brochures or seen as unmet even though half the
community received the pamphlets.

Setting Goals Identifies the Amount of Work Needed

Specifying a quantifiable target to reach in a given amount of time also helps
planners se- lect objectives that are realistic and attainable. By using specific
numbers, a list of objectives identifies exactly how much work has to be
completed to meet your goals.

Setting Objectives Allows You to Divide the Work

into Manageable Amounts
Dividing the work into manageable amounts will help planners identify the
resources re- quired and establish deadlines for obtaining them.

Setting Objectives Requires Careful Thought

Begin with a goal that has a high priority for the community. List all the short-
term condi- tions that must be attained to reach that goal. Next, select those
results from the list that can be achieved during the first six months of the
program’s operation; during this process, it is better to underestimate rather
than overestimate what can be accomplished. When this short list of results is
completed, select the results that could not be achieved during the first six
months but could be achieved during the first 12 months. This produces a list of
six- and 12-month objectives; items on the list that cannot be achieved during
the first year are

37
 classified as long-term objectives. Compare each six-month and 12-month
objective against the following checklist:

✓ Does the objective specify a single quantifiable result?

✓ Are there ways to determine that the quantifiable result has been met?
✓ Does achievement of the objective contribute to meeting the goal?
✓ Can the objective reasonably be achieved within the timeframe allowed?
✓ Is achievement of the goal likely, given resources available for the program?

If the answer to any of these questions is “no” or “maybe,” planners should

modify the lists of six-month and 12-month objectives until all the objectives
can pass the check- list. Repeat the process for each of the goals identified
during the previous planning step. This can be time-consuming, but it’s worth
it because the result is a thoroughly considered, reasonable time-table of
planned accomplishments. The effort exerted in the systematic process of
developing objectives often reaps important benefits in terms of adequate
resources, financing and community support for your program. It will also
increase morale among team members who know they are approaching — or
exceeding — the results targeted during planning.

38
UNIT 4:
Identifying Funding Sources

Purpose:
This unit offers effective strategies for identifying funding
sources to support programmatic mission, goals and
objectives. The success of your program may very well depend
on the ability to obtain resources. You may not be able to
obtain all the resources you need through voluntary
contribution or networking, so some resources will have to be
purchased. It is important early on to identify sources from
which you will be able to get the money needed to successfully
implement your program.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Identify major sources of funding.

✓ Identify ways to develop and improve
relationships with funding agencies.
I. Funding Sources GRASSROOTS
FUND-RAISING
Efforts to raise
money on a broad

T he success of your program may very well depend on the ability to

obtain resources to support programmatic mission, goals and objectives,
so identifying funding
basis from
individuals or
groups from the
sources is a very important step in the program planning process. You may local com- munity.
not be able to obtain all the resources you need through voluntary Usually an
contributions or network- ing, so some resources must be purchased, organization’s own
which is why funding sources are critical to success. These include constituents —
foundations; local, state and federal government; and other benevolent people who live in
organizations. Other sources for funding community programs include the neigh- borhood
community fund-raising, foundation grants, and government grants and served by
contracts. or are clients of the
agency’s services —
Generally, it takes at least 12 months to obtain funding, so it is
are the sources of
important to identify early on the sources early on from which you hope
these funds.
to receive the money needed to successfully implement your program.
Grassroots fund-
However, first you have to deter- mine how much money is needed. See
raising activities
Unit 6 for more information on developing a budget.
include membership
drives, raffles,
auctions, benefits
and a range
of other activities.

II. Community Fund-Raising DONORS

Groups or
organiza- tions
that provide an
additional source
Local fund-raising can take a variety of forms, from requests for
of funding and
donations from community businesses, organizations, clubs and
other resources for
philanthropies to direct mail addressed to concerned citizens.
Successful nonprofits specify exactly how the requests will be used to
provide services to the community since local donors prefer to know
how their money will be used and what needs it will alleviate.

Community fund-raising is initiated in a process called webbing. Webbing

consists of building a network of supporters for your organization. (See page
44 for a sample webbing form.) Generally, you will need to determine who
your supporters are, whom they know and what they can do for you. Proposal
writing skills coupled with a web of contacts and advocates can make the
difference between success and failure. Complete
a data contact form for all possible supporters. (See page 33 for a sample
Resource Iden- tification Form.) This way you will have readily available a bank
of resources that can be used to solicit resources and support from the
community.

Once you have identified people, organizations, businesses or groups that

can serve as resources, you should communicate with them to identify the kind
and amount of resources and services they would be willing to offer in support
of your program. Webbing

41
 can also help you identify non-monetary resources such as speakers, support
groups and sources of referrals for your program.

You should also develop relationships with funding agencies. There are a number
of methods that can be used to develop relationships. When attempting to raise
money through grant proposals, it is very important to build peer-to-peer
relationships. You should attempt to build a relationship with the decision-maker,
although the funder representative
may have considerably more power. Most decision-makers want to be
treated as a peer. Each decision-maker is unique, with his or her own
GRANT
standards, priorities, interests and degrees of power in the grant-making
A financial decision. Your task is to determine who in the organization has decision-
assistance award making authority and how,
made to an in a non-obstructive fashion, you can obtain that person’s support.
organization in
the name of a Initiating the first contact can sometimes be difficult and perhaps a little awkward.
principal You should attempt to present your organization in its best light. This
investigator to means proof- reading your letters and proposals, spelling names correctly,
assist the tracking who works at what foundation and so forth. However, remember
organization in no program is perfect; you should be honest and list the areas that need
conducting improvement as well as your strengths. When acknowledging weaknesses,
research or other mention your strategies for overcoming them and your plans for
programs as improvement. Professionalism means treating everyone with courtesy, re-
specified in an gardless of job title or status.
approved
proposal. Below are some ways to develop and improve relationships with funding agencies:
A grant — as
✓ Write letters to donors.
opposed to a ✓ Attend workshops and other training opportunities that donors sponsor.
cooperative agree- ✓ Communicate with donors over the phone or by e-mail to discuss
ment — is used some of your major needs.
when- ever the ✓ Attend conferences at which donor representatives are scheduled to speak.
awarding office ✓ Send notes, questions or suggestions to the sponsors.
✓ Order specialized publications about the sponsors.
✓ Get sponsors’ e-mail addresses and send them notes containing
information in which they might be interested.
✓ When possible, obtain donor travel schedules to determine availability of
representa- tives to speak to your organization.
✓ Ask the representatives to serve as project advisors or member of your board.
✓ Acquire samples of the most successful programs they have funded.
✓ Ask them to review a proposal you are considering submitting for funding.
✓ Ask them to provide technical training for your organization.
✓ Send them a copy of any of your organization’s noted accomplishments
or special publicity.
✓ Have your name or agency added to their mailing lists.
✓ Ask them to share with you the most common reasons they reject requests for support.
✓ Ask them what they look for in a good program (how they measure success).
✓ Ask them to mentor you or refer you to someone who will be able to
support your organization’s growth and development.
✓ Ask them to review your needs assessments and determine if the
identified needs fit in their philanthropic mission.
42
 Program
Development

III. Foundation Resources

If you are unable to acquire all of the needed resources to operate your program
from local sources, you may need to obtain additional funding from foundation
and government grants. Many foundations are interested in assisting
community-based organizations in de- veloping and expanding their programs to
meet local needs. But obtaining funding from these resources can be very
competitive.

Sample Resource Identification Form

Exercise: Developing data on existing programs and services

Practice completing the form yourself. Make modifications to the form to

meet your specific program needs and send to people, organizations or
business representatives identified and placed in your resource
identification bank. Add other information to this form as you deem
necessary.

Name of Organization or Group

Name of Contact Person
Telephone Number
Address

Project Title
Project Description
Audience Targeted by Project

Service is Primarily: ❏ Prevention ❏

Intervention ❏ Both Service Involves:
❏ Education ❏ Legislative action ❏ Referral ❏ Networking ❏ Outreach
❏ Funding ❏ Skill building ❏ Treatment ❏ Support group ❏ Counseling
❏ Related programs ❏ Other (specify)

Notes

Source: Public Management Institute, 358 Brannan Street, San Francisco CA 94107,
(415) 896-1900.
43
 Sample Webbing Form
Instructions: Answer these questions as completely as you can. The
information you provide is confidential and will be used only to help us
expand our fundraising base. Return this form to
by . Thank you for your help.

1. List five people, organizations or businesses that you feel can

afford to make a donation, contribution or gift to our organization.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

2. Would you be willing to speak with any of the names listed above on
our behalf? If yes, please identify which one(s).

3. If applicable, are any of your customers or suppliers known to be

involved in local philanthropy efforts? ❏ Yes ❏ No
If yes, which one(s)?

4. Have you ever helped this organization or any other receive a

gift of more than $500? ❏ Yes ❏ No
Please describe

5. Of what social, fraternal, athletic, civic or other clubs are you a member?

6. What is your educational background (college, date of graduation, degrees)?

7. To what church or synagogue do you belong?

8. Please list any corporate and/or philanthropic memberships or

directorships you hold.

9. What is your home address?

Source: 1980 Public Management Institute, 358 Brannan Street, San Francisco CA 94107,
(415) 896-1900

44
 Program
Development

Foundations seldom fund unsolicited financial requests, so personal

contact and relationship-building are crucial to improving your likelihood of REQUEST FOR
getting support. It is not uncommon for foundations to request a brief letter PROPOSAL (RFP)
telling who you are, what your plan is and how much funding you are When the
requesting. If foundations find merit in your pro- posal letter, they will then government issues a
request a fully developed application. Your proposal letter, generally two to new contract or
three pages in length, should at a minimum include the following: grant program, it
sends out RFPs to
✓ The problem you are addressing as supported by your needs assessment.
agencies that might
✓ The solution you propose in terms of goals and objectives.
be qualified to
✓ Documentation of your ability to implement the proposed objectives.
✓ The extent to which your financial need matches your request. partici- pate. The
✓ Documentation that you will implement a systematic evaluation to RFP lists project
determine that your efforts made a difference. specifications and
application proce-
You should be specific in your request and identify what resources you dures. Although an
are seek- ing. Generally, foundations and other private sector philanthropic increasing number
organizations like to see that you are leveraging requested support with of foundations use
resources you also receive from the local community. RFPs in specific
fields, most still
prefer to consider

IV. Government Sources

Government sources have a much more formal application process. The

government will publish, through a request or solicitation, programs and
activities it will support. In these notices, the government provides information
on eligibility, program duration, activities and services that you may provide,
level of funding, and the procedures for awarding grants and contracts.
Generally, government funding agencies require that all proposal applications
include the following standard sections:

