MALAWI ASSEMBLIES OF GOD UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS

COMMUNICATION SKILLS MODULE

BY

MASAUTSO KAMMWAMBA

© 2017

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Malawi Assemblies of God University
Faculty of Education
Department of Arts
COM 1013 : Communication Skills

Programme : Bachelor of Education & Bachelor of Commerce

Year : One

Semester : One

No. of contact hours per week :3

Mode of assessment : 60% continuous assessment 40% final examinations

Course introduction

This course is designed to develop both oral and written communication skills in students. These
skills will enable them write assignments effectively and deliver professionally at their work
places.

Course Aim:

The course will equip students with communication skills necessary in their college life and in
the business world thereafter.

Course Objectives

By the end of this course, students should be able to:

 Communicate effectively and diplomatically

 Write academic and business papers effectively
 Effectively use of business vocabulary in official writing and speech
 Present effectively.
 Conduct official communication effectively
 Understand and use business communication skills
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Course Outline for the study
Unit 1: Introduction to communication

A. What is communication
B. Process of communication
C. Channels of communication in Organisations and Institutions
D. The Elements, Vocabulary and Register of Business Communication
E. Models of communication
F. Barriers to effective communication

Unit 2: Writing Skills

A. The writing process

B. Academic writing
 Essay writing
 Paragraph writing
 Project and proposal writing
 Reporting for Management Decisions: General Considerations
 Planning, Designing and Researching for Business Reports.
C. Business writing
 Types and layout of business documents
 Letter writing: Resumes and cover letter
 CVs
 Departmental communication: e-mails, memos,
 Handling of meetings
 Writing of the Minutes of Business Meetings

Unit 3: Reading Skills

A. Reading strategies
 Scanning
 Skimming
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  Inferences and Prediction
B. SQ3R & MURDER Strategies
C. Active reading
D. Barriers to effective reading
E. Examination preparation

Unit 4: Listening Skills

A. Theory of listening
B. Active Listening
C. Differences between hearing and listening
D. Barriers to effective listening.

Unit 5: Public speaking

A. Routine Business Office Interactions and Public Speaking
B. Oral presentations
C. Interactive presentations
D. Interviews

Unit 6: Business Communication

A. Importance of Business Communication
B. Nature of Business Communications
A. Objective of Business Communication
Teaching and learning methods/activities:

Lecture, group discussion, demonstration, research, class presentations, reading assignments

Course resources
Prescribed texts
Bailey, S. 2006. Academic Writing. 2nd ed. Canada, USA: Routledge

Guffey’s, M. E. 2007. Essentials of Business Communication. 7th ed. USA: Thomason High
Education.

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Recommended texts

Mc Cuen-Metherell, J and Winkler, A.C.2009. From Idea to Essay. 12th ed. USA: Houghton
Mifflin Harcout publishing company.

McCrimmon, J. M. 1963. Writing with a purpose. Boston: Mifflin Company.

Reuben, R. 2001. Communication Today: Understanding Creative Skills. New Delhi. Himalaya
Publishing House.

Sinha, K. K. 2003. Business Communication. New Delhi: Golgatia Publishers

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UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Introduction

We all engage ourselves in communication, but most of us do not know what communication is.
Communication is a (cyclic) process not a thing or a state. It is not just a matter of nouns and
verbs; it is an extremely complex process involving human senses, feelings, meanings, and
cultural and/or past experience. When one step in a process is missing the product changes all
together similarly in communication when one element misses communication process is
affected.
In communication, the sender puts across non-verbal, verbal (written or oral), electronic, visual
message to the receiver. The receiver is supposed to get the message and get the meaning out of
it. Usually when we communicate, we expect that the person on the other end should get the
meaning of what we are saying to them.

This topic gives you an overview of communication and introduces you to the main elements in
the communication process. It also highlights the elements, models and functions of
communication.

Success Criteria

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Define communication
2. Identify the main elements in the communication process
3. Differentiate between oral and written communication
4. Explain formal and informal channels of communication
5. Discuss levels of communication
6. Explain functions of communication

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Key Terms

You will find the following key words or phrases useful in this unit. Watch for them and make
sure that you understand what they mean and how they are used within the unit.

 Communication
 Elements of communication
 Channel
 Barrier
 Cognitive impairment
 Feedback

Communication (Meaning, Concept and Process)

Communication is a dynamic process that takes place around us all the time. In fact we spend
70% of our time receiving and sending messages.
The meaning:
The origin of the word “communication” is “communicare” or “communis” which means “to
impart”, “to participate”, “to share” or “to make common.” The sense of sharing is inherent
in the very origin and meaning of “communication.”
Definitions:
Take note that communication has been defined by several scholars in different ways. For the
sake of this course we are going to sample out some of the definitions of communication. But as
we do that, let us concentrate on the commonalities.

 Communication is the transmission of information, ideas and feelings in people with an

aim of informing, influencing and initiating action (Chikoti 2008:1)
 According to Adams and Galanes (2000) communication refers to perception,
interpretation, and response of people to signals produced by other people.
 Communication is sharing thoughts, ideas, and feelings with each other in commonly
understandable ways (Hamilton, 1982). This sharing of thoughts is between individuals
and it must be understood that it is done through shared system of symbols.

