Get the full ebook with Bonus Features for a Better Reading Experience on ebookluna.

com

(eBook PDF) Elementary Differential Equations with

Boundary Value Problems 2nd Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-elementary-
differential-equations-with-boundary-value-problems-2nd-
edition/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD NOW

Download more ebook instantly today at https://ebookluna.com

 Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you
Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...

(eBook PDF) Differential Equations with Boundary Value

Problems 2nd Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-differential-equations-with-
boundary-value-problems-2nd-edition/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Elementary Differential Equations Boundary

Value Problems 11th Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-elementary-differential-
equations-boundary-value-problems-11th-edition/

ebookluna.com

(Original PDF) Differential Equations with Boundary-Value

Problems 8th

https://ebookluna.com/product/original-pdf-differential-equations-
with-boundary-value-problems-8th/

ebookluna.com

(Original PDF) Differential Equations with Boundary-Value

Problems 9th

https://ebookluna.com/product/original-pdf-differential-equations-
with-boundary-value-problems-9th/

ebookluna.com
Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems 9th
Edition Dennis G. Zill - eBook PDF

https://ebookluna.com/download/differential-equations-with-boundary-
value-problems-ebook-pdf/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Boundary Value Problems: and Partial

Differential Equations 6th Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-boundary-value-problems-and-
partial-differential-equations-6th-edition/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Fundamentals of Differential Equations and

Boundary Value Problems 7th Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-fundamentals-of-differential-
equations-and-boundary-value-problems-7th-edition/

ebookluna.com

First Course in differential equations (11ed) /

Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems (9ed)
Solutions manual 9th Edition - eBook PDF
https://ebookluna.com/download/first-course-in-differential-
equations-11ed-differential-equations-and-boundary-value-problems-9ed-
solutions-manual-ebook-pdf/
ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Differential Equations and Boundary Value

Problems: Computing and Modeling, Global Edition 5th
Edition
https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-differential-equations-and-
boundary-value-problems-computing-and-modeling-global-edition-5th-
edition/
ebookluna.com
 Contents vii

4.9 Numerical Methods for Systems of Linear

Differential Equations 288
4.10 The Exponential Matrix and Diagonalization 300
Review Exercises 310
Projects 311

Chapter 5 Laplace Transforms 317

5.1 Introduction 317

5.2 Laplace Transform Pairs 329
5.3 The Method of Partial Fractions 344
5.4 Laplace Transforms of Periodic Functions
and System Transfer Functions 350
5.5 Solving Systems of Differential Equations 359
5.6 Convolution 368
5.7 The Delta Function and Impulse Response 377
Projects 385

Chapter 6 Nonlinear Systems 391

6.1 Introduction 391

6.2 Equilibrium Solutions and Direction Fields 400
6.3 Conservative Systems 413
6.4 Stability 424
6.5 Linearization and the Local Picture 433
6.6 Two-Dimensional Linear Systems 448
6.7 Predator-Prey Population Models 458
Projects 466
viii Contents

Chapter 7 Numerical Methods 471

7.1 Introduction 471

7.2 Euler’s Method, Heun’s Method, and the
Modified Euler’s Method 473
7.3 Taylor Series Methods 479
7.4 Runge-Kutta Methods 493
Appendix 1: Convergence of One-Step Methods 506
Appendix 2: Stability of One-Step Methods 507
Projects 510

Chapter 8 Series Solutions of Linear

Differential Equations 515

8.1 Introduction 515

8.2 Series Solutions Near an Ordinary Point 527
8.3 The Euler Equation 536
8.4 Solutions Near a Regular Singular Point and the
Method of Frobenius 542
8.5 The Method of Frobenius Continued: Special Cases
and a Summary 550
Projects 561

Chapter 9 Second Order Partial Differential

Equations and Fourier Series 565

9.1 Introduction 565

9.2 Heat Flow in a Thin Bar; Separation of Variables 570
9.3 Series Solutions 580
9.4 Calculating the Solution 589
9.5 Fourier Series 600
9.6 The Wave Equation 616
9.7 Laplace’s Equation 628
 Contents ix

9.8 Higher-Dimensional Problems;

Nonhomogeneous Equations 641
Project 655

Chapter 10 First Order Partial Differential

Equations and the Method of
Characteristics 659

10.1 Introduction 659

10.2 The Cauchy Problem 662
10.3 Existence and Uniqueness 668
10.4 The Method of Characteristics 671
Projects 679

Chapter 11 Linear Two-Point Boundary

Value Problems 681

11.1 Introduction 681

11.2 Existence and Uniqueness 682
11.3 Two-Point Boundary Value Problems for Linear Systems 693
11.4 Sturm-Liouville Boundary Value Problems 705
Project 715

Answers A-1
Index I-1
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
This book is designed for the undergraduate differential equations course taken
by students majoring in science and engineering. A year of calculus is the pre-
requisite.
The main goal of the text is to help students integrate the underlying theory,
solution procedures, and computational aspects of differential equations as
seamlessly as possible. Since we want the text to be easy to read and understand,
we discuss the theory as simply as possible and emphasize how to use it. When
developing models, we try to guide the reader carefully through the physical
principles underlying the mathematical model.
We also emphasize the importance of common sense, intuition, and “back
of the envelope’’ checks. When solving problems, we remind the student to ask
“Does my answer make sense?’’ Where appropriate, examples and exercises
ask the student to anticipate and subsequently interpret the physical content
of their solution. (For example, “Should an equilibrium solution exist for this
application? If so, why? What should its value be?’’) We believe that developing
this mind-set is particularly important in resisting the temptation to accept
almost any computer-generated output as correct.
Chapters 9, 10, and 11, dealing with partial differential equations and
boundary value problems, are self-contained; they can be covered in any order.