✓ Proposal Summary: Appearing at the beginning of the proposal, the

summary should be clearly and concisely written and include summary
statements about your organiza- tion’s capability, statement of problems,
objectives, activities to be implemented, evalu- ation efforts and the total cost
of the project.
✓ Institutional Background and Qualifications: This is where you “toot
your own horn.” However, the section should be clear and concise without
overloading the reader and should include:
– When, how and why the organization was founded.
– Purpose, goals and mission of the organization.
– Past and present activities.
– Accomplishments and outcomes of activities.
45
 – Size and characteristics of your constituency.
STATEMENT OF – Your funding resources and their positive comments on your work.
THE PROBLEM – Internal or external evaluation of your program.
A component of a – Letter of support or endorsement.
proposal where – Audit or other financial statement.
you document – Proof of nonprofit status.
need and provide – Board resolutions to authorize requests.
detailed ✓ Statement of the Problem: This is the most important part of
information on the proposal. This is where you document a need for your services.
your target You should provide detailed information on your target community
community and its and its unmet needs. Your proposal will be judged on the extent to
unmet need. which you demonstrate knowledge of and experience with your
community. It tells the funding agency why you want the
IMPLEMENTATION resources. This information should include:
PLAN – The needs assessment and other available statistics on your target population.
A step in program – Your agency mission, goals and objectives.
planning where you – Something on which you can have an impact during the course of the grant.
describe the methods – Language that focuses on clients or constituents rather than the
that will be used to problems of your organization.
✓ Program Objectives: Objectives should be stated in measurable terms and
should be quantifiable. Objectives should be written using concrete
terms such as “to increase” or “to reduce” rather than “to provide” or “to
create.” They should be written in numerical form, defining the population
served and stating the time when the objectives will be met.
– Example: To reduce by 15 percent within 12 months the number of
youth between ages 15 and 18 in Central High who are engaging in
unprotected sex.
– Example: To increase the number of people being tested for HIV/AIDS in
Ouachita County by 10 percent within 12 months
✓ Implementation Plan: In this step describe the methods you propose to use to achieve
your objectives. You should present a reasonable scope of activities that you
will be able to achieve, as well as timelines for program milestones.
Generally, strategies you pro- pose should be documented using “best
practices” and national standard curricula models that have been
documented as being successful.
✓ Evaluation: Evaluation must be planned carefully and must be initiated at the begin-
ning of the project. Funding agencies expect you to have given considerable
thought to the evaluation process. You should, to the extent possible, detail
the evaluation process to provide feedback to whoever supports your project.
✓ Budget: Be as specific as possible when preparing the budget. Funding organizations
generally provide budget documents with applicable guidelines that must be
adhered to. Funding agencies want you to be as accurate as possible and
propose, to the best of your ability, a true cost of the proposed project. If you
have made a sincere effort to estimate costs at the outset, the funding
agency will probably be receptive to any modi- fication. You should explain
costs, including a brief justification or explanation of any un- usual budget
items.
46
 Program
Development

Tips For Winning Government Proposals

✓ Search sources for funding opportunities including the Federal
Register, Commerce Business Daily and newspapers.
✓ Place your organization on mailing lists.
✓ Download application forms from government websites. There you
can also find application forms, program-funding guidelines, literature
and other information.
✓ Seek additional support to leverage project activities from local
sources, including local government agencies.
✓ Designate one person to be responsible for coordinating your group’s
proposal. He or she will ensure that all the parts of the proposal are
completed, the requisite numbers of copies are provided and the
proposal is delivered on time.
✓ Seek advice, if needed, on the preparation of your proposal from the
designated contracting officer. You will find contact information in the
program application.
✓ Read the request or solicitation for proposals carefully and send any
questions about its contents to the contracting officer as soon as
possible.
✓ Review your proposal very carefully to ensure that you have
provided all the information requested by the agency.

The following checklist is often required for government-funded

programs. Check your proposal to make sure that you have included
each of these items.

Proposal Checklist of Generally Required Information

✓ Original application and copies (including completed attachments)
✓ Cover page (must use the page included in the RFP document)
✓ Table of contents for your proposal document
✓ One-page abstract (includes project’s intent and outline of methodology)
✓ Narrative section, to include
– Need for project
– Experience and ability to deliver proposed service
– Program design
– Implementation plan
– Program outcomes
✓ Budget
– Budget Narrative
✓ W-9
✓ Signed board resolution for state contract providers
✓ Articles of incorporation
✓ IRS tax-exemption letter
✓ Résumés and position descriptions for key staff
✓ Copy of most recent audit along with a financial statement if the applicant
is a private nonprofit. (If your organization is not required to submit an
audit or your agency has not performed an audit, please submit an
explanation to this effect.)
✓ A list of other sources of funding coming to the organization and their
intended purpose

47
UNIT 5:
Assigning Leadership Tasks

Purpose:
This unit explains the importance of assigning competent
people to handle key leadership tasks. Effective community
program leadership requires continuous attention to a
number of complex issues, but the essential ingredient for
strong leadership is having the skills to help the group
progress toward meeting its goals.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Explain why assigning leadership roles is an

essential step in building successful programs.

✓ Identify the different leadership styles and the styles

that will support your organization’s mission.

✓ Describe factors that influence good leadership and

design activities for implementing leadership-
development training and group maintenance roles.

✓ List the characteristics of a good leader.

✓ Explain the relationship between successful
programs and competent leadership.
P rogram planning requires many different phases and the use of a wide range
of skills and perspectives. A program should never be the creation of just one
person. The program
planner, no matter how experienced, needs to bring in people with other areas of
expertise. The planner also needs agency-wide perspectives and support for
proposed programs.
Both finance and fund-raising perspectives will be needed at various stages in the process.

Leadership can be defined in many ways. For example, a working leadership

is the process by which an individual causes a group to follow and accomplish
certain objectives. There are many factors that influence good leadership. A good
leader must be committed to achieving the goals of the organization and able to
guide and inspire others. A good leader must also have good communication and
listening skills because the mission of the group must be clearly communicated
to a wide range of people and organizations. A leader must be able to tell the
group exactly what is needed and explain the goals and objectives. A good leader
must also be able to listen to the group’s feedback, thus eliciting new ideas and
gaining an understanding of what members of the group are thinking. Good
leadership requires constant attention to a number of difficult issues.

There are many leadership styles. A good leader will choose the leadership
style that is closely related to him/her. The first leadership style is democratic.
Under a democratic leadership, group members use their own knowledge and
experience to reach a decision. The challenges and answers are discussed and
managed by the members of the group, and the entire group must be
committed and agree to the action. The entire team must become involved.

The second leadership style is counseling. Under this style of leadership,

members of the group share their thoughts and ideas. They consult with the
leader and contribute information and ideas. They give their opinion of ideas
presented by the leader and by others in the group. The leader makes the
final decision. Therefore, the leader manages the problems and provides
answers.

The third leadership style is convincing. Under this style, the leader must
be able to convince team members that they are able to accomplish their goal.
The leader has to be able to explain the advantages and disadvantages of his or
her orders. This style allows the leader to convince group members and gain
their support. He or she is required to give an order, convince the team as to
why the order was good and be able to eliminate any doubts that may arise.

The fourth leadership style is command. Under this style, the leader tells the
group what to do or accomplish. He or she has to ensure that the problem is
understood and is immediately taken care of. The main role of the leader in this
style is to advise or direct. The group member’s role is to understand what is
expected and do as he or she is told. This leadership style requires no feedback
and is not concerned with the opinion of the group it is a style frequently seen in
the military. The goal of the leader is to give an order and make sure it is
executed.
51
 The essential ingredient for leadership is possessing the skills to help the
group progress toward meeting its goals. Leaders must continuously inspire,
guide and reward their team. On any given day, program leaders must call
upon many skills to handle the wide variety of situations that invariably arise.
Adding to the challenge, as an organization evolves and grows it requires
different capabilities from its leaders.

Effective community program leadership requires continuous attention to a

number of complex issues. True leadership is strategic and addresses long-
term issues, not just short- term crises.

I. Factors that Influence Good

Leadership

In addition to knowing what leadership style to use, you should be aware

that several factors will influence how well you lead.1

✓ Your commitment. Commitment is a combination of confidence and

motivation. To be an effective leader, you must be committed to achieving
a vision and have enough motivation to initiate the action required.
✓ Your willingness to be democratic. People will better understand the
program’s vision and be more committed to working toward
accomplishing that vision when a democratic leadership style is used.
✓ Good communication and listening skills. As a leader, you must clearly
communicate the program’s mission, goals and objectives. You must also be
a good listener, willing to accept suggestions and ideas for incorporation
into final decisions.
✓ Your competence. Your competence is the product of the skills gained from
education, training and experience. Good leaders also make use of the skills
of people around them.
✓ Your support of others. A good leader supports others working to
achieve a vision. Teamwork is the key ingredient of successful leadership.

In conclusion, a good leader must be committed to the program or cause, as

demo- cratic as possible, a good communicator and listener, willing to make use
of competent people, and able to support others.

1. D. Fessler, Facilitating Community Change: A Basic Guide, La Jolla, CA: University Associates, 1976.
52
 Program
Development

Leadership Styles
Name the four leadership

styles. 1.

2.

3.

4.

Which of these leadership styles will work most effectively in your organization? Why?

Tasks for Group

Leaders and Group
Members
✓ Initiating activity: Suggesting new ideas, new approaches and
new ways of organizing material or offering solutions.
✓ Seeking information: Asking others to supply needed
information or to clarify data on hand.
✓ Seeking opinions: Asking others to evaluate ideas or
procedures already suggested.
✓ Giving information: Providing the group with facts or
experiences relevant to the question at hand.
✓ Elaborating: Building on an idea already suggested so that it
will better meet the needs of the group.
✓ Coordinating: Relating various ideas so that they become a
connected whole.
✓ Summarizing: Restating briefly the important contributions
made by the group so that none will be overlooked, and
bringing the group together in its thinking.
✓ Testing feasibility: Applying the ideas to real-life situations
to pre-test their effects and anticipate and avoid mistakes.
✓ Testing for consensus: Asking for group opinions in a
tentative manner to determine whether the group is ready to
make a decision.

Source: D. Fessler, Facilitating Community Change: A Basic Guide, La Jolla, CA:

University Associates, 1976.
53
Group Maintenance Roles for
Group Leaders and Group
Members
✓ Encouraging: Being sincere, warm and friendly to others and
encouraging them to participate by being positive about their
contributions. This includes thoughtful consideration of both the
merits and weaknesses of contributions made by the less
outspoken members of the group.
✓ Gatekeeping: Making it possible for individuals to be brought into
the dis- cussion by asking for their ideas or opinions and, in some
cases, by restraining more vocal members so that others have a
chance to talk.
✓ Standard setting: Expressing standards or criteria for group
operation that will help the group arrive at a decision objectively.
✓ Expressing group feelings: Summarizing how the group
seems to feel about an issue.
✓ Diagnosing: Determining sources of difficulty and proposing
appropriate next steps.
✓ Compromising: Achieving group agreement by providing
compromises for opposing points of view, raising questions
whose answers will eliminate misunderstanding and offering to
modify your own position.
✓ Harmonizing: Easing negative feelings with humor or by
shifting to a broader point of view.
✓ Consensus testing: Sending up a “trial balloon” to test a
possible group consensus.
✓ Following: Serving as an interested listener while others are talking.