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If we look at these definitions there are some commonalities that; there should be the sender, the
message itself, the receiver and an aspect of the message moving. As such we can now all agree
that if a definition for communication should encompass all these aspects then it should be as
follows:

Communication is the exchange or transfer of information from a source (sender) to the

receiver in which the receiver understands the message that was sent by the sender.

Take note that if the message is not understood then there is no communication that has taken
place. Communication is effective if the message that is received is the same as the one that was
sent. If the receiver does not understand the message then there is no communication at all. For
us to better understand the communication process we need to look at the elements or basic parts
of communication process.

The process of communication:

Communication is a two-way process involving the following elements: a sender, encoding
message, a medium, a channel, a receiver, decoding, feedback and barrier. However, it is not
sufficient to have just all these elements; there should be cooperation and understanding between
the two parties involved. It is important to have a common frame of reference or context for
successful and meaningful communication, for example; a common language or common
interpretation of a gesture.

Essentially communication involves the sender or the communicator and the receiver. Both
should necessarily share a mutually accepted code e.g. a common language. The context in
which the communication takes place is called the “communication environment”. The content
of the code is sent in a certain medium (oral, written or non-verbal) using channels (air, mikes,
body, pictures, text, etc.) in the form of encoded messages. The “code” is not restricted to only
language; it may also involve the use of costumes, gestures, colours among other things. The
process of communication can be described in the following manner:

The sender sends a “message” using a “medium” and a “channel” to the “receiver”. The message
arrives in the sensory world of the receiver. The receiver’s brain filters the message on the basis

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of his or her knowledge, emotions, attitudes, and biases and gives the message a unique meaning.
This meaning may trigger a response which the mind of the receiver forms. The receiver encodes
his or her response and sends it across as “feedback” into the sensory world of the sender. This
completes one cycle of communication and the process continues in a cyclic manner, i.e. cycle
after cycle, as long as the people involved care to communicate.
The components of the communication process can be listed as follows:
1. Idea or impulse that arises in the sender’s mind
2. Formal expression of the idea or impulse using a medium and channel: encoding
3. Interpretation of the message by the receiver: decoding
4. Reaction or response of the receiver
5. Conveying the reaction or response in the feedback using a medium and channel
6. Decoding of the feedback received

The essentials of effective communication are:

1. A common communication environment
2. Cooperation between the sender and the receiver
3. Selection of an appropriate channel
4. Correct encoding and decoding of the message
5. Receipt of the desired response and feedback

Elements in Communication
Have you ever wondered why some people can communicate so well while others fail to get their
message across? What are the elements that must be present in the communication process
before it can be successful and effective?

Remember, communication has been defined as the act of giving, receiving or exchanging
information, ideas and opinions so that the “message” is completely understood by both parties.
Look at Figure 1.1 below. The illustration shows clearly that in a communication process, there
must be a sender who speaks or sends a message, and a receiver who listens or receives the
message.

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 Figure 1.1: Elements and communication process
The sender sends a message with a certain intention in mind. The receiver of the message tries to
understand and interpret the message sent. He then gives feedback to the original sender, who in
turn interprets the feedback. This process, repeated continuously, constitutes communication.

Clearly, there are several major elements in the communication process a sender, encoding,
message, medium, channel, receiver, decoding, feedback, context and barrier. There is both a
speaker’s intention to convey a message and a listener’s reception of what has been said. Thus,
listening skills are just as important as speaking skills in order for communication to be effective.

This means that if you want to get your message across accurately, you need to consider these
three things:
 The message;
 The audience or receiver; and
 How the message is likely to be received.

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A message is only considered successfully communicated when both the sender and the receiver
perceive and understand it in the same way. If this does not happen, then there may be a
breakdown in communication, which may ultimately stand in the way of you realising your
goals, either personally or professionally.

The elements can be summarised and defined as follows;

 Sender: This is the source of the message. The sender must have the will or impulse to
communicate for him or her to initiate the communication process. The sender must be
motivated or stirred either internally or externally before they send the message.
 Encoding: This is putting the message in a right form for easy understanding when the
receiver gets it
 Message: The idea or the information that is being communicated. The message, is what
is sent by the information source and received by the destination or target audience or
receiver
 Medium: This is the form in which the message is put. The medium is the means of
communication, such as print, mass, electronic, and digital.
 Channel: This is the path through which the message will pass in order to reach the
receiver.
 Receiver: The one who is targeted to get the message, also called the audience, recipient.
 Decoding: Is interpreting the message so as to get the idea that it carries. When the
encoders’ message is accessed, the receiver tries to make sense of it up by decoding.
 Feedback: The response by the receiver of the message to the sender. In face-to-face
conversation, feedback is more easily perceived or noted. The sender can tell if the
receivers are paying attention when he speaks to them. The receiver decodes or makes
out the meaning of the message. Thus, in the feedback loop, the receiver becomes the
sender and the sender becomes the receiver.
In short, the transmission of the receiver’s response to the sender is called “feedback.” It
is one of the most vital factors of the communication process. It is essential because it is a
barometer of effective communication. The sender needs to know whether the receiver of
the message has received it in the intended way and whether he responds in the desired

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manner. Of course, even if one receives a response, it may or may not be the one you had
expected. But once you receive some response, you know that the message has been
communicated, for example; a notice for a meeting. There could be both positive and
negative responses to this message; some may turn up for the meeting and some may not.
Communication is said to be fully effective only when you get the desired response.

