KINEMATICS NOTES

Kinematics notes for IIT-JEE

Some Definition Distance: Distance between two points is the length of actual path
travelled by the particle. It is a scalar quantity.
Unit : m(metre)
Displacement: Displacement is a vector drawn from the initial position (A) to the final
position (B)
Unit : m(metre)

Velocity: Velocity is the rate of change of position vector.

Unit : ms–1 (metre per second)

Acceleration: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Unit : ms–2 (metre per second2)

Average speed:The average speed of an object can be defined as the total distance
travelled by it in a particular interval of time. It can be calculated by dividing the total
distance travelled by the total time taken.
average speed (avg) = Total distance covered/ Total time taken
Average velocity: Average velocity is a vector quantity. Average velocity is defined as
the change in position or displacement (∆x) divided by the time intervals (∆t) in which
the displacement occurs.The average velocity can be positive or negative depending
upon the sign of the displacement. The SI unit of average velocity is meters per second
(m/s or ms-1)

Average acceleration:

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. It is denoted by ‘a’ and is

measured in the units of m/s2. For a particular interval, the average acceleration is
defined as the change in velocity for that particular interval. Unlike acceleration, the
average acceleration is calculated for a given interval.

1. Uniform velocity: A particle with uniform velocity undergoes equal

displacements in equal intervals of time however small the intervals may be.
2. Uniform acceleration: A particle with uniform acceleration undergoes equal
changes in velocity in equal intervals of time, however small the intervals may be.
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF RECTILINEAR MOTION

v-t Curve: The area under the v-t curve measures the change in position x.

In the above graph,

 The velocity of the body changes from A to B at a uniform rate.

 BC is the final velocity and OC is the total time t.
 A perpendicular is drawn from B to OC, a parallel line is drawn from A to D,and
another perpendicular is drawn from B to OE (represented by dotted lines).

Following details are obtained from the graph above:

The initial velocity of the body, u = OA
The final velocity of the body,v = BC
From the graph, we know that
BC = BD + DC
Therefore,v = BD + DC
v = BD + OA (since DC = OA)
Finally,
v = BD + u (since OA = u)(Eqaution 1)
Now, since the slope of a velocity-time graph is equal to acceleration a, So,
a = slope of line AB
a = BD/AD
Since AD = AC = t, the above equation becomes:
BD = at (Equation 2)
Now, combining Equation 1 & 2 , the following is obtained
v=u+at
Derivation of second equation of motion:
Distance travelled (s) = Area of figure OABC = Area of rectangle OADC + Area of
triangle ABD
s = (1/2 AB × BD) + (OA × OC)
Since BD = EA, the above equation becomes
s = (1/2 AB × EA) + (u × t)
As EA = at, the equation becomes
s = 1/2 × a × t + ut
Derivation of third equation of motion:

Characteristics of v-t graph: The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular

direction. Two cars travelling at the same speed but in opposite directions have different
velocities.
A velocity-time graph shows the speed and direction an object travels over a specific
period of time. Velocity-time graphs are also called speed-time graphs.
When an object is moving with a constant velocity, the line on the graph is horizontal.
When the horizontal line is at zero velocity, the object is at rest. When an object is
undergoing constant acceleration, the line on the graph is straight but sloped.
Curved lines on velocity-time graphs also show changes in velocity, but not with a
constant acceleration or deceleration. The diagram shows some typical lines on a
velocity-time graph.

The steeper the line, the greater the acceleration of the object. The purple line is
steeper than the green line because it represents an object with a greater
acceleration.Notice that a line sloping downwards - with a negative gradient - represents
an object with a constant deceleration (it is slowing down).Acceleration can be
calculated by dividing the change in velocity (measured in metres per second) by the
time taken for the change (in seconds). The units of acceleration are m/s/s or m/s 2
Graphical representation of motion:
  Slope of tangent to position time graph gives velocity.
 Slope of tangent to v−t curve gives acceleration.
 Area enclosed between v−t curve and time axis between an interval of time gives
displacement.
 Slope of tangent to a−t curve gives rate of change of acceleration
 Area enclosed between a−t curve and time axis between an interval of time gives
change in velocity.