Source: D. Fessler, Facilitating Community Change: A Basic Guide, La Jolla, CA:

University Associates, 1976.

Nonfunctional Roles for Group

Leaders and Group Members
✓ Being aggressive: Deflating the status of others, disapproving of
their contri- butions or joking aggressively about them.
✓ Blocking: Voicing opposition unreasonably or being stubbornly resistant.
✓ Seeking recognition: Calling attention to yourself by boasting,
name-dropping or mentioning personal achievements.
✓ Self-confessing: Expressing personal feelings that have no
bearing on the group or its task.
✓ Being a playboy/playgirl: Making a visible display of
noninvolvement in the group’s activity by whispering, writing notes,
engaging in horseplay or reading something not relevant to the task
at hand.
54
 Program
Development

✓ Dominating: Asserting authority or superiority over the group by

giving direc- tions, interrupting others or flattering members.
✓ Seeking help: Taking advantage of the group meeting to try to solve
a personal problem or to gain sympathy.
✓ Pleading special interests: Cloaking your own prejudices by
claiming to speak for “the housewife,” “the small farmer” or “the
general public.”

Source: D. Fessler, Facilitating Community Change: A Basic Guide, La Jolla,

CA: University Associates, 1976.

II. Create a Program Planning Team

As someone who is involved in HIV prevention, you already have some

knowledge of what contributes to the epidemic. You may also be a member of
your target population, which gives you different insights into which critical
issues to address. The strongest programs, however, are drawn from eliciting a
number of perspectives. Each will analyze and under- stand a different aspect of
the target population, what contributes to their behaviors around HIV and what
would be an effective and appropriate response. We therefore recommend that
you organize a “program-planning team” to expand the problem definition and
back it up with research and experience. This team will be responsible for
conducting a full needs assessment of your target population and assisting
throughout the planning process.

III. Program Planning Team Roster

Every perspective is valuable, but involving too many people can make it
difficult to focus on a single program, solution or agenda. Choose your team
carefully. Try to achieve a diver- sity of voices, all working towards the same
goal: helping your target population. In an ideal situation, you would be able to
include:
55
 ✓ Program Planners: Members of your staff and volunteers who help
PROGRAM PLANNERS develop programs are the core of every program-planning team.
Members of your Include people who have used a variety of intervention styles to solve
staff and problems. Additionally, find people who have program planning
volunteers who experience in other fields for this target community, or who have
help to develop experience planning in this field for other communities.
programs. ✓ Members of the Target Population: This is mandatory! One of the
most impor- tant group of voices, the people who will be receiving
SERVICE PROVIDERS services must always be included in the development of any program.
And do not forget to include
People who are
HIV-positive people in your group. As members of the target
responsible for
population who have sero-converted, they can offer a valuable
administering
perspective on your approaches and priorities — on what works and
services in your
doesn’t. Also, remember that some of our work includes preventing
re-infection, as well as working with people who may be positive but
who have not yet been tested.
✓ Researchers: Anyone who has conducted research on members of your pop-
ulation can help assemble people for interviews and focus groups,
which is particularly helpful if you have limited funding. In addition,
researchers can assist in developing evaluation tools and interpreting the
information you gather. Valuable research comes not only from people
who have worked directly on HIV issues, but also from psychological,
behavioral and marketing perspectives.
✓ Service Providers: People who do not plan programs but who are responsible for
administering services, such as teachers, ministers, medical professionals
and mental health care workers, can provide valuable insight on your target
population. They have practical experience on overcoming barriers and
solving problems related to your community.

What does the team do?

The program planning team looks at the detailed information about your target
audience and the problem you have defined. The team will determine why your
target audience con- tinues to engage in risky behavior or doesn’t access
services. They will analyze possible ways to address the problem and determine
which is most likely to succeed, as well as what is possible.

The key questions the team should answer include:

✓ Which high-risk segment of the target audience will be specifically targeted and how?
✓ Changing which behavior of the target audience will directly reduce its
risk of HIV transmission?
✓ What are the key factors affecting the behavior you wish to change?
✓ How will you influence these factors?
56
 Program
Development

What if I can’t pull together a whole team?

The main goal is to get a variety of perspectives. You should focus on meeting
with groups of people who don’t frequently work together or who come from
different backgrounds.
This will foster dynamic conversations, perhaps some conflicts — and the best
possible solutions. However, you can also simply consult people who offer
different perspectives, meeting with them individually and then assembling their
input later. Some people who don’t have time to participate as a team member
may have useful information in a written form that they are willing to send to
you. Others may have more than one perspective to offer. For example, one of
your clients may have planned programs before, or an outside program planner
may have experience gathering and interpreting research. Your primary job as
the key program planner is to get the support you need to assure that you can
successfully complete every step in this process.

Program-Planning Team
Who Tools They Will Bring to the Team Name
Program Knowledge of the target audience.
planners
Experience in community
programming. Knowledge of program
design in other communities and/or
about other relevant issues in the
target community.
Members of Own perspective. Personal insight into
the target target audience. Insight into potential
population response to programs.
Researchers Research-backed insight into
target audience. Experience
developing evaluation tools.
Service Hands-on experience providing
provider other services to target community.
s Insight into community needs.

Sometimes planners find themselves in situations where they are

responsible for doing everything from planning to fund-raising to
implementation, with a little client advocacy thrown in for good measure. In
other organizations, it is very clear which indi- vidual is responsible for the
different aspects of every program. In either case, you need to be able to
identify whom to include in the planning process to get the information and
support you need.

In certain situations, one person plays all the roles listed in the chart above.
In that case, it is critical to seek feedback from others and ask any questions
needed to obtain a

57
 full assessment of the problem. You may be surprised at the different
assumptions that un- derlie a person’s response based on background and area
of expertise. All these assump- tions are valuable and worth bringing to the
surface.

The chart below will help you identify where to go for the needed planning
perspec- tives, based on some “typical” patterns for agency growth and staffing
in most minority HIV/AIDS service organizations.

Where to Find the Key Players at Volunteer

Groups and Small, Medium and Large
Agencies
Volunte Small Mid-Sized Larger
er Organization: Organization: Organization:
Group:

All volunteer, One to five full-time Three to 20 full- Full-time staff of

small staff, all focused on time staff whose 15+; emphasis on
organization. program activities. roles are more de- centralization,
specialized; staff
emphasis on cen- empowerment.
tralization.

Progra Ad-hoc Program Staff Program Manager Program Director

m Program
Planner Committee
(all volunteers)
Financi Ad-hoc Program Supervisor Office/ Program Director
al Program Finance with support tools
Expert Committee Manager provided by
(all volunteers) Finance Director
or Finance
Director
w/support/ input
from Program
Director

Grant Writer Ad-hoc Fund- Program Supervisor Program Program Director

raising Committee Manager. and/or with support pro-
and/or (hired) (hired) Grant vided by
Grant Writer Writer Develop- ment
Director, or
Development
Direc- tor with
support/ input
from Program
Director
58
UNIT 6:
Program Design

Purpose:
This unit details the characteristics of an effective program
design. Program design includes development of major
programmatic efforts, activities and services to be
implemented, and a work plan of the project-specific
objectives and key action steps.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Explain why program design is integral to overall program

planning.
✓ Describe the major components of an action plan.
✓ Describe your interventions, outline the services that
comprise your intervention and present the activities you
will engage in to imple- ment the interventions.

✓ Describe how your interventions will be implemented and by

I. The Action Plan PROGRAM DESIGN
The road map of
your intervention
plan; it provides a

B efore implementing program activities, you need an action plan, which

is the sum- mary of what you and others will do to achieve your
objectives. It includes major
description of your
proposed inter-
vention, a
educational efforts and activities on state and local levels to help change
mechanism to tie
the situation you described in your needs assessment and to achieve the
process and out-
desired results/impact.
come objectives to
This is also referred to as the “program design.” In this section, you should:
your program
✓ Describe your intervention, outline the services that comprise your design, intervention
intervention and present in detail the activities you have chosen to action timelines,
implement. identification of
✓ Describe how your intervention will be implemented and by whom. needed collabora-
✓ Include a work plan with project-specific objectives and key action tions or
steps that are specific and measurable. At a minimum, the work partnerships, your
plan should include: plan for collabora-
– A problem statement tion, your evaluation
– Goals plan, a staffing and
– Objectives for each goal training plan, and
– Key action steps for each objective your proposed
– The people responsible for each action step budget.
– Target completion dates
– Methods for evaluating each objective SCOPE OF WORK
✓ Describe how and from where the participants will be recruited and Exhibits consisting of
enrolled in your project. process and
✓ Describe how you will keep participants engaged in your project. Will
outcome objectives,
you provide incentives? What kind? Why? How many? When? How?
a staffing plan, an
✓ Provide plans to resolve potential recruiting problems, including how
you intend to handle lack of participation.
✓ If you will exclude any individuals from participating in your project,
clearly de- scribe any “exclusionary criteria” and why you will use
them.
✓ Discuss how target population and community members were
involved in deter- mining which interventions are needed in the
community and how services were prioritized.
✓ Describe how members of the target population will have ongoing input into
project implementations and how they will participate in project activities and
leadership, which may include members of advisory boards or other groups.
✓ Describe how you will involve community members and leaders in your
project on an ongoing basis, and clearly describe any commitments from
them to provide ongoing support for your project.

In designing projects, use the following checklist to make sure your program:

✓ Describes educational methods, actions, events and activities.

✓ Relates events/activities to objectives and desired changes in clientele behavior.
✓ Includes innovative, stimulating and varied techniques.
✓ Provides opportunities for clientele to practice and use what they learn.

61
 ✓ Suits the participation and learning style of the target clientele.
✓ Reflects logical, sequential connections between events, each one building on another.
✓ Includes dates, time schedules and deadlines.
✓ Identifies the various responsibilities of staff members.
✓ Commits necessary resources and supports cooperation.
✓ Connects to other major programs and takes advantage of existing
OUTCOME OBJECTIVES planned events.
An important ✓ Includes plans for marketing and promoting the program.
program ✓ Provides opportunities for continual feedback as well as for
development compo- evaluation at key points.
✓ Is cost-effective.
nent where you
deter- mine 1) the
behavior changes
targeted by the
intervention, 2) the
number of
individuals with
behavior change in II. Program Design Planning
the desired direction,
3) how you will
measure this change,
4) the time- lines for An Intervention Description Worksheet (see below) serves as a guide for
the behavioral program im- plementation and as a needed source document for a grant
writer. In the sections that follow, you will design your intervention plan.
This plan provides a description of your
proposed intervention, a mechanism to tie process and outcome objectives to
your program design, intervention activities timelines, identification of needed
collaborations or partner- ships, the plan for collaboration, the evaluation plan,
staffing and training plan, and the pro- posed budget. These tools provide the
foundation for the essential components of your proposed program.