New Features
As in the first edition, we have made a determined effort to write a text that
is easy to understand. In response to the suggestions of first edition users and
reviewers, this second edition offers even more support for both students and
instructors.

• We have followed the advice of our reviewers to provide a more concise

presentation. First order differential equations (linear and nonlinear) are
now discussed in a single chapter, Chapter 2. Similarly, second order and
higher order linear equations are discussed in one chapter, Chapter 3. The
bulk of Chapter 3 develops the theory for the second order equations; the last
three sections extend these ideas to higher order linear equations.
• The introductory discussion for linear systems (Chapter 4) has been stream-
lined to reach the computational aspects of the theory as quickly as possible.
• Chapter 11 has been shortened to focus solely on linear two-point boundary
value problems (for second order scalar equations and systems).
• We have included a review of core material in the form of a set of review
exercises at the end of Chapters 2, 3, and 4. These exercises, consisting of
initial value problems for first order equations, higher order linear equations,
and first order linear systems, respectively, require the student to select as
well as apply the appropriate solution technique developed in the chapter.

xi
xii Preface

• We have added a number of new exercises, ranging from routine drill exer-
cises to those with applications to a variety of different disciplines. Answers
to the odd-numbered exercises are again given at the back of the text.
• A brief look at boundary value problems appears as a project at the end of
Chapter 3. This brief introductory overview of linear two-point boundary
value problems highlights how these problems differ from their initial-value
counterparts.
• We have added projects. There are now short projects at the end of each
chapter. Some of these are challenging applications. Others are intended to
expand the student’s mathematical horizons, showing how the material in
the chapter can be generalized. In certain applications, such as food process-
ing, the project exposes the student to the mathematics aspects of current
research.

A Multilevel Development of Certain Topics

Numerical Methods. The basic ideas underlying numerical methods and their
use in applications are presented early for both scalar problems and systems.
In Chapters 2 and 4, after Euler’s method is developed, the route to more accu-
rate algorithms is briefly outlined. The Runge-Kutta algorithm is then offered
as an example of such an improved algorithm; accompanying exercises allow
the student to apply the algorithm and experience its increased accuracy at
an introductory level. Chapter 7 subsequently builds upon this introduction,
developing a comprehensive treatment of one-step methods.

Phase Plane. An introduction to the phase plane is provided in Chapter 4 as

the different solutions of the homogeneous constant coefficient linear system
are developed. These ideas are then revisited and extended in the Chapter 6
discussion of autonomous nonlinear systems.

Boundary Value Problems. As previously mentioned, the brief introductory ex-

posure to linear two-point boundary value problems is presented at the end of
Chapter 3. The purpose here is to make the student aware of such problems and
to point out how they differ from initial value problems. Chapter 11 provides
a more thorough study of these problems.

Supplements
The Student’s Solutions Manual (0-321-28837-8) contains detailed solutions to
the odd-numbered problems.

The Instructor’s Solutions Manual (0-321-28838-6) contains detailed solutions

to most problems.

The Online Technology Resource Manual includes suggestions for how to use
a computer algebra system with the text. Specific instructions are given for
MATLAB and Mathematica. It is available at http://www.aw-bc.com/kohler/.
 Preface xiii

Acknowledgments
Many people helped and encouraged us in this effort. Besides the support pro-
vided by our families, we are especially thankful for the editorial and develop-
mental assistance of William Hoffman, our editor at Pearson Addison-Wesley.
We are very grateful to our reviewers, who made many insightful sugges-
tions that improved the text:

John Baxley Wake Forest University

William Beckner University of Texas at Austin
Jerry L. Bona University of Illinois, Chicago
Thomas Branson University of Iowa
Dennis Brewer University of Arkansas
Peter Brinkmann University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Almut Burchard University of Virginia
Donatella Danielli Purdue University
Charles Friedman University of Texas at Austin
Moses Glasner Pennsylvania State University—University Park
Weimin Han University of Iowa
Harumi Hattori West Virginia University
Jason Huffman Georgia College & State University
Gregor Kovacic Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Yang Kuang Arizona State University
Zhiqin Lu University of California—Irvine
Peter Mucha Georgia Institute of Technology
John Neuberger Northern Arizona University
Lei Ni University of California—San Diego
Joan Remski University of Michigan—Dearborn
Sinai Robins Temple University
Robert Snider Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
A. Shadi Tahvildar-Zadeh Rutgers University
Jason Whitt Rhodes College
Tamas Wiandt Rochester Institute of Technology
Jennifer Zhao University of Michigan—Dearborn
Fangyang Zheng Ohio State University
Kehe Zhu State University of New York at Albany