Vectors
Addition of vectors:vector addition is commutative. So,
It means that the law of addition of vectors is independent of the order of vectors.

Subtraction of vectors:The process of subtracting one vector from another is

equivalent to adding, vectorially, the negative of the vector to be subtracted. Suppose

there are two vectors and , shown in figure (A) and we have to subtract and .

It is just the same thing as adding vectors – to . The resultant is shown in figure
(B).
Parallelogram law of vector addition:If two vectors acting at a point are represented
in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal passing through the
common tail of the two vectors.

CD is drawn perpendicular to the extended OA, from C. Let COD made by Vec R with
Vec P be α.
From right angled triangle OCD,
OC2 = OD2 + CD2
= (OA + AD)2 + CD2
= OA2 + AD2 + 2.OA.AD + CD2 .....(1)
In Fig. Angle BOA = θ =Angle CAD
From right angled ∆ CAD,
AC2 = AD2 + CD2 ...(2)
Substituting (2) in (1)
OC2 = OA2 + AC2 + 2OA.AD ...(3)
From ∆ACD,
CD = AC sin θ ...(4)
AD = AC cos θ ...(5)
Substituting (5) in (3) OC2 = OA2 + AC2 + 2 OA.AC cos θ
Substituting OC = R, OA = P,
OB = AC = Q in the above equation
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ(or)
R = root [ P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ ] ...(6)
Equation (6) gives the magnitude of the resultant. From ∆ OCD,
tan α = CD / OD = CD/( OA +AD )
Substituting (4) and (5) in the above equation,
tan α = ( AC sin θ ) / (OA + AC cos θ )
(or) α = tan-1[Qsin θ / (P+Qcos θ)] ...(7)
Equation (7) gives the direction of the resultant
Special Cases
  When two vectors act in the same direction
In this case, the angle between the two vectors θ = 0o, cos 0o = 1, sin 0o=
From (6)
R = root [ P2 + Q2 + 2PQ ] = P+Q
From (7)
α = tan-1[Qsin 00 / (P+Qcos 00)] (i.e) =0

Thus, the resultant vector acts in the same direction as the individual vectors and
is equal to the sum of the magnitude of the two vectors.
 When two vectors act in the opposite direction
In this case, the angle between the two vectors θ = 180o, cos 180o = -1, sin
180o= 0.
From (6)
R = root [ P2+ Q2- 2PQ ] = P-Q
From (7)
α = tan-1[Q / (P-Q)] (i.e) =0

Thus, the resultant vector has a magnitude equal to the difference in magnitude
of the two vectors and acts in the direction of the bigger of the two vectors
 When two vectors are at right angles to each other In this case,&theta= 900o,
cos 90o = 0,sin 90o= 1
From (6) R=root(P2+Q2)
From (7) a=tan-1(Q/P)
The resultant Vector R vector acts at an angle α with vector Vector P.

Relative Velocity: Relative velocity is used to denote the aircraft moving in the wind or
boats moving through the water, etc. The velocity is measured within the object
according to the observer. It can be measured using the use of an intermediate
reference frame. In simpler terms, this can be the vector sum of the velocities. The
relative velocity formula is expressed as

Where VABis the velocity with respect to A and B, VBC is the velocity with respect to B and
C and V AC is the velocity with respect to A and C.Let us consider two objects, A and B
moving with velocities Va and Vb with respect to a common stationary frame of
reference, say the ground, a bridge or a fixed platform.
The velocity of the object A relative to the object B can be given as,
Vab = Va - Vb
Similarly, the velocity of the object B relative to that of object a is given by,
Vba = Vb - Va
From the above two expressions, we can see that
Vab = -Vba
Although the magnitude of both the relative velocities is equal to each other.
Mathematically,
|Vab| = |Vba|

Resolution of vectors: The component of F in a direction making an angle θ is F cos

θ.
The other component of F at right angles to F cos θ is F sin θ.