Intervention Description Worksheet

Design Objective

✓ What is a shorthand description/name for you intervention?

✓ Describe your intervention.
✓ How long will each intervention last?
✓ Where do you intend to offer the intervention?
✓ How will you document that you have completed the intervention?
✓ Will this intervention lead participants to utilize any other services at
the organi- zation? Which ones?

62
 Program
Development

✓ Will this intervention lead participants to utilize services at any other

organiza- tion? Which ones?
✓ What is the methodology and theory behind this intervention?
✓ What barriers/price/negative politics will this intervention overcome?
✓ What product benefits will this intervention promote?

Process Objective

✓ How many times will this intervention occur in one grant year?
✓ When will you begin offering this intervention?
✓ When will you complete this intervention?
✓ How many members of your target audience do you intend to
have attend each intervention?
✓ How many participants in total do you intend to have
participate in your intervention in one year?
✓ Who will be responsible for achieving this objective? (Give their
name and job title.)
✓ How will you document participation in this intervention?

Outcome Objective

✓ What behavioral change is the goal of the intervention?

✓ What about the behavior do you intend to change? (For example,
the number of people engaging in this behavior, the frequency that
an individual engages in this behavior.)
✓ How many people who participated in your intervention and then
engaged in the desired behavioral change would it take for the
outcome objective to be successful? (Give numbers or percentage
of total.)
✓ How will you measure this change? What evaluation tools will
you use? Against hat baseline will you measure your success?
✓ When will you complete this outcome objective?
✓ Who will be responsible for achieving this objective? (Give
their name and job title)

63
 III. Intervention Activities Timeline

For each intervention, write a timeline of the activities required to make it

happen. Include here formative research stages, recruitment, hiring, training,
materials development, etc. In- clude no more than one intervention per sheet.
(Note that this timeline layout is for one year, divided into four quarters.)

Intervention When?
Activity Person Responsible Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

9)

10)

64
 Program
Development

IV. Collaboration and Coordination

You may decide that your program can have greater impact by joining with other
groups or organizations having similar missions, goals and objectives. It is
important to understand the nature and extent of possible collaborations among
service providers. Collaborating/coordi- nating partners should first complete the
Agency Capability Assessment Questionnaire. This information should be
provided to your grant writer to the grant writer. You will also need to draw up a
Memorandum of Understanding (agreement of the actual grant application) be-
fore you begin the collaboration.

Agency Capacity Assessment Questionnaire

✓ What is the purpose of this collaboration?
✓ Who will be the contact person at the partner agency?
✓ Have these organizations collaborated or coordinated services
before? How and when?
✓ Why was this particular partner chosen for
collaboration/coordination on this program?
✓ What gaps in organizational resources will be filled by the
collaborating partner?
✓ Explain how the collaboration will work.
✓ Which objectives, interventions and/or activities will be jointly
developed, delivered and evaluated?
✓ What is the timeframe for this collaboration? Is it ongoing or
will the relationship have a beginning and an end?
✓ What staff, consultants or volunteers at each agency will work
together and how?
✓ How will this work be coordinated?
✓ If the partners are to share financial resources, what will be the
subcontract arrangements and amounts?
✓ How will the money be spent by the partner agency (personnel,
shared costs, direct program costs, agency overhead)?
✓ How will the shared staff be managed/supervised?

65
 V. Evaluation Plan

Complete one worksheet for each process objective and one worksheet for
each outcome objective.

Process Objective:

Question
(What question will your evaluation seek to answer?)

Data
(What kinds of data will be collected?)

Source
(At what points will data be collected?)

Collection Method
(What methods or instruments will be used to collect data?)

Baseline
(What comparison group or baseline will be used, if any?)

Success
(What result constitutes a successful outcome?)

Evaluator
(Who will conduct the evaluation?)

Use
(How will the evaluation data and results be used?)

Audience
(How will the results be reported and to whom?)

66
 Program
Development

VI. Staffing Plan

When developing your staffing plan, be specific about who is going to be in

charge of each part of the program you have designed. You should break down
the program into clear ele- ments, figure out how much time each step will take
and how much staff time you will need to get it running. You should create job
titles and descriptions and detail each person’s re- sponsibility for every element
of the program. This is also the time to start thinking about what skills are
needed in each job to make it successful.

Many people are hired because of their knowledge and/or relationship with
particular communities. While this works in many cases, there are times when it
is more important to hire people because of their skills, even if they have no
prior experience with the target community. It is important to identify this kind of
priority early because it will help you make decisions later about where to
advertise a job, how to list job requirements and how to de- scribe the job to
potential applicants. You should also try to anticipate potential disagree- ment
from the community you serve over hiring choices, especially when you select
applicants from outside your target audience.

You can also use information about skills and experience in the program
planning process to anticipate training needs, based on candidates’ experience
(or lack thereof). Training will probably cost money and certainly take some
time. You should factor this into your program’s timeline and budget.

Instructions: Complete the following information for each staffer

needed for the program. This includes people currently on staff who are
going to be working on the program and people who are going to be
hired. (All staff responsible for parts of a program should be included in a
program plan and a grant proposal).

✓ What is the job title for this position?

✓ If s/he is already on staff or if a candidate has already been
identified, fill in his/her name and attach resume.
✓ If it’s a staff position, is it full-time, three-quarter- time, half-time, other?
✓ If a consultant, how many hours worth of work will be needed?
✓ When will the consultant be involved in the program? (Give answer
in months or contract-year quarters.)
✓ If it’s a staff position, what is his/her annual salary?
✓ Briefly describe this person’s role in the program and the
amount of time per week s/he will devote to the task.
✓ What will be his/her primary responsibilities?
67
 ✓ With whom will s/he be working?
✓ Will s/he supervise anyone?
✓ Will s/he be responsible for any part of the coordinating or
collaborating relationships?
✓ What role will s/he play in evaluating the program?
✓ What qualifications are required or preferred for this hire?
✓ What types of training will the new staff member need to
succeed in this position?

VII. Budget

When you create an intervention activities plan and develop program objectives,
you gener- ate many numbers, such as the amount of time needed for a
workshop, the number of peo- ple you need to hire, how many people you expect
to reach, etc. Ask someone in the finance department to calculate the costs of
each of these steps and requirements as a basis for creating a budget.

Your accountant and program planner should talk through the budget for
every pro- posed program. The budget document will be used in grant
applications. It’s also a good idea to create a couple of different program
scenarios at different levels of funding, so you’ll be prepared if you don’t get all
the funding you apply for. You’ll also have more options if you have to apply to
several smaller funding sources to amass enough to create your pro- gram. Don’t
wait until after you’ve completed the plan and sold everyone on it to discover
there’s no way that you can reasonably do it or it doesn’t fit the grant proposal.

There may be items in your plan where you made assumptions that an
accountant can’t account for or doesn’t agree with. For example, if you say that a
staff member will handle a particular activity, are you assuming that you will hire
someone who is already trained to do that, or have you included time and money
in your plan for training? When you indicated you will conduct a workshop, did
you think about where the workshop would take place and whether you need to
include space rental costs in your budget? Did you calculate the amount of time
it would take someone to supervise staff? To complete a report? To meet with
collaborators? To develop a brochure?
68
 Program
Development

In determining your budget, you will have to take into consideration the
costs of pro- gram staff, consultant, intervention operations and program
capital costs. The worksheets below provide simple and easy-to-follow tables to
help you determine cost allocations for projected expenses.

Major components of your budget:

✓ Personnel costs
✓ Intervention operating costs
✓ Program capital costs
✓ Site and facilities costs

Personnel Costs

Instructions: List all direct program staff needed to implement your

program. You do not need to include supporting/shared staff (program
director, receptionist, etc.)

Full-Time
Title Equivalent (FTE) Salary Dates
1.

2.

3.

Shared
4. Program Director

5. Administrative Assistant

Shared Staffing Notes:

In the space below, indicate anything unusual about the
shared/supporting staff needs of your program (e.g., the receptionist will
be asked to schedule counselor appointments).

Consultants
List all consultants needed to implement your program

Number of
Title Hours/Days Rate Dates
1.
2.
3.

69
FTE Calculation
To verify that your estimated FTEs are sufficient to the program, use this
table to compare available hours needed.

Hours: Activity 1 +

Hours: Activity 2 +

Hours: Activity 3 +

Hours: Activity 4 +

Hours: Training +

Hours: Program Planning +

Total Hours Needed for

Program
Total Hours

Weekly hours x weeks (40 x 52 = -

20820)
Subtract Vacation Hours -
Days x hours (10 x 8 =
80)
Subtract Sick Hours -
Days x hours (12 x
8=72)
Subtract Holiday Hours -
Holiday x hours (9 x
8=72)
Subtract Staff Meetings -
Monthly hours x months (6 x 12 =
72)
Subtract Supervision Hours -
Weekly hours x weeks (1 x 50
= 50)
Total Hours Available for
Program
70
 Program
Development

Intervention Operating Costs

Direct Intervention Costs

Instructions: List all direct program costs needed to implement your

program (e.g., advertising, printing, food, travel, condoms). You do not
need to include supporting/shared costs (e.g. rent, general supplies).
Include only one intervention per worksheet.
Budget Category Item Name Cost Number

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Shared Cost Notes:

In the space below, indicate anything unusual about the space and/or
materials needs of your program (e.g., training sessions will be held for
100 participants — may need to rent space to accommodate). If no
notes are listed, the standard allocation rates will be applied.

71
 Program Capital Costs

Equipment Costs
List all new equipment needed to implement your program (e.g., computers)

Purpose/For
Item What Cost Number
Interventions?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Site and Facilities Costs:

Describe below any new site(s) and/or facilities the proposed program requires:

Note: If you want to create contingency budgets for various levels of

program activity, please use a separate worksheet for each level.

72
UNIT 7:
Program Implementation

Purpose:
This unit explains the procedures for carrying out program
tasks. Planning must include the development of procedures
that ensure the success of your activities when the
unexpected occurs. Key factors to be considered in program
implementation include the role
of the media, recruiting volunteers, implementing sound
management practices, supervising staff and volunteers,
establishing accountability mechanisms, and developing
collaborations.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Explain the importance of program implementation and

outline an implementation plan for a program.

✓ Identify the elements of program design that ensure

successful implementation of program activities and
explain why they are important.
I. Program Implementation

F or the program implementation, you must develop procedures for carrying out
tasks. By now, you should have determined the goals, objectives and activities
that your organiza-
tion will be implementing. You also should have identified and acquired the
necessary re- sources and your leadership structure should be in place. While it is
impossible to ensure that nothing will go wrong, you should have a reasonable
amount of assurance that every- thing will operate well. However, you should be
prepared for unforeseen flaws and for flukes to occur. Therefore, planning must
also include the development of procedures that ensure the success of your
activities when the unexpected occurs. Once you have secured commu- nity and
financial support, delegate tasks to ensure the program’s successful initiation
and establish a viable structure for its continued operation.

The following elements will help ensure the success of your program activities.