Special thanks are due to Peter Mucha. His ongoing interest and construc-
tive feedback helped us greatly during the revision process. Our good friend and
colleague George Flick continued to provide us with examples of applications
from the life sciences; we greatly appreciate his encouragement and assistance.
Tiri Chinyoka and Ermira Cami helped us at Virginia Tech with proofreading
and problem-checking. We also thank Jeremy Bourdon and our Virginia Tech
colleague Terri Bourdon for revising the solutions manuals.
We are very grateful for the professional expertise provided by the personnel
at Addison-Wesley. Christine O’Brien was our project manager, and she made
certain that we maintained our schedule. We are grateful to Peggy McMahon,
our Production Supervisor, to Barbara Atkinson for the design of the text, to
Jeanne Yost for her careful copyediting, to Rena Lam at Techsetters, Inc. for
superb typesetting, and to Sally Lifland at Lifland et al., Bookmakers for her
careful oversight and coordination of the revision process.
This page intentionally left blank
ELEMENTARY
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
with Boundary Value Problems
This page intentionally left blank
 C H A P T E R
1
Introduction
to Differential Equations

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Examples of Differential Equations
1.3 Direction Fields

1.1 Introduction
Scientists and engineers develop mathematical models for physical processes
as an aid to understanding and predicting the behavior of the processes. In
this book we discuss mathematical models that help us understand, among
other things, decay of radioactive substances, electrical networks, population
dynamics, dispersion of pollutants, and trajectories of moving objects. Model-
ing a physical process often leads to equations that involve not only the physical
quantity of interest but also some of its derivatives. Such equations are referred
to as differential equations.
In Section 1.2, we give some simple examples that show how mathemat-
ical models are derived. We also begin our study of differential equations by
introducing the corresponding terminology and by presenting some concrete
examples of differential equations. Section 1.3 introduces the idea of a direc-
tion field for a differential equation. The concept of direction fields allows us to
visualize, in geometric terms, the graphs of solutions of differential equations.

1.2 Examples of Differential Equations

When we apply Newton’s second law of motion, ma = f , to an object moving
in a straight line, we obtain a differential equation of the form
my (t) = f (t, y(t), y (t)). (1)

1
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Differential Equations

In equation (1), y(t) represents the position, at time t, of the object. As expressed
in equation (1), the product of mass m and acceleration y (t) is equal to the sum
of the applied forces. The applied forces [the right-hand side of equation (1)]
often depend on time t, position y(t), and velocity y (t).

E X A M P L E
One of the simplest examples of linear motion is an object falling under the
1 influence of gravity. Let y(t) represent the height of the object above the surface
of the earth, and let g denote the constant acceleration due to gravity (32 ft/sec2
or 9.8 m/s2 ). See Figure 1.1.

– mg

y(t)

FIGURE 1.1
The only force acting on the falling body is its weight. The body’s position,
y(t), is governed by the differential equation y = −g.

Since the only force acting on the body is assumed to be its weight, W = mg,
equation (1) reduces to my (t) = −mg, or
y (t) = −g. (2)

The negative sign appears on the right-hand side of the equation because the
acceleration due to gravity is positive downward, while we assumed y to be
positive in the upward direction. (Again, see Figure 1.1.)
Equation (2) is solved easily by taking successive antiderivatives. The first
antiderivative gives the object’s velocity,
y (t) = −gt + C1 .
Another antidifferentiation gives the object’s position,
y(t) = − 12 gt2 + C1 t + C2 .
Here, C1 and C2 represent arbitrary constants of integration. ❖

Notice in Example 1 that the solution involves two undetermined constants.

This means that, by itself, differential equation (2) does not completely specify
the solution y(t). This makes sense physically since, to completely determine the
motion, we also need some information about the initial state of the object. The
arbitrary constants of integration that arise are often specified by prescribing
velocity and position at some initial time, say t = 0. For example, if the object’s
 1.2 Examples of Differential Equations 3

initial velocity is y (0) = v 0 and its initial position is y(0) = y0 , then we obtain
a complete description of velocity and position:
y (t) = −gt + v 0 , y(t) = − 12 gt2 + v 0 t + y0 .
Unless an application suggests otherwise, we normally use t to represent
the independent variable and y to represent the dependent variable. Thus, in a
typical differential equation, we are searching for a solution y(t).
As is common in a mathematics text, we use a variety of notations to denote
derivatives. For instance, we may use d2 y/dt2 instead of y (t) or d4 y/dt4 instead
of y(4) (t). In addition, we often suppress the independent variable t and simply
write y and y instead of y(t) and y (t). An example using this notation is the
differential equation
1 
y + y + t3 y = 5.
t

E X A M P L E
Scientists have observed that radioactive materials have an instantaneous rate
2 of decay (that is, a rate of decrease) that is proportional to the amount of
material present. If Q(t) represents the amount of material present at time t,
then dQ/dt is proportional to Q(t); that is,
dQ
= −kQ, k > 0. (3)
dt
The negative sign in equation (3) arises because Q is both positive and decreas-
ing; that is, Q(t) > 0 and Q (t) < 0.
Unlike equation (2), differential equation (3) cannot be solved by integrat-
ing the right-hand side, −kQ(t), because Q(t) is not known. Instead, equation
(3) requires that we somehow find a function Q(t) whose derivative, Q (t), is a
constant multiple of Q(t).
Recall that the exponential function has a derivative that is a constant mul-
tiple of itself. For example, if y = Ce−kt , then y = −kCe−kt = −ky. Therefore, we
see that a solution of equation (3) is
Q(t) = Ce−kt , (4)

where C can be any constant. ❖

As in Example 1, the differential equation by itself does not completely

specify the solution. But setting t = 0 in (4) leads to Q(0) = C. Therefore, the
quantity Q(t) given in equation (4) is completely determined once the amount
of material initially present is specified.