A vector directed at an angle with the co-ordinate axis, can be resolved into its
components along the axes. This process of splitting a vector into its components is
known as resolution of a vector.
Consider a vector R = Vector( OA) making an angle θ with X - axis. The vector R can be
resolved into two components along X - axis and Y-axis respectively. Draw two
perpendiculars from A to X and Y axes respectively. The intercepts on these axes are
called the scalar components Rx and Ry.
Then, OP is Rx, which is the magnitude of x component of Vector R and OQ
is Ry, which is the magnitude of y component of Vector R.
From ∆ OPA,
cos θ = OP/OA = Rx/R(or) Rx=Rcos θ
sin θ = OQ/OA = Ry/R (or) Ry=Rsin θ
R2 = Rx2 + Ry2
Also, Vector R can be expressed as Vector R = Rxi + Ryj where i and j are unit vectors.
In terms of Rx and Ry , θ can be expressed as θ = tan−1 [Ry/Rx]

Unit vector: A vector having unit magnitude is called a unit vector. It is also defined as
a vector divided by its own magnitude. A unit vector in the direction of a vector A ,is
written as  and is read as 'A cap' or 'A caret' or 'A hat'. Therefore,

Thus, a vector can be written as the product of its magnitude and unit vector along its
direction.

Dot product:
The geometric meaning of dot product says that the dot product between two given

a⋅b = a ∣∣ b ∣ cos
vectors and bis denoted by:

Here, |a| and |b| are called as the magnitudes of vector a and b and θ is the angle
between the vectors a and b.
If the two vectors are orthogonal, that is, the angle between them is 90, then a.b = 0
since cos 90 = 0.
If the two vectors are parallel to each other, then a.b =|a||b| since cos 0 = 1.

Dot Product Algebra Definition

The dot product algebra says that the dot product of the given two products - a =
(a1,a2,a3,) and b = (b1,b2,b3)is given by:
a.b = (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3)
Dot Product of Two Vectors Properties
Given below are the properties of vectors:

 Commutative Property
a .b = b.a
a.b =|a| b|cos θ
a.b =|b||a|cos θ
 Distributive Property
a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c
 Bilinear Property
a.(rb + c) = r.(a.b) + (a.c)
 Scalar Multiplication Property
(xa) . (yb) = xy (a.b)
 Non-Associative Property
Since the dot product between a scalar and a vector is not allowed
 Orthogonal Property
Two vectors are orthogonal only when a.b = 0

Vector product or Cross product

The vector product or cross product of two vectors A and B is denoted by , A x B, and
its resultant vector is perpendicular to the vectors A and B.The cross product is mostly
used to determine the vector, which is perpendicular to the plane surface spanned by
two vectors, whereas the dot product is used to find the angle between two vectors or
the length of the vector. The cross product of two vectors, say A x B,is equal to another
vector at right angles to both, and it happens in the three-dimensions.

If θ is the angle between the given two vectors A and B, then the formula for the cross
product of vectors is given by:
A x B = |A| |B| sin θ
Or, Vector A x Vector B = ||Vector A || ||Vector B|| sin θn ^
Here, Vector A, Vector B are two Vectors.
||Vector A || ||Vector B|| are the magnitudes of given vectors.
θ is the angle between two vectors and n^is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane
containing the given two vectors, in the direction given by the right-hand rule.