Conduct a Media Campaign

The media are a vast and powerful sector of industry that includes television,
radio, news- papers, magazines, other mass-circulation print vehicles and
outdoor advertising. For the HIV/AIDS-prevention public, information outreach
can include weekly shopper’s magazines, newsletters, business publications,
periodicals distributed by organizations, newsletters from major employers,
school/college newspapers and closed circuit television. It is important that you
establish a good working relationship with the media in your community, as this
is
a very effective way of reaching a large audience. Assign someone to work with
the press to ensure it receives a uniform message and image of your program.
Newspapers, radio and television stations are key resources for reaching a large
audience. It is your goal to present the best possible image to the media. We
recommend the following basic points:

Involve media professionals in planning your media campaign. Like other

people, they prefer to be involved from the beginning and to feel their opinions
are valued, not just the access they provide to media time and space.

✓ Develop a media contact list

✓ Establish a relationship with the media. Concentrate on those media
outlets your target population is most likely to see, hear or read.

Developing relationships with the media is labor intensive. Below are some
ways to enhance your effectiveness in working with the media.

✓ Start with a media plan that includes a variety of strategies.

✓ Respond quickly and competently to media queries and deadlines.
✓ Plan media activities over time, rather than doing just one event at a
time. This helps ensure that your message continuously garners
public support.

75
✓ Track media results; report successes and plans for improvement.
✓ Recognize the contributions of the media by sending letters, notes and e-mails.
✓ Be polite. Establish a rapport by talking with reporters on a first-name
basis. Keep in touch if possible.
✓ Be informative and accurate. Always strive to be truthful. Do not be
afraid to say, “I don’t know,” or “I will get back to you later with the
information.” If you make a mistake, correct it as soon as possible. Do
not blow up over minor typographical errors; however, significant errors
should be called to the attention of editors or reporters in a courteous
telephone call, meeting or letter.
✓ Be consistent. If you use a statistic once, do not contradict it later.
✓ Use every opportunity to make a positive point and tell reporters about
your organ- ization’s achievements.
✓ Keep to your message. Reporters are almost always on a tight deadline
and allocate only a few moments to listen to information about your
program. So it is important that your responses are definitive and positive.
Use secondary points or qualifications for the remainder of your answer.
✓ Be responsive. Print and broadcast deadlines must be met. Not meeting
media deadlines means not being included in a story and missing an
opportunity to present the mission of your organization to more people.

Recruit, Train and Support Volunteers

Good volunteers are hard to find. You should provide support for your volunteers
to pro- mote loyalty, dependability and dedication. You should provide them with
training, supplies, instructions and other support needed to do the job well. You
should make yourself avail- able to answer their questions and resolve problems.
Recognize the contributions of volun- teers. A personal thank-you or handwritten
note goes a long way. Whenever possible, use a public gesture such as an award
ceremony, a speech or a press release to say “thanks for a job well done.”
Volunteers should be made to feel that they are a part of the organization.
People are more likely to volunteer if they know:

✓ Their specific duties.

✓ The amount of time they must commit to the effort.
✓ The location of the job.
✓ The project goals and objectives.
✓ The training requirements and commitments.
✓ The travel requirements.

From your needs assessment, you have already determined the types of
programs required to accomplish your goals. To determine the number of
volunteers needed, you should list your program activities and identify the
number of people needed to carry out each task. Create a recruitment plan and
develop a written volunteer job description.
76
 Program
Development

Implement Sound Management Practices

There are some basic management principles for success. These include:

✓ Strengthen systems and processes. View your organization as a

collection of inter- dependent systems and processes. Appropriate
staffing, equipment and funding are necessary to provide quality services.
Good supervision is important for the success of your program. Managers
should understand how problems occur and how to handle them, thus
strengthening the organization as a whole.
✓ Encourage staff participation and teamwork. Identifying and solving
problems is not just a job for managers and supervisors. Every employee
should be a part of
the team and empowered to work toward recommending improvements and
solving problems.
✓ Improve communication and coordination. All staff members, including volunteers,
should work together to improve quality by sharing information freely
and coordi- nating their activities.
✓ Demonstrate leadership commitment. When leaders are committed to good
quality, employees accept it as a guiding principle for their own work.

Supervise Staff and Volunteers

You must always provide supervision to ensure implementation of all services. A
good supervisor

✓ Listens to employee concerns, complaints and suggestions.

✓ Communicates to employees using clear, concise and consistent messages.
✓ Respects employees and never belittles, talks down to, berates or mistreats them.
✓ Holds staff responsible for the work they do and the way they behave by
providing adequate supervision to ensure implementation of all
directives.

Emphasize Accountability
Accountability is a very important element — and this includes financial
accountability. You should have in place a mechanism to plan for
troubleshooting and for resolving crises and disputes.

Foster Collaboration
There is real value in developing partnerships with local and state providers
of services and communities. Successful programs take on the daunting task
of communicating, collaborating and cooperating with other providers in the
community. This task requires cultural sensitivity, competency, respect and
much time. Productive collaborations can
77
 lend strength to your program, which can sometimes mean the difference
between success and failure. Successful collaborations:

✓ Facilitate strategic planning.

✓ Help prevent duplication of cost and effort.
✓ Maximize scarce resources.
✓ Integrate diverse perspectives to foster appreciation and understanding of
the commu- nity.
✓ Provide comprehensive services based on client needs.
✓ Increase clients’ accessibility to health services.
✓ Provide a liaison for clients unwilling to seek services from government organizations.

Many factors influence the success of collaborative efforts. The following

factors are necessary for successful collaborations:

✓ Mutual respect, trust, purpose and understanding.

✓ Appropriate representation from all affected segments of the population.
✓ Member buy-in and ownership in the development and outcome of the process.
✓ Constant and ongoing communication among members.

Tips for Program Contents

✓ Provide educational awareness on the problems of HIV/AIDS as it relates to
youth and young adults in the community.
✓ Provide activities for youth who may otherwise be engaging or
experimenting in unpro- tected sexual behaviors.
✓ Provide referrals and support services for residents affected by the HIV/AIDS virus.
✓ Offer training for professionals, paraprofessionals or volunteers associated
with identify- ing dysfunctional.

Source: Public Management Institute, 358 Brannan Street, San Francisco, CA 94107, (415) 896-1900.

78
UNIT 8:
Evaluation

Purpose:
This unit explains how to evaluate and assess programs.
Evaluation is designed to verify, document and quantify
activities and their efforts. This unit offers a four-step
approach to evaluation that includes identifying goals and
desired outcomes and conducting process assessment,
outcome evaluation and impact assessments.

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

✓ Explain program evaluation and describe how it is

useful in making programmatic decisions about a
program.

✓ Describe the purposes of conducting evaluations and

explain how each purpose can impact a program.

✓ Explain impact assessment and identify the areas

where one would be likely to have an impact in an
AIDS/HIV- and other sexually transmitted disease-
prevention program.
T his unit offers program planners information about evaluating and assessing
their com- munity program using a straightforward, four-step approach.
Evaluation addresses the
following questions:

✓ What do we want to accomplish?

✓ What are we doing to accomplish it?
✓ What have we accomplished?
✓ What are we trying to change?
✓ How will we know whether we are successful?

Program evaluation is not designed to be judgmental or to assess personal

competence or individual performance. In general, evaluation is designed to
verify, document and quan- tify activities and their effects. Often, although
program staff believes that a program works because common sense shows it to
be successful and they’ve watched it succeed, it’s im- portant to go by more than
just anecdotal evidence of success. Instead, use the structured steps outlined
below to:

✓ Verify. Often “common sense” turns out to be wrong. There are many
cases where what initially seems to make a lot of sense may not in fact be
the case when you get it down in black and white.
✓ Document. Whether it is to funding agencies, other practitioners in the area
or lay audi- ences, documentation provides evidence of accomplishments and
results.
✓ Quantify. While you may have some general knowledge of what is going
on, it is important to use numbers for support if you’re trying to show that
there is a problem.

For example, you may know there is a problem with AIDS/HIV in the
community but not know exactly how many people are infected with the
DATA CODING
virus. Surveying commu- nity residents using a sexual-behavior
questionnaire would provide the information you need to verify, document Collating
and quantify community sexual behavior. information,
ensuring that it is
Evaluation is labor-intensive. It is critical that you create a step-by-step accurate and trans-
work plan for conducting the evaluation. At a minimum, an evaluation of a lating collected
community program will require that the following functions be performed: data for analysis.

✓ Evaluation Planning: Formulating the overall evaluation instruments. DATA ANALYSIS

✓ Data Collection: Administering questionnaires, conducting interviews,
observing program operations or reviewing or entering data from Conducting statistical
existing data sources. analysis.
✓ Data Coding: Collating the information, ensuring that it is accurate
and translat- ing collected data for analysis.
✓ Data Analysis: Conducting statistical analysis.

Evaluation is the systematic collection and analysis of data needed to make

decisions, a process in which most well-managed programs engage from the
outset. Evaluation of HIV/AIDS-prevention education can identify program
effects, help staff and others find out whether their programs have an impact on
participants’ knowledge or attitudes about HIV/AIDS, forestall participants’
indulgence in unprotected sex, or reduce the incidence of HIV/AIDS infection.

81
I. Conducting Evaluations

Evaluations serve many purposes. The most common reasons for program
evaluation include:

✓ Project management. Administrators are often most interested in keeping

track of pro- gram activities and documenting the nature and extent of
services delivered. Evaluation can provide program staff or administrators
with information such as participant charac- teristics, program activities and
allocation of staff resources in program cost. Analyzing information of this
type helps staff make short-term corrections to the direction of planned
future programs.
✓ Staying on track. Evaluation can help to ensure that program activities
continue to re- flect program plans and goals. This type of evaluation can
help strengthen service deliv- ery and maintain the connection between
program goals, objectives and service.
✓ Project efficiency. Increased efficiency can enable a program to serve
more people, offer more services or target services to those whose needs are
greatest. Evaluation can help streamline service delivery or enhance
coordination among various program com- ponents, lowering the cost of
services.
✓ Project accountability. Evaluation for accountability involves evaluation
results from outside of program operations. The methods used in
accountability evaluation must be scientifically defensible.
✓ New program development and dissemination. Evaluating new
approaches is very important to program development. Developers of new
programs need to conduct methodological evaluations of their efforts
before making claims to potential users.

The Evaluation Process

1. Identify goals and desired outcomes: What were

the primary goals of the project? What did you
hope to accomplish?