The Form of an nth Order Differential Equation

We now state the formal definition of a differential equation and point to some
issues that need to be addressed. An equation of the form
y(n) = f (t, y, y , . . . , y(n−1) ) (5)

is called an nth order ordinary differential equation.

4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Differential Equations

In equation (5), t is the independent variable, while y is the dependent

variable. A solution of the differential equation (5) is any function y(t) that
satisfies the equation on our t-interval of interest. For instance, Example 2
showed that Q(t) = Ce−kt is a solution of Q = −kQ for any value of the constant
C; the t-interval of interest for Example 2 is typically the interval 0 ≤ t < ∞.
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative
that appears in the equation. For example, y = −g is a second order differential
equation. Similarly, Q = −kQ is a first order differential equation.
The form of the nth order ordinary differential equation (5) is not the most
general one. In particular, an nth order ordinary differential equation is any
equation of the form
G(t, y, y , y , . . . , y(n) ) = 0.
For example, the following equation is classified as a second order ordinary
differential equation:
t2 sin y + y ln y = 1.
Notice that it is not possible to rewrite this equation in the explicit form
y = f (t, y, y ).
In our study, however, we usually consider only equations of the form
y(n) = f (t, y, y , y , . . . , y(n−1) ),
where the nth derivative is given explicitly in terms of t, y, and lower order
derivatives of y.
Differential equation (5) is called ordinary because the equation involves
just a single independent variable, t. This is in contrast to other equations called
partial differential equations, which involve two or more independent vari-
ables. An example of a partial differential equation is the one-dimensional wave
equation
∂ 2 u(x, t) ∂ 2 u(x, t)
− = 0.
∂x2 ∂t2
Here, the dependent variable u is a function of two independent variables, the
spatial coordinate x and time t.

Initial Value Problems

What we have seen about differential equations thus far raises some impor-
tant questions that we will address throughout this book. One such question
is “What constitutes a properly formulated problem?” Examples 1 and 2 illus-
trate that auxiliary initial conditions are required if the differential equation is
to have a unique solution. The differential equation, together with the proper
number of initial conditions, constitutes what is known as an initial value
problem.
For instance, an initial value problem associated with the falling object in
Example 1 consists of the differential equation together with initial conditions
specifying the object’s initial position and velocity:
d2 y
= −g, y(0) = y0 , y (0) = v 0 .
dt2
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Lawn-tennis
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Lawn-tennis

Author: James Dwight

Release date: October 19, 2018 [eBook #58137]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by MWS, Adrian Mastronardi, Chris Jordan and the

Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LAWN-TENNIS

***
 DEDICATION.

To William Renshaw, Esq., Champion of England, this book is

dedicated by his friend and pupil the Author.

BY
JAMES DWIGHT.
PUBLISHED BY
WRIGHT & DITSON, BOSTON, U. S. A.,
AND
“PASTIME” OFFICE, 28 PATERNOSTER ROW,
LONDON, E. C.
 COPYRIGHT
1886,
By JAMES DWIGHT.
 PREFACE.

There is at present no work on Lawn-Tennis written by any of the

well-known players or judges of the game, and it is with great
diffidence that I offer this book to fill the gap until something better
comes.
It is intended for beginners, and for those who have not had the
opportunity of seeing the best players and of playing against them.
To the better players it would be presumption for me to offer advice.
I should not, indeed, have ventured to write at all had I not had
unusual opportunities of studying the game against the best players,
and especially against the Champion, Mr. W. Renshaw, and his
brother.
 CONTENTS.

PART I.
CHAP. PAGE

Preface vii
I. How to Learn to Play 1
II. The Court and Implements of the Game 6
III. The Service 12
IV. The First Stroke 18
V. The Stroke 21
VI. The Volley 23
VII. The Half-Volley 28
VIII. The Lob 30

PART II.
I. The Game 32
II. Match Play 46
III. The Double Game 56
IV. Ladies’ and Gentlemen’s Doubles 64
V. Umpires and Umpiring 68
VI. Odds 71
VII. Bisque 73
VIII. Cases and Decisions 80
IX. List of Winners 88
LAWN-TENNIS.
 PART I.

CHAPTER I.
HOW TO LEARN TO PLAY.