Cross product of two vectors Formula

Consider two vectors,
A = ai + bj + ck
B = xi + yj + zk
We know that the standard basis vectors i,j and k satisfy the below-given equalities.
i x j = k and j x i = -k
j x k = i and k x j = -i
k x i = j and i x k = -j
Also, the anti-commutativity of the cross product and the distinct absence of linear
independence of these vectors signifies that:
ixi=jxj=kxk=0
Now,
A × B = (ai + bj + ck) × (xi + yj + zk) = ax(i × i) + ay(i × j) + az(i × k) + bx(j × i) + by(j × j)
+ bz(j × k) + cx(k × i) + cy(k × j) + cz(k × k)
By applying the above mentioned equalities,
A × B = ax(0) + ay(k) + az(-j) + bx(-k) + by(0) + bz(i) + cx(j) + cy(-i) + cz(0) = (bz – cy)i +
(cx – az)j + (ay – bx)k

Cross product matrix:

We can also derive the formula for the cross product of two vectors using the
determinant of the matrix as given below.
A = ai + bj + ck B = xi + yj + zk
Thus,

A × B = (bz – cy)i – (az – cx)j + (ay – bx)k = (bz – cy)i + (cx – az)j + (ay – bx)k

Cross product of perpendicular Vector:

Cross product of two vectors is equal to the product of their magnitude, which
represents the area of a rectangle with sides X and Y. If two vectors are perpendicular
to each other, then the cross product formula becomes:
θ= 90 °
We know that, sin 90° = 1
So,
Cross Product of parallel vector:
The cross product of two vectors are zero vectors if both the vectors are parallel or
opposite to each other. Conversely, if two vectors are parallel or opposite to each other,
then their product is a zero vector. Two vectors have the same sense of direction.
θ= 90 degrees
As we know, sin 0° = 0 and sin 90° = 1
So,

Projectile Motion : When a particle is thrown obliquely near the earth’s surface, it
moves along a curved path under constant acceleration that is directed towards the
centre of the earth (we assume that the particle remains close to the surface of the
earth). The path of such a particle is called a projectile and the motion is called
projectile motion.
In a Projectile Motion, there are two simultaneous independent rectilinear
motions:

Total Time of Flight: Resultant displacement (s) = 0 in Vertical direction. Therefore, by

using the Equation of motion:
gt2 = 2(uyt – sy) [Here,uy = u sin θ and sy = 0]
i.e. gt2 = 2t × u sin θ

1. Along the x-axis: uniform velocity, responsible for the horizontal (forward) motion
of the particle.
2. Along y-axis: uniform acceleration, responsible for the vertical (downwards)
motion of the particle.
3. First Equation of Motion: v = u + at
4. Second Equation of Motion: s = ut + 1/2 at2
5. Third Equation of Motion: v2 = u2 + 2as
Time of flight :

Horizontal range:
Horizontal Range (OA) = Horizontal component of velocity (ux) × Total Flight Time (t)
R = u cos θ × 2u×sinθg
Therefore, in a projectile motion the Horizontal Range is given by (R):

Maximum horizontal range

Projectile on inclined plane:

Let the particle strike the plane at A so that OA is the range of the projectile on inclined
plane. This initial velocity can be resolved into two components:

 g sin β parallel to the plane

 g cos β perpendicular to the plane.
Time of Flight:- Let t be the time taken by the particle to go from A to B. In this time the
displacement of the projectile to the plane is zero.
Hence, 0 = u sin (α-β) t - ½g β t2
=> t = 2u sin(α-β)/gcosβ
Range:-
During time of flight, the horizontal velocity u cos α remains constant.
Hence, horizontal distance,
OB = (ucosα) t = 2u2sin(α-β)cosα/gcosβ
Now, OA = OB/cosβ = 2u2sin(α-β)cosα/gcosβ
The greatest distance of the projectile from the inclined plane is u2sin2 (α-β)/2gcosβ .
Circular Motion:
Circular motion is the movement of an object in a circular path.

 Uniform circular motion:

motion refers to the circular motion if the magnitude of the velocity of the particle
in circular motion remains constant. The non-uniform circular motion refers to the
circular motion when the magnitude of the velocity of the object is not constant.
Another special kind of circular motion is when an object rotates around itself
 also known by spinning motion.