The primary goals of your program(s), such as increasing knowledge about

HIV/AIDS or in- creasing community involvement, should target identified
populations. Important questions you should consider include:

✓ Whom are you trying to reach (e.g., teachers, minorities, parents, general public)?
✓ What outcomes are desired?
✓ What do you hope to accomplish?
82
 Program
Development

2. Conduct process assessment: What did you do?

PROCESS
In this step, describe the activities undertaken to accomplish an objective ASSESSMENT
or to bring about the desired outcome. A description of
the activities
Purposes of process assessment
under-
✓ Monitoring your activities helps organize program efforts. taken to accomplish
– It helps prevent parts of the planned program from being an objective or to
forgotten or neg- lected. bring about a
– It helps the program use resources where they are needed (for desired outcome.
example, not spending most of the money on only one activity or
target group).
– It provides information to help manage the program and change
or add to activities.
✓ The information in a process assessment provides data for accountability to any parties
interested in your efforts (e.g., administration, funding sources).
✓ A process assessment provides information relevant to why the program
worked or did not work. By providing information on what was done and who
was reached, you may discover reasons for achieving outcomes or for failing
to achieve them.
✓ A process assessment can help you decide whether you are ready to assess
the effects of your program. For example, if a program has existed for only
a short time and you have implemented only the first activity of a seven-
activity program, it is unlikely that successful outcomes would be reached.
Therefore, it may be premature to assess the outcomes of your program.

A process assessment centers around two related sets of issues: target

groups and the intended and actual activities of the program.

Target groups. Key questions addressed include: Who were the

intended target groups? Were they prioritized in any way?

Activities. There are also important questions that need to be asked about
the activi- ties, such as:

✓ Who was supposed to do what to whom, and when was it to be done?

✓ What about the staff that delivers the services? How many staff members?
Which staff? What kinds of qualifications and training do they need to carry
out the services?
✓ What is the staff is asked to do (e.g., hold classes, show movies, model behavior)?
✓ Who are the target groups (e.g., male students, teachers) of the activity?
✓ When and where will the activity occur (e.g., during school assemblies, after school)?

The more clearly these questions are answered, the more useful the process
assessment will be. Information or data should be collected to answer the
following questions:

✓ What activities were included in the program?

✓ How many activities were carried out, and with which target audiences?
✓ Who was missing?
83
 ✓ What topics were presented?
✓ What activities or topics were not carried out?
✓ What did the participants think of the program and its activities? Was it
interesting, use- ful or a waste of time?

3. Conduct an outcome assessment:. What were the

immediate effects of a program?

Often, the “bottom line” of program assessment is what the effects of a program were.
There are two types of assessment related to effects. Outcome assessment
looks at the short-term effects. Impact assessment looks at the long-term
or ultimate effects. Out- come assessment is concerned with measuring the
OUTCOME
immediate effects of a program on the recipients of service. It attempts to
ASSESSMENT
determine the direct effects of the program, such as the degree to which
Analysis used to the program increased knowledge about HIV/AIDS.
deter- mine the
effects of a program; You should ask, “What identifying evidence is involved regarding the
primarily con- cerned extent to which the outcomes were achieved?” Evidence includes changes
with the effects of a in the number of re- ferrals, an increase in the number of students attending
program on the an activity, and increased pub- licity about the dangers of HIV/AIDS and
recipients of service. other sexually transmitted diseases.
Outcome measures should be closely linked to objectives.
ARCHIVAL DATA
There are several potential sources of information you can use for an
Data that have
outcome as- sessment:
been collected, such
as med- ical records, ✓ Questionnaire. Questionnaires are commonly used to measure
school grades and outcomes, but the questions used must be chosen with care. For
school at- tendance standardized instruments, the reliability coefficient is an index of stability
and consistency. A reliability coefficient
can range from 0 to 1.0. The higher the value of the reliability coefficient,
the more stable the measure. Generally, a reliability coefficient between
0.6 and 0.9 is con-
sidered good. If a commonly used measure is available for an objective that
you want to measure and it has acceptable reliability and validity, then it is
usually better to use that measure than to make up one of your own. Other
sources of data for outcome assess- ment include archival data and ratings by
others.
✓ Archival data. Archival data is information that has been collected, such as medical
records, school grades and school attendance records.
✓ Ratings by others. For certain purposes, it may be useful to obtain
information about a participant from other sources, such as ratings of a child
by a parent or ratings of stu- dents by teachers. Permission from the
individual to be rated may need to be obtained.

4. Conduct an impact assessment

Impact assessment concerns the ultimate effects desired by a program. In

AIDS/HIV and other sexually transmitted disease prevention programs, the
ultimate effects (or the areas one would like to impact) include: reduction in
numbers of STDs (prevalence), reduction in the rate of needle-sharing among
 active drug users (incidence), and increase in the number of clients seeking
HIV/AIDS counseling.

84
 Program
Development

Types of Questions Asked in a

Process, Outcome or Efficiency
Evaluation
Process Evaluation Questions

✓ How many awareness sessions did the program offer participants last year?
✓ How many staff members did you train to implement HIV/AIDS
awareness/ prevention education?
✓ With how many other groups are we collaborating on our program?

Outcome Evaluation Questions

✓ How effective is the HIV/AIDS educational awareness program in

keeping participants from engaging in unprotected sex?
✓ Are fewer women engaging in risky behaviors (e.g., alcohol or
drug use) related to AIDS/HIV?

Efficiency Evaluation Questions

✓ Which strategy is most cost-efficient: AIDS/HIV educational and

information awareness, condom distribution to at-risk populations
or peer-to-peer counseling?
✓ Which program — peer-to-peer or adult-taught refusal-skills
training — results in the greatest reduction in risky sexual
behaviors?

Real

Place an O by the outcome question(s) and an E by the Efficiency question(s).

1. Does participation in our peer-counseling program reduce the

reported unprotected sexual behaviors?

2. Which recruitment approach yields at the least cost the most

volunteers to work on the crisis hotline?

3. Did radio advertising and community flyers do the best job of

advertising our community drug-free day?

4. Overall, how valuable was the HIV/AIDS education training

experience to you?
85
 II. Helpful Tools

Maintaining Confidentiality
Collecting data from human subjects can be a very sensitive matter, so it is
essential that your program implement measures to ensure confidentiality for
participants. Organizations that use federal funds to collect information directly
from children must obtain parental con-
sent. Informed consent ensures that a person is aware of what information
is being collected and gives his or her permission for it to be part of the
DATA COLLECTION
data collection.
Administering
ques- tionnaires, What risk to subjects can arise when you evaluate a program? First,
conducting there is the risk that damaging information about individuals may become
interviews, known to project staff or even made known publicly. There is the risk that
observing program information that was supposed to be held in confidence may be used in
operations, or ways that hurt individuals or groups of respon- dents. There is also the risk
reviewing or that some respondents may react poorly to questioning.
entering data from
The best way to protect evaluation subjects is to ensure them
anonymity by not obtaining any identifying information during data
collection. This approach has the added benefit of decreasing the
chances that respondents will give inaccurate an-
swers. From the evaluator’s standpoint, it is better to promise confidentiality.
This means that each respondent is assigned a number that is used in data
collection.

Assurance of Confidentiality of Survey Data

Statement of Policy

is firmly committed to the principle that the confidentiality

of indi- vidual data obtained through surveys must be projected. This principle
holds whether or not any specific guarantee of confidentiality was given at the
time of interview (or self-response), or whether or not there are specific
contractual obligations.

Procedures for maintaining confidentiality:

✓ All employees involved in surveys or evaluations shall sign this assurance of confidentiality.
✓ Employees shall keep completely confidential the names of respondents, all
information or opinions collected in the course of interviews, and any
information about respon- dents learned incidentally during data collection.
Employees shall exercise reasonable caution to prevent access by others to
survey data in their possession.
✓ Survey data containing personal identifiers shall be kept in a locked container
or a locked room when not being used each working day in routine survey
 activities. Reason- able caution shall be exercised in limiting access to survey
data to only those persons who are working on the specific project and who
have been instructed in the applicable confidentiality requirements for that
project.

86
 Program
Development

✓ Ordinarily, serial numbers shall be assigned to respondents prior to creating

a machine- created record, and identifiers such as name, address and Social
Security number shall not, ordinarily, be a part of the machine record.
✓ When records with identifiers are to be transmitted to another party, such as
for key punching or key taping, the other party shall be informed of these
procedures and shall sign a form assuring confidentiality.
✓ At the end of the period of performance, the evaluation director shall
arrange for proper storage or disposition of survey data, including any
particular requirements for storage disposition.

Pledge

I hereby certify that I have carefully read and will cooperate fully with the above
procedures. I will keep completely confidential all information arising from
surveys concerning individual respondents to which I gain access. I will not
discuss, disclose, disseminate or provide ac- cess to survey data and identifiers
except as authorized. I will devote my best efforts to en- sure that there is
compliance with the required procedures by personnel whom I supervise. I
understand that violation of the privacy rights of individuals through such
unauthorized discussion, disclosure, dissemination or access may make me
subject to criminal or civil penalties. I give my personal pledge that I shall abide
by this assurance of confidentiality.

Signature:

Source: Muraskin, L. Understanding Evolution: The Way To Better Prevention Programs, 1993.

Sample Scoring Sheet

This sheet can be used to assess the completeness of your program
development efforts.

Section/Rating Point Scor

Criteria s e
✓ Cover Letter 0 ❏ Check if
✓ Summary of Abstract 5 okay

❏ Does the summary clearly

identify the applicant(s)?
❏ Does it include information
regarding the specific need(s) to be
addressed and the specific
objective(s) to be achieved?
❏ Does it mention the total project
cost and the amount of funding that
is being requested?
87
Section/Rating Criteria Points Score

✓ Applicant Capability 30
❏ Does the Applicant credibly state
its purpose, programs, target
populations and major
accomplishments?
❏ Does there appear to be credible
community support for the
proposed program?
❏ Does the Applicant appear
well- managed and fiscally
secure?