One is often asked the best method of learning to play. I fancy that
the best way, could one often adopt it, would be to let a marker, as
in a tennis-court, hit the balls gently to the beginner, pointing out to
him his mistakes, so that he might not acquire a bad style. If he
begins by going on to the lawn and playing a game, his only object
will be to get the balls over the net, and he will be almost sure to fall
into bad habits of play. This is, however, the most amusing way to
learn, and will probably always be the one in general use. If the
novice does adopt it, let him at least watch good players whenever
he can, not with any idea of trying their severe volleys, &c., but in
order to see the position of the feet and of the racket in play. When
he has learned to play fairly well, he should still watch good players
at every opportunity; but what he then needs to study is the position
in the court where they stand; when they go forward and when
back, and what balls they volley instead of playing off the ground.
He will, in this way, get some idea of the form which he should try to
acquire. Mr. E. L. Williams, in a recent article in the Lawn-Tennis
Magazine, advises playing against a wall, and I believe in the benefit
obtained from this sort of practice. In fact, I have often advised
players to try it. Any sort of a wall will do; the wall of a room, if
there is nothing better. Hit the ball quietly up against the wall, wait
till it has bounded and is just beginning to fall, then hit it as nearly
as possible in the same place. Always make a short step forward as
you hit, with the left foot in a forehanded stroke, and with the right
in a backhanded one. Try to hold the racket properly (see page 10),
and do not hit with a stiff arm. The shoulder, elbow, and wrist ought
all to be left free, and not held rigid. As soon as you can hit the ball
up a few times forehanded, try the same thing backhanded, and
when you are reasonably sure of your stroke, take every ball
alternately fore and backhanded. This will give you equal practice in
both strokes, and will also force you to place the ball each time. Add
now a line over which the ball must go; in a room a table or bureau
will do very well, and, if possible, mark out a small square in which
the ball shall strike. This may sound very childish to a beginner, but I
am sure that very valuable practice can be got in this way, and I
have spent a great many hours in a room at this occupation. After a
time you should volley every ball, first on one side and then on the
other. Then half-volley, and after that try all the different
combinations: volley forehanded, and half-volley backhanded, &c.
Always stick to some definite plan, as in that way you get practice in
placing. There is another stroke that can well be learned in this way.
Hit the ball up against the wall so that it will strike the ground on
your left and go completely by you, then step across and backward
with your right foot, swing on the left foot till your back is towards
the wall, and try to return the ball by a snap of your wrist. With
practice, you will manage to return a ball that has bounded five or
six feet beyond you. Try also the same stroke on the forehand side.
You can get in this way alone more practice in handling a racket, and
in making the eye and hand work together, than you are likely to get
in ten times the length of time out of doors. Ask some friend, who
really knows, to tell you if you hold your racket in the right way, and
to point out to you any faults of style that you may have. It is of the
greatest importance not to handicap yourself at the start by
acquiring bad form. Good form is simply the making of the stroke in
the best way, so as to get the greatest effect with the least exertion.
While nothing can be more graceful than good form, no one should
make it his chief object to play gracefully; the result will only be to
make him look absurd.
When you begin to play games, do not try all the strokes that you
see made. Begin by playing quietly in the back of the court. Try
simply to get the ball over the net, and to place to one side or the
other, and to do this in good form, i.e., to hold the racket properly,
and to carry yourself in the right way. As you improve you can
increase the speed of your strokes, and can play closer to the side-
lines. Remember that a volleying game is harder to play, and you
should learn to play well off the ground before trying anything else.
Above all things, never half-volley. If you can return the ball in no
other way, let it go and lose the stroke. This may sound absurd, but
I feel sure that most young players lose more by habitually trying to
take half-volleys when there is no need of it, than they gain by any
that they may make. It is a stroke that should never be used if it is
possible to avoid it. If you make up your mind to let the ball go
unless you can play it in some other way, you will thus learn to avoid
wanting to half-volley. When you become a really good player, you
can add this stroke to your others, and you will not have got into the
habit of using it too often. It is a mistake to play long at a time. For
real practice three sets a day are quite enough. When practising for
matches, you can play the best of five sets three times a week.
Almost all players play too much, and by the middle of the season
many of them are stale. Always try to play with some one better
than yourself, and take enough odds to make him work to win. In
the same way give all the odds that you can.
Remember, while playing, certain general principles. Don’t “fix”
yourself. Keep the knees a little bent, and your weight thrown
forward and on both feet, so that you can start in any direction. If
the feet are parallel it is impossible to start quickly. Always keep
moving, even if you do not intend to go anywhere. Play quietly and
steadily without any flourish, and try to win every stroke. A great
many players seem unable to keep steadily at work, and play a
careless or slashing stroke every now and then. This is a great
mistake, and one often loses a great deal by it. Try to acquire a habit
of playing hard all the time. The racket should be carried in both
hands, for, if you let it hang down, more time will be needed to get it
across your body. Never cut nor twist a ball except in service; it
tends to make the ball travel more slowly, and will deceive nobody.
The underhand stroke puts a little twist on the ball, but it is an over
twist and not a side one. Try to meet the ball fairly, i.e., to bring the
racket against it in the line of its flight; or, in other words, don’t hit
across the ball.
Watch carefully your own weak points. Any good player ought to be
able to show them to you, and you should then try to improve your
game where it is weak. If you practise carefully and your only object
is to learn, there is no reason why you should not get into the
second class. To be among the very best players requires physical
advantages, as well as a stout heart and great interest in the game.
One is often advised to pretend to put a ball in one place and then
to put it in another. I can assure you that it does not pay. Too many
strokes are lost by it. Exactly the same thing is true about
pretending to go to one side and then coming back again. One is apt
to get off one’s balance in making such a feint, and it is quite hard
enough to get into position for a ball without having to start the
wrong way first.
It is well to observe the rules carefully in practice, or else they may
distract one’s attention in a match. This is especially true of the
service. Frequently foot-faulting in a match spoils your service
altogether. In practice you should always see that the net is at the
right height, and should always use good balls. It is bad practice,
and is also very unsatisfactory, to play with bad balls. When the
weather is too bad to use good balls it is too bad to play at all.
 CHAPTER II.
THE COURT AND IMPLEMENTS OF THE GAME.