 Variables in Circular Motion

 Angular Displacement The angle which is subtended by the position vector at the
center of the circular path refers to the angular displacement.
Angular Displacement (Δθ) = (ΔS/r)
Where Δ’s refers to the linear displacement while r is the radius. Radian is the
unit of Angular Displacement.
 Angular Acceleration
It refers to the rate of time of change of angular velocity (dῶ).
Angular acceleration (α) = dῶ/dt = d2θ / dt2
Its unit is rad/s2and dimensional formula [T]-2. The relation between linear
acceleration (a) and angular acceleration (α)
A = rα, where r is the radius.
 Angular Velocity
It refers to the time rate change of angular displacement (dῶ).
Angular Velocity (ῶ) = Δθ/Δt
Angular Velocity is a vector quantity. Its unit is rad/s. The relation between the
linear velocity (v) and angular velocity (ῶ) is v = rῶ
 Centripetal Acceleration
It refers to an acceleration that acts on the body in circular motion whose
direction is always towards the center of the path.
Centripetal Acceleration (α) = v2/r = rῶ2.
The magnitude of this acceleration by comparing ratios of velocity and position
around the circle. Since the particle is traveling in a circular path, the ratio of the
change in velocity to velocity will be the same as the ratio of the change in
position to position. It is also known as radial acceleration as it acts along the
radius of the circle. Centripetal Acceleration is a vector quantity and the unit is in
m/s2.
 Non-uniform circular motion:
A change in speed means that unequal length of arc (s) is covered in equal time
 intervals. It further means that the change in the velocity (v) of the particle is not
limited to change in direction as in the case of uniform circular motion. In other
words, the magnitude of the velocity (v) changes with time, in addition to
continuous change in direction, which is inherent to the circular motion owing to
the requirement of the particle to follow a non-linear circular path.
 Radial acceleration

 Tangential acceleration

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

IMPLUS AND MOMENTUM

1. Impulse:
Impulse is the product of the force and the time during which the force acts. If the force
is variable, then⇒ The area under F-t graph gives impulse

Momentum: Momentum is directly proportional to the object's mass (m) and velocity
(v) The SI unit for momentum is kg m/s. Momentum is so important for understanding
motion that it was called the quantity of motion by physicists such as Newton

2. Principle Of Conservation Of Momentum:

The total momentum of a system of particles is a constant in the absence of external
forces.

Derivation of Conservation of Momentum

3. Newton's Experimental Law:
The scientific definition of linear momentum is consistent with most people’s intuitive
understanding of momentum: a large, fast-moving object has greater momentum than a
smaller, slower object. Linear momentum is defined as the product of a system’s mass
multiplied by its velocity. In symbols, linear momentum is expressed as p = mv.
Momentum is directly proportional to the object’s mass and also its velocity. Thus the
greater an object’s mass or the greater its velocity, the greater its momentum.
Momentum p is a vector having the same direction as the velocity v. The SI unit for
momentum is kg.m/s.
The efficient of restitution,The Coefficient of Restitution (e) is a variable number with
no units, with limits from zero to one.

0≤e≤1

'e' is a consequence of Newton's Experimental Law of Impact, which describes how

the speed of separation of two impacting bodies compares with their speed of
approach.
note: the speeds are relative speeds

If we consider the speed of individual masses before and after collision, we obtain
another useful equation:

uA = initial speed of mass A

uB = initial speed of mass B
vA = final speed of mass A
vB = final speed of mass B

relative initial speed of mass A to mass B = uB - uA

relative final speed of mass A to mass B = vB - vA

note: in this equation the absolute of uB - uA and vB - vA are used ( |absolute| so there is
no net negative result )
4. Analysis Of Collision:
Apply conservation of momentum along the line of collision.
Apply law of restitution along the line of collision
i.e., v2 - v1 = e (u1 - u2)
e = 1 for perfectly elastic collision.
e = 0 for perfectly inelastic collision
0 < e < 1 for other collisions

Elastic collision

If the kinetic energy of the system is conserved during a collision, it is called an elastic
collision. (i.e) The total kinetic energy before collision and after collision remains
unchanged. The collision between subatomic particles is generally elastic. The collision
between two steel or glass balls is nearly elastic. In elastic collision, the linear
momentum and kinetic energy of the system are conserved.