✓ Target Population and Problem 15

❏ Does the Applicant provide solid
evidence supporting its claims
about the nature, size and scope
of the problem to be addressed?
❏ Does the Applicant describe a
compelling problem that
matches the priorities of the
RFP?
❏ How well does the Applicant
appear to know the target
population and the specific
behaviors and co-factors that put
it at risk?
✓ Needs Assessment 30
❏ Is the described need supported
by the target population profile
and problem statement?
❏ Does the described need have a
clear relationship to the
Applicant’s mission and goals?
❏ Does the proposed project meet
the described need in a
meaningful way?
❏ Does the needs assessment specify
what portion of the defined gap in
services the project will fill?
❏ Does the needs assessment
adequately specify what approaches
the Applicant will take to overcome
any barriers to access?
88
 Program
Development

Section/Rating Criteria Points Score

✓ Goals and Objectives 10

Does the goal statement:
❏ Directly relate to HIV prevention?
❏ Reflect the funder’s program
goals and priorities?
Are the objectives:
❏ Specific and measurable? (Can they
be quantified? Can they be measured?)
❏ Appropriate and realistic? (Do
they address an identified need?
Can it be accomplished?)
❏ Time-phased? (Do they specify a
target date for completion?)
✓ Program Plan 40
❏ Do the interventions discussed in
the proposal derive logically from
the needs assessment?
❏ Is it clear which intervention
is associated with which
process and outcome
objectives?
❏ Is it clear how the proposed
inter- ventions will change
audience behaviors or
address one or more of their
educational needs?
❏ Is it clear who will perform
specific activities and when
they will be performed?
❏ Given projected resources, are
the proposed activities
feasible?
✓ Staffing and Organization Plan 10
❏ Is the staffing plan realistic given
the objectives and program plan?
Are the FTEs and salary ranges
reasonable?
❏ Does the Applicant currently have
the staff resources to successfully
implement the project? If not, will it
be able to hire the needed staff?
89
Section/Rating Criteria Points Score

❏ Are the division of responsibilities and

lines of supervision clearly defined?
❏ Are the responsibilities and
qualifications of all project positions
clearly defined? Do they correspond to
the activities outlined in the program
and evaluation plans?
❏ Are the training needs of staff
clearly defined and adequately
addressed?
❏ Are the roles of consultants and
volunteers involved in the project
clearly specified?
✓ Evaluation 20
❏ Does the evaluation plan clearly
describe how the accomplishment
of each process and outcome
objective will be measured?
❏ Does the evaluation section state
what information will be collected
in the evaluation process and how
it will be collected?
❏ Does the evaluation plan state
who will be responsible for
collecting the data and who will
interpret it?
❏ Does the evaluation plan discuss
how the information and
conclusions will be used to
improve the program?
✓ Budget Justification 0
❏ Does the budget reflect the
objectives and overall scope of work?
Is it realistic? Are cost-per-unit of
service or cost-per- client estimates
in line with the RFP guidelines?
❏ Do expenses seem reasonable? Are the
justifications and formulas clear?
❏ Do the budgeted shared and
overhead costs seem reasonable?
❏ What does the budget say about the
fiscal and administrative capacity of
the Applicant?

TOTAL 200
90
 Program
Development

Answers to the Pre-training Assessment

The following answers to the Pre-training Assessment are designed to provide a
brief reca- pitulation of the material in this manual.

Post-training Assessment
1. True Fals The first step in planning a needs assessment is to
e decide who will conduct the study.
2. True Fals A needs assessment identifies the extent and type of
e existing problems in your community and the services
available.
3. True Fals Outside consultants are the only ones capable of
e performing a needs assessment.
4. True Fals Collecting data on historical development helps you
e understand your community’s growth patterns and
population distribution.
5. True Fals Demographic data includes information such as age,
e character- istics, size, and race.
6. True Fals A needs assessment determines whether resources are
e adequate.
7. True Fals Dividing the responsibilities in creative ways may help in
e performing a cost-effective needs assessment.
8. True Fals One of the disadvantages in using volunteers to
e help with needs assessments is that they may
present a biased inter- pretation of what the
community needs.
9. True Fals A profile of the population you intend to serve should be
e included in the needs assessment.
10. True Fals A needs assessment is an essential part of the planning
e process when designing successful community
initiatives.
91
 APPENDIX A:
Glossary

Action plan: The summary of what you and others in your organization will do
to achieve your objectives.

Archival data: Data that have been collected, such as medical records, school
grades and school attendance records.

Budget: Exhibits that provide justification for all subcontract expenses, listed by line item.

Capability statement: A measure of your organization’s ability to achieve its

mission, goals and objectives.

Community forums: A means of collecting information about the needs of the

community through a series of public meetings. They may rely on information
from both key informants and people in the general population.

Data analysis: Conducting statistical analysis.

Data coding: Collating information, ensuring that it is accurate and translating

collected data for analysis.

Data collection: Administering questionnaires, conducting interviews,

observing program operations, or reviewing or entering data from existing
sources.

Donors: Groups or organizations that provide an additional source of funding

and other resources for your program and may including foundations; local,
state and federal organi- zations; and individuals.

Evaluation: The systematic collection and analysis of data needed to make

decisions. Program evaluation provides information needed to determine the
effectiveness of a project for participants, documents that objectives have been
met, provides information about service delivery that will be useful to staff and
other audiences, and enables staff to make changes that improve program
effectiveness.
501(c)(3): The section of the US tax code that defines nonprofit, charitable and
tax-exempt organizations; 501(c)(3) organizations are further defined as public
charities, private operat- ing foundations and private nonprofit foundations.

93
Goal: The final outcome of a long period of activity. Goals describe how the
program will affect the target population and should be SMART (specific,
measurable, achievable, realistic and time-framed.

Grant: A financial assistance award made to an organization in the name of a

principal investigator to assist the organization in conducting research or other
programs as specified in an approved proposal. A grant — as opposed to a
cooperative agreement — is used whenever the awarding office anticipates no
substantial programmatic involvement with
the recipient during the performance of the activities.

Grassroots fund-raising: Efforts to raise money on a broad basis from

individuals or groups from the local community. Usually an organization’s own
constituents — people who live in the neighborhood served by or are clients of
the agency’s services — are the sources of these funds. Grassroots fund-raising
activities include membership drives, raffles, auctions, benefits and a range of
other activities.

Implementation plan: A step in program planning where you describe the

methods that will be used to achieve objectives.

Intervention: A collection of activities that make up a program, such as a

workshop, a video, a stage show or one-on-one counseling sessions.

Interview: A conversation between two (or occasionally more) individuals in

which one party attempts to gain information from the other(s) by asking a
series of questions.

Key informant survey: A research activity that seeks information from those
who are not participants in the service delivery system but who represent and
speak for various con- stituencies in the community, such as clergymen, elected
officials, advisory group members and commissioners.

Leadership: The process by which an individual causes a group to follow and

accomplish certain objectives.

Mission statement: A sentence that states the fundamental guide for all
future program- development decisions and includes: the purpose or needs
your group will address, the business of your group, your guiding values, and
who will benefit from your work.

Needs assessment: An appraisal to determine what programs and services

your community needs. It provides planners with the information required to
prioritize goals according to those identified needs.

Objective: A specific accomplishment to be achieved during a given period of time.

An objective helps attain goals by translating a general purpose into a series of
specific, manageable steps.

Outcome assessment: Analysis used to determine the effects of a

program; primarily concerned with the effects of a program on the recipients
of service.
94
 Program
Development

Outcome objectives: An important program development component where

you deter- mine 1) the behavior changes targeted by the intervention, 2) the
number of individuals with behavior change in the desired direction, 3) how you
will measure this change,
4) the timelines for the behavioral change, and 5) who will be responsible for
achieving the objective.

Process assessment: A description of the activities undertaken to accomplish

an objective or to bring about a desired outcome.

Program design: The road map of your intervention plan; it provides a

description of your proposed intervention, a mechanism to tie process and
outcome objectives to your program design, intervention action timelines,
identification of needed collaborations or partnerships, your plan for
collaboration, your evaluation plan, a staffing and training plan, and your
proposed budget.

Program development: An ongoing, comprehensive planning process used to

establish programs supported by a well-thought-out and -documented plan of
action.

Program implementation: The stage in program planning where you develop

procedures for carrying out tasks.

Program planners: Members of your staff and volunteers who help to develop programs.

Program planning: A strategy that involves identifying goals and objectives,

conducting a needs assessment to analyze the situation, setting priorities
based upon the identified needs, identifying stakeholders and resources,
designing an action plan, implementing the plan, and assessing the level of
achievement.

Questionnaire: A list of questions to be asked.

Request for Proposal (RFP): When the government issues a new contract or
grant pro- gram, it sends out RFPs to agencies that might be qualified to
participate. The RFP lists project specifications and application procedures.
Although an increasing number of foun- dations use RFPs in specific fields, most
still prefer to consider proposals that are initiated by applications.

Scope of work: Exhibits consisting of process and outcome objectives, a

staffing plan, an evaluation plan and a collaboration management plan, and
organizational capability.

Service providers: People who are responsible for administering services in

your community.

Service provider survey: A survey of those who actually provide services to

a population in your community.

Social indicators: An approach to data collection that relies on inferences,

estimates of need drawn from descriptive data found in public records, and
reports such as crime statistics, employment, poverty indicators and health
status.

95
 Statement of the problem: A component of a proposal where you
document need and provide detailed information on your target community
and its unmet need.

Survey: Research technique based on a collection of data from a sample or the

entire population of a community. This approach is designed to obtain
information from respon- dents about their needs

96
 APPENDIX B:
Frequently Asked Questions

1. What is program development?

Program development is an ongoing, comprehensive planning process used to
establish programs. Quality program development is supported by a well-
thought-out and -docu- mented plan of action. Program development provides
a step-by-step process that will enable you to understand what a program is
designed to do, what steps are required to design the program, what
resources are required to implement your plans and what measures can be
used to determine whether you have successfully achieved your goals.
Program development is essentially a road map, an action plan that provides
the guid- ance needed to develop and build good community programs. As an
action plan, pro- gram development is an ongoing and continuous process.

2. What is program planning?

In program planning, we identify major needs, set objectives, establish
priorities and generally chart a direction for growth and development.
Program planning also allows us to identify shortcomings and weaknesses
and chart a new course of action should pri- orities and needs change. Not
only does the planning process allow us to keep track of where we have need,
it also continues to guide us in the direction we should be going. It tells us
where we intend to go next. Equally important in the program planning
process is the need to identify stakeholders and develop a sense of mutual
ownership in successful goal achievement and outcomes.

3. Who should be on a program planning team?

Every perspective is valuable, but too many people can make it difficult to
focus. Choose your team carefully. Try to achieve a diversity of voices, all
working toward the same goal of helping your planners, members of the
target population, researchers and service providers.

4. What does the program planning team do?

The program planning team looks at all the details of your target audience
and the problem you have defined. It determines why your target audience
either continues to engage in risky behavior or why it doesn’t access
services. The team examines possible ways to address the problem and
determines which is most likely to succeed, as well as what is really possible.
Key questions to be answered by the team include:
✓ Which high-risk segment of the target audience will be specifically targeted
and how?

97
 ✓ Changing which behavior of the target audience will directly reduce
their risk of HIV transmission?
✓ What are the key factors affecting the behavior we wish to change?
✓ How will we influence these factors?

The planning process is needed to build a foundation for decision-making in

setting program priorities and using resources. By necessity, it involves
gathering the data, analyzing and interpreting the data, identifying
community needs and assets, selecting critical community needs and
concerns and communicating the results. Members of planning groups are
expected to follow a logical method to determine their highest priority.
Planning should reflect an open, candid and participatory process that
focuses on priorities and is responsive to community needs.

5. What are the steps in the program development process?

The steps in the program development process are: 1) the needs
assessment, 2) mis- sion, goals and objectives statements, 3) resource
identification, 4) assigning leadership tasks, 5) developing program design, 6)
developing a plan for implementation, and
7) completing the program evaluation.

6. What is a needs assessment?

A needs assessment determines what programs and services your
community needs. This assessment is an essential part of the planning
process when designing successful community initiatives. It also provides
planners with the information needed for priori- tizing goals according to
identified needs. The needs assessment determines:
✓ What needs exist in the community.
✓ Which group (who) needs the services.
✓ What other programs and services already exist to address the problem.
✓ How the user community is changing.
✓ Whether resources are adequate.