The court is 78 ft. long. It is 27 ft. wide for the single game, and 36
ft. for the double game. At most club-grounds a measuring-chain is
used to mark out the court, but for a private court a chain is seldom
at hand. The easiest way to mark out a court without a chain is to
use two long measures. Select the place for the net; then measure
36 ft. across; at each end put in a peg, and over each peg slip the
ring of a measure. On one measure take 39 ft., and on the other 53
ft. ¾ in.; pull both taut, and the place where the two ends meet will
be one corner of the court. Put in a peg at 21 ft. from the net for the
end of the service-line. Next transpose the measures and repeat the
same process. This will give the other corner of the court, and at 21
ft. will be the other end of the service-line, and one half of your
court is ready. Take exactly the same measures on the other side of
the net, and the measurement of your court is complete. The side-
lines of the single court are made by marking off 4 ft. 6 in. from
each end of the base-lines, and running lines parallel to the side-
lines of the double court from one base-line to the other. Everything
necessary is thus found except the central-line, which runs from the
middle of one service-line to the middle of the other. The posts of
the net stand 3 ft. outside of the side-lines. If the court is intended
for double play only, the inner side-lines need not be carried farther
from the net than the service-lines. If a single court only is to be
marked out, the diagonal is about 47 ft. 5 in., instead of 53 ft. ¾ in.
Net.—The net should be bound along the top with heavy white
cotton or duck, to the depth of two or three inches. Without this
binding it is very difficult to see the top of the net in a bad light. The
most important points in a net are that the meshes should be too
small to allow a ball to pass through them, and that the twine should
not be so large as to obstruct the view of the opposite court.
Shoes.—There is little to say about shoes, although one’s comfort
depends a great deal on them. They should be a little too large, with
the toes square or round, but never pointed. Those made of
buckskin, with leather straps over the toes, are the most
comfortable. For the soles no rubber compares with steel points—
i.e., small nails about five-eighths of an inch long, driven into the
sole of the shoe, and protruding from it about one-quarter to three-
eighths of an inch. Points injure the ground less than rubber, as to a
great degree they prevent slipping. For gravel or asphalt the best
soles are made of very soft red rubber, which lasts a long time and is
very easy to the feet.
Balls.—Ayres’s balls are used at every tournament of importance in
England, and, while this is the case, it is necessary for tournament
players to practise with them, though those of some other
manufacturers are quite as good for ordinary play.
Rackets.—The choice of a racket is an important matter, and it is also
a difficult one. Young players seem to take pleasure in selecting the
most extraordinary rackets in a shop. Let me strongly advise them to
avoid all unusual handles, heads, or methods of stringing. All these
eccentricities are useless at the best. Nothing is so good as the
simplest form of racket, possessing an octagonal handle, and strung
in the usual way. Such a racket is used by all the better match-
players in England. Opinions differ as to what the exact size of the
head should be, but it is certain that there is nothing to be gained by
having it square or triangular. Again, the edges of the rim should not
be bevelled. It only weakens the frame, while it does not increase
the size of the playing face of a racket in the smallest degree. A ball
must be hit almost exactly in the centre of the racket to make a
stroke at all, for, if hit so near the edge that the bevelled rim can
affect it, it cannot possibly go any distance.
As regards the proper weight of a racket, 14½ oz. is heavy enough
for any one. I know of only two of the well-known players who use
heavier rackets than this. I should advise any one learning to play to
get a racket of 14¼ oz., and he can afterwards get one of 14½ oz.
should he feel that his first one is too light. There can be no
question that a light racket can be more easily brought round than a
heavy one, and is more easily controlled in every way. On the other
hand, a racket must have wood enough in the frame to make it
perfectly unyielding when striking a ball, and must be heavy enough
to give an effective stroke. These conditions are fulfilled in a racket
of 14¼ to 14½ oz.; a lighter one loses something in power, and a
heavier one is unmanageable for most men. One meets from time to
time a player with a racket of 15 or 15½ oz., who shows it with
pride, and explains that his wrist is so strong that he requires an
unusual racket. As a matter of fact, such a player seldom uses his
wrist at all, but rather he should be thankful for the advantage that a
good wrist gives him, instead of handicapping himself by using an
absurdly heavy racket. Almost more important than the weight of
the racket is its balance. By balance is meant the way in which a
racket hangs in the hand. Many rackets of 14 oz. feel as heavy as
others of 14½ oz. There is only one way of judging the balance, and
that is by holding the racket by the end of the handle, as if in actual
play, and trying how it comes up, and if it feels light or heavy. If it
comes up heavily, discard it at once and try another. Should it feel
light and easily managed, weigh it yourself, no matter whether the
weight is stamped on it or not. It may be that it felt well balanced
only because it was too light for use; but should it be found to weigh
14¼—14½ oz., the balance of it must be good. You should look
carefully at the workmanship and see that the wood is free from
knots and cracks. The grain should run evenly round the whole
frame. Look especially at the parts of the hoop, just above the
centre-piece, for there it is that a racket usually breaks. See also
that the wedge is quite firm. Choose a racket in which the wood is
left in the natural state, as varnish, &c., is often used to conceal a
flaw.
A racket should be very nearly, if not quite, straight For myself, I
prefer one with a very slight bend to one side, but I can give no
reason for doing so.
No player should have a racket that he cannot hold absolutely stiff
from the very end of the handle. It is essential that a racket should
be light enough for him to volley with it at the very end of his reach
without any yielding in his wrist. If his wrist is not strong enough to
stand this strain with a racket of the usual weight, it is better for him
to use a lighter one. Though losing something in the severity of his
strokes, he will gain enough in sureness to more than make up for it.
How to hold the Racket—One finds many different ways of holding
the racket among good players, and no exact rule has ever been
received as correct. Still, nearly all good players observe certain
principles in holding a racket. It is of the first importance that you
should be able to play a ball either fore- or back-handed without
changing your hold on the racket. If the hold is changed, there is
always danger of not getting the racket into the right position quickly
enough. Such a change must require a certain amount of time and
attention, which cannot well be spared in sharp play. The method
that I should recommend is as follows:—Lay the racket on a table
with the smooth side up. Open the hand with the thumb nearly at
right angles to the fingers, and then clasp the handle in such a way
as to make its upper right edge (or what would be its right edge if it
were cut square) fit into the hollow of the joint between the thumb
and forefinger. In closing the fingers on the handle, do not put them
directly round it, but with the first joint of each finger slanting up the
handle, which will cause the top joints to slant down the other way.
The first two fingers should be a little separated from the other
fingers, and from each other. The end of the handle should be well
within the hand, with the little finger round the leather rim. The
thumb should not go round on to the ends of the fingers, but should
slope upwards across the upper side of the handle.
 CHAPTER III.
SERVICE.