Elastic collision in one dimension

If the two bodies after collision move in a straight line, the collision is said to be of one
dimension.

Consider two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving along the same straight
line in the same direction with velocities u1 and u2respectively as shown in Fig.. Let us
assume that u1 is greater than u2. The bodies A and B suffer a head on collision when
they strike and continue to move along the same straight line with velocities v1 and
v2 respectively.

From the law of conservation of linear momentum,

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ...(1)

Since the kinetic energy of the bodies is also conserved during the collision

Total kinetic energy before collision = Total kinetic energy after collision

Equation 5 shows that in an elastic one-dimensional collision, the relative velocity with
which the two bodies approach each other before collision is equal to the relative
velocity with which they recede from each other after collision.
Special cases

Case ( i) : If the masses of colliding bodies are equal, i.e. m1 = m2

v1 = u2 and v2 = u1 .

After head on elastic collision, the velocities of the colliding bodies

are mutually interchanged.

Case (ii) : If the particle B is initially at rest, (i.e) u2 = 0 then

v1 = ( mA-mB / mA+mB) / uA

v2 = ( 2mA / mA+mB) / u1

Force due to a jet of water on a wall = u2 Ad, where u is the velocity of the jet, A is the
area of cross-section of jet and d is the density of the fluid
In the absence of external forces, the centre of mass of a system has a constant
velocity.

Inelastic collision
During a collision between two bodies if there is a loss of kinetic energy, then the
collision is said to be an inelastic collision. Since there is always some loss of kinetic
energy in any collision, collisions are generally inelastic. In inelastic collision, the linear
momentum is conserved but the energy is not conserved. If two bodies stick together,
after colliding, the collision is perfectly inelastic but it is a special case of inelastic
collision called plastic collision. (eg) a bullet striking a block of wood and being
embedded in it. The loss of kinetic energy usually results in the form of heat or sound
energy.

Let us consider a simple situation in which the inelastic head on collision between two
bodies of masses mA and mB takes place. Let the colliding bodies be initially move with
velocities u1 and u2. After collision both bodies stick together and moves with common
velocity v.

Total momentum of the system before collision = mAu1 + mBu2

Total momentum of the system after collision =

mass of the composite body ? common velocity = (mA+ mB ) v By law of conservation

of momentum

mAu1 + mBu2 = (mA+ mB) v

(or)

v = mAuA + mB uB / mA + mB

Thus, knowing the masses of the two bodies and their velocities before collision, the
common velocity of the system after collision can be calculated.

If the second particle is initially at rest i.e. u2 = 0 then

v = mAuA / (mA+mB)

kinetic energy of the system before collision

EK1 = 1/2 m AuA2 [u2 = 0]

and kinetic energy of the system after collision

EK2 = 1/2(mA +mB )v2

Hence,

Ek2/Ek1 = kinetic energy after collision / kinetic energy before collision

= ( mA+mB)v2 / mAuA2

Substituting the value of v in the above equation,

Ek2/Ek1 = mA/mA+mB

(Or)

Ek2/Ek1 < 1
It is clear from the above equation that in a perfectly inelastic collision, the kinetic
energy after impact is less than the kinetic energy before impact. The loss in kinetic
energy may appear as heat energy

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The momentum is defined as the product of mass and the velocity. The
linear conservation of momentum says that the total momentum of the
system is always constant. The impulse is defined as the rate of change of
momentum with respect to time.

⇒p=m×v⇒𝑝=𝑚×𝑣
Formula used:The formula of the momentum is given by,

Where mass is m and velocity is v.

⇒F=m×a⇒𝐹=𝑚×𝑎
Formula of the force is given by,

Where mass is mass and acceleration is a.