7. How do I determine the best approach to use in conducting a needs

assessment? Several approaches can be used to collect the information
needed in the needs assessment. These approaches are summarized below:
✓ Community forums and hearings: This approach is designed around a series
of public meetings and relies on information from key informants and
individuals within the general population. Some advantages of this
approach include its low cost and short time requirement. It also offers
a way to educate the public about your proposed services and allows
citizen input into the formulation of strategies and services.
✓ Social indicator: This approach is based on inferences, estimates of need drawn
from descriptive data found in public records, and reports such as crime
statistics, employment and disease status. The approach is often used
because it makes use of a vast pool of existing data, is low-cost and has
a flexible design.
✓ Service provider survey: This approach targets those who actually provide
services to a particular population in your community.
98
 Program
Development

✓ Key informant surveys: This approach collects information from

those who are not participants in the service-delivery system but who
represent and speak for various constituencies in the community, such
as elected officials, advisory group members and commissioners.
✓ Survey: This approach is based on a collection of data from a sample or
entire population of a community and is designed to elicit from
respondents information about their needs.

8. How do I write a mission statement?

The program mission provides the fundamental guide for all future
program develop- ment decisions. The mission statement must be written
such that it reflects the ideals of the people working in and for the
organization. It should state the organization’s name, the fact that it is a
nonprofit, the type of organization, what it does, where and for whom.
Effective mission statements have four parts: 1) the purpose or needs that
the group addresses, 2) the business of the group, 3) guiding values, and
4) who will benefit from its work.

9. What is the role of a good leader?

A working leadership is the process by which an individual causes a group to
follow and accomplish specific objectives. There are many factors that
influence good leader- ship. A good leader must be committed to achieving
the goals of the organization.
He or she must be able to guide and inspire others. A good leader must also
have strong communication and listening skills, because the group’s mission
must be clearly communicated in order to garner support and funding. A
leader must be able to tell the group exactly what is needed, including
detailing goals and objectives. A good leader is able to listen to the group’s
feedback and is open to new ideas. Good leader- ship requires constant
attention to a number of difficult issues.

10.How do I raise money for new equipment?

Most donors (foundations, corporations and individuals) are not really
interested in the needs of the organization, but in meeting the needs of the
community the organization serves. So when you ask for funding, emphasize
that the new equipment will benefit those you serve and explain how it will
accomplish this.

11.What is a foundation?
A foundation is an entity that is established as a nonprofit corporation or
charitable trust, with the principal purpose of making grants to unrelated
organizations or institu- tions or to individuals for scientific, educational,
cultural, religious or other charitable purposes. This broad definition
encompasses two foundation types: private foundation and public
foundations. The most common distinguishing characteristic of a private
foundation is the fact that most of its funds come from one source, be it an
individual, family or corporation. A public foundation, by contrast, normally
receives its assets from multiple sources, which may include private
foundations, individuals, government agen- cies and fees for service.
Moreover, a public foundation must continue to seek money from diverse
sources in order to retain its public status.

99
12.Where can I find information about government grants?
The following is a list of publications and websites that are useful in seeking
govern- ment funding:
✓ FirstGov (www.firstgov.gov) is the first-ever government Web portal to provide
the public with easy, one-stop access to all online US federal government
resources, including government grants information.
✓ The Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance (www.cfda.gov) is a searchable
database of information about federal assistance programs.
✓ Notices of Funding Availability appear in the Federal Register,
printed each business day by the US government, and are available
for online searching. You can search by broad subject categories or
by agency at www.ntia.doc.gov.
✓ The National Endowment for the Arts (www.nea.gov) supports
learning in all areas of the arts.
✓ The National Endowment for the Humanities
(www.neh.fed.us) supports learning in all areas of the
humanities.
✓ The U.S. Department of Agriculture Nonprofit Gateway
(www.usda.gov/ nonprofit.htm) includes links to federal websites
and information about grant programs, sorted by cabinet department
and federal agency. Visitors can also use this portal to search Notices
of Funding Availability in the Federal Register.
✓ Community of Science (COS) Funded Research Database
(www.cos.com) allows you to search grants made by the National
Institutes of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), US
Department of Agriculture (USDA), Small Business Innovation Research
(SBIR) and the Medical Research Council (MRC) in a variety of ways.
You can search grants by key word, geography, institutional recipient,
award amount, date, agency, investigator departments and more.
Registration is required, but it is free.

This list came from Robert J. Dumouchel’s Government Assistance Almanac,

an annual publication by Omnigraphics Inc.

13.Why conduct a program evaluation?

Evaluation is the systematic collection and analysis of data needed to make
decisions. Program evaluation provides information needed to determine the
effectiveness of a program for participants, documents that program
objectives have been met, provides information about service delivery that
will be useful to program staff and other audi- ences, and enables program
staff to make changes that improve program effectiveness.

14.What is program implementation?

In the program implementation, you develop procedures for carrying out
tasks. Before beginning program implementation, you should determine the
goals, objectives and activities that your organization will implement. You
should also identify and acquire resources, and your leadership structure
should be in place. While it is impossible to ensure that nothing will go
wrong, you should be prepared for some flaws and flukes to occur.
Therefore, planning must also include the development of procedures that
ensure the success of your activities when the unexpected occurs. Once
 community and financial support have been secured, stakeholders should
delegate tasks to ensure the program’s successful initiation and establish a
viable structure for its continued operation.

100
 Program
Development

15.What is the difference between HIV infection and AIDS?

HIV infection can last for many years without symptoms or the development
of AIDS. AIDS occurs when the damage to the immune system becomes
severe and immune deficiency leads to infections or cancer. Not everyone
infected with HIV has AIDS.

16.Are AIDS reports required by law?

Yes. AIDS was declared a disease dangerous to the public health by
regulation. Physicians, other health care providers and health care facilities
are required to report AIDS cases.

17.Which agency receives AIDS reports?

AIDS is reported directly and only to the HIV/AIDS surveillance programs of
state public health departments. States report AIDS cases to the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) without identifiers, for inclusion in
national AIDS data sets.

18.How is AIDS defined?

AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. An HIV-infected
person receives a diagnosis of AIDS after developing one of the CDC-defined
AIDS indicator illnesses. An HIV-positive person who has not had any serious
illnesses also can receive an AIDS diagnosis on the basis of certain blood
tests (CD4+counts). A positive HIV test result does not mean that a person
has AIDS. A diagnosis of AIDS is made by a physician using certain clinical
criteria (e.g., AIDS indicator illnesses). The AIDS case definition is used for
surveillance purposes so that all states and territories define an AIDS case in
the same way. The CDC created the first case definition in 1983. The case
definition was changed in 1985, 1987 and 1993, as new information about
HIV and HIV infection became available.

19.Where can I go to get HIV/AIDS program funding information?

HIV/AIDS program funding information is available from the following sources:
✓ CDC National Prevention Information Network Funding Database
www.cdcnpin.org
P.O. Box 6003, Rockville, MD 20849-6003
(800) 458-5231
✓ US Department of Health and Human Services Health
Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) HIV/AIDS
Grants and Grant Resources hab.hrsa.gov/about/contact.htm
Office of Communications, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20857
(301) 443-3376
✓ US Department of Health and Human Services
National Institutes of Health (NIH) Guide for Grants
and Contracts www.nih.gov/od/oar
Office of AIDS Research, NIH Building 2, Room 4E12, Bethesda, MD 20892
(301) 496-0357
✓ US Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health
[email protected]
Office of Minority Health Resources Center
(OMHRC), Attn: EDN P.O. Box 37337 Washington,
D.C. 20013-7337 (800) 444-6472

101
 ✓ US Department of Health and Human Services Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
(SAMHSA) www.mentalhealth.org/cmhs/HIVAIDs/about.asp
The Center for Mental Health Services HIV/AIDS Program

20.Where can I go to get additional information about program development?

Program development information may be obtained from the following sources:

✓ Bright Ideas 2001: Innovative or Promising Practices in HIV

Prevention and HIV community Planning: Second Edition (March
2001) www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/ brightideas.pdf
✓ CDC Business Responds to AIDS and Labor Responds to AIDS
Programs www.cdc.gov/hiv/hivinfo/brta.htm
✓ HIV Prevention Among Injection Drug
Users www.cdc.gov/idu/
✓ Learning From the Community: What Community-Based
Organizations Say About Factors that Affect HIV Prevention
Programs (October 10, 2001)
www.cdc.gov/hiv/aboutdhap/perb/cbo.pdf
✓ Replicating Effective Programs Plus
www.cdc.gov/hiv/projects/rep/default.htm
✓ The State of Latinos in HIV Prevention Community Planning (March
14, 2002) www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/SLCP.pdf

21.Where can I find information about living with HIV

or AIDS? Free referrals and information:

CDC National AIDS Hotline
English: (800) 342-AIDS (2437) [24 hours/day]
Spanish: (800) 344-SIDA (7432) [8 a.m.-2 a.m. EST]
TTY: (800) 243-7889 (deaf and hard-of-hearing) [Monday-Friday 10 a.m.-10 p.m. EST]

Free materials:
CDC National Prevention Information
Network (operators of the National AIDS
Clearinghouse) (800) 458-5231
1-301-562-1098 (international)
P.O. Box 6003
Rockville, MD 20849-6003

Free HIV/AIDS treatment

information: AIDS Treatment
Information Service (ATIS) (800) 448-
0440
Project Inform
(800) 822-7422

102
 Program
Development

Drugs undergoing clinical trials:

AIDS Clinical Trials Information Services
(ACTIS) (800) 874-2572

Social Security benefits:

Social Security
Administration (800) 772-
1213
103
 APPENDIX C:
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Bobb, Biehl and Engstrom, Ted W. Boardroom Confidence. Sisters, Ore.:

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Prevention Community

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Suggested Guidelines for

Developing an Epidemiological Profile for HIV Prevention Community
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A Community’s Guide To Tailored Adolescent Program Development. Dallas,

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“Evaluating Comprehensive Community Change.” Report of the Annie E.

Casey Foundation. Given March 1997 at the Research and Evaluation
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Gibson, Terry L. Cooperative Extension Program Planning in Wisconsin. Madison,

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Krotzmann, John and McKnight, John. Building Communities form the

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Kubisch, Anne C. Comprehensive Community Initiatives: Lesson in Neighborhood

Transformation. Shetterforce Online. January/February 1996. www.nhi.org/online/
issues/85/compcominit.html.
Linney, J. and Wandersman, A. Prevention III: A Four-Step Guide to Useful
Program Assessment. Rockville, Md.: Office of Substance Abuse Prevention.

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Morrisey, George L. A Guide to Strategic Thinking: Building Your Planning Foundation.
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Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2001. The National Data Book, Washington,
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 National Minority AIDS Council
Technical Assistance, Training and Treatment
Division 1624 U Street, NW
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(202) 234-5120
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Funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, grants U22/CCU318121 and
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