There are many ways in which the service can be delivered, but there
is only one in general use. This is the common overhand service
delivered from above the right shoulder, with or without twist on the
ball.
To serve it, throw the ball up above the head as nearly as possible to
the height at which it is to be struck, and strike it as it pauses before
falling. Be careful to throw the ball well back and about on a line
with the ear. If it is thrown forward the service will probably go into
the net. In serving, the arm should be extended to almost its full
length, so as to get the greatest possible reach, and the shoulder
should be left free and not held stiff. When serving for speed only,
the face of the racket should be brought fairly against the ball with
no twist whatever, and the head of the racket should be made to
come over on the top of the ball by a sharp bend of the wrist. When
trying to put twist on the service, the racket should not meet the ball
fairly, but should pass round on the outside of it; this will give a twist
from right to left.
A very uncommon and difficult service can be given by throwing up
the ball a little to the left of one’s head, and carrying the racket
round on the left hand side of the ball, which will give a twist from
left to right. It is possible to put a heavy spin on the ball in this way,
and the service is effective, because it is very uncommon.
The next most important service is the underhand twist service
delivered either fore- or back-handed. To begin with the former, the
player should stand with the feet near together and his weight on
the right foot. The racket should be held nearly vertical and just to
the side of the right leg. The ball is dropped outside, and a little in
front of, the racket, which is brought forward against the ball, and
thus, by a quick inside turn of the wrist imparts a strong twist to it.
In striking, the weight is thrown forward on to the left foot, and a
short step forward with that foot is made to give pace to the service.
The service should not be delivered with a jerk, but by a quiet easy
swing; the only really quick motion being the turn of the racket
round the ball which gives the twist.
The backhanded underhand service is precisely similar, but is made
on the left side with the right foot forward. The ball is struck with
the rough side of the racket, and of course breaks from left to right.
There is only one other service that need be mentioned. The arm is
at right angles to the body, with the elbow slightly bent, and with
the head of the racket a little higher than the wrist. The ball should
be struck at the height of the shoulder, and the racket, after striking
the ball behind and a little on top, should open and pass forward
beneath it so as to impart pure cut to the ball. The ball does not rise
as much as with most services, and is often returned into the net
when the service is first tried. It is, however, useful only as a change
service, or to increase the chance of the ball’s shooting, on a wet
ground.
It should be distinctly understood that, in giving any service, the
weight of the body must be thrown forward at the time of striking;
otherwise no great speed can be obtained.
As the rule now requires the front foot to be on the base-line when
the ball is served, it is better to put the toe on the line before
serving. The weight of the body is held a little back, and is then
thrown forward as the ball is struck. It is not so easy to serve fast in
this way as it is by taking a step forward, but, on the other hand,
one seldom or never serves a foot fault.
Players too often forget the importance of placing the service. It is
very hard to make a good first stroke off a well-placed service, even
if it be a slow one. It is also important to conceal the direction of the
service as long as possible, so that one’s opponent may not know in
which corner of the court to expect it.
Having described the different kinds of service, we have next to
consider which of them should be used. The best working service is
probably the simple overhand service delivered without twist. It
should be placed down the central-line or across to the outer corner
of the court, and should be served as fast as possible. Should the
first service be a fault, it is the custom to serve again in the same
way, but at such a pace that there will be no danger of a second
fault. We are often told that a good player should cultivate a second
service which should be difficult to return, and at the same time
should never be a fault. I can only say that this is easier said than
done, as no one has yet succeeded in carrying it out. Again we are
told that if a player cannot serve a good second service, he would do
better not to try a very hard service the first time, but to serve a
medium-paced service which would be at once reasonably sure of
going into court, and yet be difficult to place on returning. I must
dissent entirely from this advice. I believe that in the single game
and with good players the service is a distinct disadvantage. The first
service is oftener a fault than not, and the second service can be
placed almost as the striker-out pleases. Why not then serve a
medium service the first time? Because no service, not even the very
slow second service, can be placed so sharply and accurately as a
moderately fast one. It is not fast enough to place the striker-out at
a disadvantage, and yet it comes back more quickly in the return
than a slower one would do, and therefore leaves the server less
time to get into position for the first return. Another difference, often
overlooked, is, that a player must “fix” himself to a certain extent to
deliver a service of even medium speed. He cannot, therefore, get
into position as quickly after a fairly fast service as after a slow one,
and yet he will be given less time to do so. Of course, he “fixes”
himself for the first very fast service, but, in this case, he expects to
gain a distinct advantage should his service be good. Off such a
service it is very difficult to make a good first stroke, and the server
will probably have a chance to come forward and finish the rest with
a volley.
My own feeling is that the server must start at a disadvantage unless
he can deliver a severe first service. In any other case he must be
content to stay back, even outside his court, while his opponent is
forward, and his object for the time must be rather to save the
rest[1] than to win it.
[1] Or “rally” as it is sometimes improperly termed.
For a second service the forehanded underhand twist is useful,
especially when served into the left court. It is not in itself difficult to
return, but it keeps low, and will often twist a little more or a little
less than the striker-out expects, thus preventing him from making a
severe first stroke.
It sometimes pays to place such a service as near as possible to the
outer corner of the court, and to follow it up almost to the net. One
would think that there would be no difficulty in passing the server as
he comes forward, but it requires a very accurate first stroke to do
so. If the stroke is not well-placed, there will be a chance for a sharp
volley which should win the rest. It needs great quickness to make
such a volley, and no one should take such a risk unless he can
volley really well. In trying such a coup as this, he must take into
account what his chance of winning the rest will be if he gives an
easy second service and stays back. If he finds that he has been
losing twice out of three times on his second service, it is well worth
while to try going up, especially as it is very annoying to his
adversary if it comes off.
Many players have an idea that at 40-0 or at 40-15 it pays to serve
the second service at full speed, on the ground that at such a score
the risk is justifiable. This surely is a mistake. If the server keeps to
the game by which he has gained such an advantage he will
probably win one stroke in the next two or three. But if he sees fit to
take such liberties as to serve twice at full speed he will probably
find the score level before he knows it, and his opponent playing
with increasing confidence.
I should strongly advise a player to learn thoroughly the reverse
overhand service, not only that it is unusual and effective, but
because one looks to the left to serve it. You can in this way serve
overhand, no matter where the sun may be. With the sun on the
right the common overhand service is nearly useless, because the
danger of looking at the sun is so great. You may get the service
over all right and then be quite unable to see the return.
 CHAPTER IV.
FIRST STROKE.