ROTATIONAL MOTION
Centre Of Mass Of System Of Particles
(a) The centre of mass (CoM) is the point relative to the system of particles in an object.
This is that point of the system of particles that embarks the average position of the
system in relation to the mass of the object. At the centre of
mass, the weighted mass gives a sum equal to zero. It is the point where any uniform
force applied on the object acts.

In other words, a particle’s centre of mass is the point where Newton’s law of motions
applies perfectly. When force is applied to the centre of mass, the object as a system of
particles moves in the direction of force without rotating. No matter what the shape of
the object, the centre of mass helps understand the mechanism of force and motion of
that object.
(b) Two body system

From the equation above we get the centre of mass of two particles with equal masses.
From the above equation, it is clear that the CoM of two particles lies in the midway of
both.

Angular Momentum:
Angular momentum is basically the product of the moment of inertia of an object and its
angular velocity. Furthermore, both the quantities must be about the equal and the
same axis i.e. the rotation line.
Torque:
Torque is a twisting force that speaks to the engine's rotational force and
measures how much of that twisting force is available when an engine exerts
itself. ... This applies torque, or a twisting force, to the bolt.

A simple way to calculate the magnitude of the torque is to first determine the lever arm
and then multiply it times the applied force.

Now, from the above observation, we conclude that torque produced depends on the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between the point about which
torque is calculated and the point of application of force. So, mathematically torque is
represented as:

τ = F.r. sinθ
The unit of torque is Newton–meter (N-m). The above equation can be represented as
the vector product of force and position vector.

τ=rxF

So, as it is a vector product hence torque also must be a vector. Using vector
product notations we can find the direction of torque
Conservation Of Angular Momentum

In the absence of external torque, the angular momentum of a particle does not change.
So rotating objects that collide in a closed system conserve not only linear momentum p
in all directions, but also angular momentum L in all directions.

Moment Of Inertia
Moment of inertia is defined as the quantity expressed by the body resisting angular
acceleration which is the sum of the product of the mass of every particle with its square
of a distance from the axis of rotation. Or in more simple terms, it can be described as a
quantity that decides the amount of torque needed for a specific angular acceleration in
a rotational axis. Moment of Inertia is also known as the angular mass or rotational
inertia. The SI unit of moment of inertia is kg m2.

TABLE: Moment Of Inertia

Mas
S.No Nature of body Dimension Axis I
s
 Uniform solid
1 M radius r Passing through centre of mass
sphere
Coincides with the geometric axis (I,e,
Uniform solid
2 M radius r longitudinal axis passing through centre
cylinder or disc
of mass)
A cylindrical Coincides with the longitudinal axis
3 M radius r Mr2
shell or hoop passing through the centre of mass
A thin straight Passing through centre of mass and
4 M Length l
rod perpendicular to longitudinal axis
A thin straight Passing through one of its ends and
5 M Length 2l
rod perpendicular to longitudinal axis.
(a) Parallel axes theorem

(b) Perpendicular axes theorem

M.O.I of a 2-dimensional object about an axis passing perpendicularly from it is equal to

the sum of the M.O.I of the object about 2 mutually perpendicular axes lying in the plane
of the object.

According to the above definition of Perpendicular axis theorem can be written as,

IZZ = IXX + IYY

Radius Of Gyration (K):
The moment of inertia of a body about an axis is sometimes represented using the
radius of gyration. Now, what do you mean by the radius of gyration? We can define the
radius of gyration as the imaginary distance from the centroid at which the area of
cross-section is imagined to be focused at a point in order to obtain the same moment
of inertia. It is denoted by k.