By first stroke is meant the return of the service. I may safely say
that more depends on this stroke than on any other. If the first
stroke is good, the striker-out should have a decided advantage; if
bad, he is almost at the server’s mercy. What the first stroke should
be depends on the service and on the skill of the opponent. Off a
very fast service it is difficult to make a good first stroke, because
the slightest mistake will be enough to send the ball into the net or
out of court. If, however, the first stroke is made exactly right, it is
more crushing in proportion to the speed of the service. The server
has had to fix himself to give a very fast service, and no time is left
him to recover for the return. The difficulty of a very severe return of
a very fast service is so great that it must be looked on as fortunate,
even among good players. It is always very hard to foresee in just
what place the service will pitch, and, therefore, the striker-out
cannot prepare himself for any particular stroke. He must be ready
to return the ball; that is the first point. For the rest, he must return
it as severely as he safely can, and into that part of the court where
it will most readily go. By this I do not mean that the service should
be returned purposely into the middle of the court, but every fast
ball is more naturally returned in one direction than in another, and
all I advise is that a very fast service should be returned into
whatever part of the court it is easiest to put it. If the first service
comes off and is very fast, it will almost always give the advantage,
and the striker-out must be content to yield the position and to play
for safety.
Very different is the case with the second service. The server is no
longer trying for an advantage, and the striker-out can choose the
way in which he will begin the attack. The server will now probably