The formula of moment inertia in terms of the radius of gyration is given as

follows:

I = mk2 (1)

where I is the moment of inertia and m is the mass of the body

Accordingly, the radius of gyration is given as follows

k=√Imk=Im(2)

The unit of the radius of gyration is mm. By knowing the radius of gyration, one can find
the moment of inertia of any complex body equation (1) without any hassle.
Consider a body having n number of particles each having a mass of m. Let the
perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation be given by r1, r2, r3,…,rn. We know
that the moment of inertia in terms of radius of gyration is given by the equation (1).
Substituting the values in the equation, we get the moment od inertia of the body as
follows

………… (3)

If all the particles have the same mass then equation (3) becomes

We can write mn as M which signifies the total mass of the body. Now the equation
becomes

………… (4)

From equation (4), we get

From the above equation, we can infer that the radius of gyration can also be defined as
the root-mean-square distance of various particles of the body from the axis of rotation.

Rotatonal Work,Power And Energy

(a) Work done by torque:

Work done is the force multiplied with the distance moved by the force - and can be
expressed as
W = F s (1)

where

W = work done (J, Nm)

F = force (N)

s = distance moved by force (s)

For an angular motion

the work done can be expressed as

W=Fθr

= T θ (2)

where

W = work (Joules)

θ = angle (radians)

r = radius (m)

T = torque or moment (Nm)

(b) Power developed by torque

Power is the ratio between the work done and the time taken and can be expressed as

P = W / dt

= T θ / dt

=Tω

=2πnT

= 2π (nrpm / 60) T

= 0.105 nrpm T(3)

where
P = power (Watts)

dt = time taken (s)

ω = θ / dt = 2 π n = angular velocity (rad/s)

n = speed (rev/s)

nrpm = speed (rev/min, rpm)

(c) Kinetic energy of rotation

Things that roll without slipping have some fraction of their energy as translational
kinetic and the remainder as rotational kinetic. The ratio depends on the moment of
inertia of the object that’s rolling.

Erotational = 12Iω2

where ω is the angular velocity and II is the moment of inertia around the axis of
rotation.

The mechanical work applied during rotation is the torque (ττ) times the rotation angle
(θ): W=τθ

The instantaneous power of an angularly accelerating body is the torque times the
angular velocity: P=τω.

Note the close relationship between the result for rotational energy and the energy held
by linear (or translational) motion:

translational=12mv2.In the rotating system, the moment of inertia takes the role of the
mass and the angular velocity takes the role of the linear velocity.

As an example, let us calculate the rotational kinetic energy of the Earth (animated in
Figure 1 ). As the Earth has a period of about 23.93 hours, it has an angular velocity of
7.29×10−5 rad/s. The Earth has a moment of inertia, I = 8.04×1037 kg·m2. Therefore, it
has a rotational kinetic energy of 2.138×1029 J.

Rolling Motion
(a) In pure rolling (i.e. without slipping):Rolling is a type of motion that combines
rotation and translation of that object with respect to a surface, such that, if ideal
conditions exist, the two are in contact with each other without sliding. Rolling where
there is no sliding is referred to as pure rolling.
Rolling Motion of Disc

(Source: My Rank)

Let us assume that the disc rolls without slipping. If that this disc is the uniform disc the
centre of mass lies at the centre of the disc that is the point ‘0’. The velocity of the
centre of mass will always be parallel to the surface as we can see this in the figure.

At any instant of time, there will be two velocities. One is the velocity of the centre of
mass and another one is the component of linear velocity. The velocity of the centre of
mass is vcm. This corresponds to the translation motion of the object. vr is the linear
velocity which corresponds to the rotation.
vr = rω.

Let us first consider the point P0

So at P0 we have two velocities that are vcm and vr. Here the direction of the centre of
mass is in the direction of P0andvcm and

vr are opposite in direction. If we want the object to roll without slipping, the point which
is in contact with the ground should be at rest. So vr = vcm

⇒ rω = vcm
(b) Acceleration (a) of a body rolling down on an inclined plane
 ,

⇒ Different bodies of same radius such as ring, hollow sphere, solid sphere and
where R = radius of body, K = radius of gyration

cylinder will acquire different accelerations (as they have different K values) and hence
take different time to reach the bottom of the plane.