Feedback helps in improving communication as it enables the sender to pinpoint defects

in the transmission of the message. A skilful communicator is always looking for warning
signs that the communication is not going well and adjusts messages accordingly. Being
alert to feedback helps the sender know whether he or she is on the right track. In the
long run, it helps in understanding one’s strengths and weaknesses in the communication
context. In the business world, managers should ensure that adequate facilities and
opportunities exist for obtaining feedback. This is done through establishment of internal
systems and forums which enable employees to express their views and influence
decisions. Market research is another way of obtaining feedback and information from
employees and external target groups.

Like it has already mentioned feedback may be positive or negative. Positive feedback
occurs when the receiver receives the desired response based on a clear understanding of
the symbols used in the message.

Negative feedback occurs when there is an undesired response because of

miscommunication. In some cases, not getting feedback is also a sort of feedback. For
instance, complete silence on the part of the receiver is also an indicator of either
effective communication (agreement) or a failure on the part of the communicator
(inability to understand, dissent).

Observation of changes in the recipient’s behavior in face-to-face communication is a

source of valuable feedback in cases where the receiver does not explicitly express his
reaction. For instance, if a counselor gives a pep-talk to a depressed student and notices

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 that he is more cheerful, relaxed and willing to talk on his next visit, he interprets this
change as a positive response.

Feedback may be either immediate or delayed. For example, oral responses are
immediately conveyed but in case of written communication, the feedback may take
some time.

Feedback is important because of the following reasons:

i. Feedback ensures that mutual understanding has taken place in

communication

ii. It also completes the communication cycle.

iii. It helps the sender to modify his message.

iv. It shows that message has reached the receiver

 Barrier: This is any impediment to the message.

Self Evaluation -Activity 1a

1. Define communication
2. Explain the communication process
3. Explain the difference between channel and medium in communication
4. Discuss three reasons why feedback in communication is important

Levels of communication
In communication there are a number of levels in which communication would take place. Main
ones are;
1. Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is communication within the self (Hanson R.E. 2005). It is also
called self-talk. Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal

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vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal
communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example,
communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or
we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication,
intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of
communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication. So what is the
point of intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it?

Importance of intrapersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions.
 Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social
adjustment. For example, a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful
situation, or a shy person may remind herself to smile during a social event.
 Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We form an
understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us and how
we process that communication intrapersonally.
 We also use intrapersonal communication or “self-talk” to let off steam, process
emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future. In
short it is done when planning, organizing, or encouraging oneself.
We have noted that competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction
and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to
intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness.

2. Interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal communication is the process of sending and receiving information between two or
more people.

Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence
one another. Take note that interpersonal communication can build, maintain, and end our
relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other
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forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is
addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural
communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated
communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is usually

more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal communication.
Interpersonal communication is also more goal-oriented than intrapersonal communication and
fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as
minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be
in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets relational needs
by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship.

Interpersonal communication provides many opportunities for feedback. The friend would nod,
raise eyebrows, touches your arm, or simply answer. Not all interpersonal communication is
done face to face (telephone conversation, instant message (sms), an email, greeting card).

Types of interpersonal communication

This kind of communication is subdivided into dyadic communication, small group
communication public speaking communication and mass communication.
1. Dyadic communication

This is a method of communication that only involves two people. Examples would be telephone
conversation, letters sent and received by pen pals. This kind of communication allows for more
specific tailoring of the message and is a more personal communication than the other media.

2. Small group communication

This is whereby the communication involves a few people sending and receiving information
from each other or interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely worked in groups in
secondary school and you are expected to continue working in groups here in college. Even
though some students do not enjoy working in groups but, group work in an academic setting

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provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional settings.
Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it
or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Unlike
interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals in a group are often assigned to their
position within a group. Additionally, group communication is often task focused, meaning that
members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of
the group.
Importance of group work
Small group communication is important for a number of reasons when it comes to solving
problems

 Groups have more information available about the problem and are less likely to omit
something
 Groups can get more investigative and get the work done.
 Group members can correct each other’s misinformation, faulty assumptions and invalid
reasoning
 Groups can think of more suggestions, ideas and alternatives from which to create or
chose a solution
 Group participation fosters loyalty to the solution and makes implementation easier and
faster.
3. Public speaking communication
Public speaking communication is whereby one individual speaks to many people in a face to
face situation. Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one
person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is
something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication,
public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When
compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most

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consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so
far.
4. Mass communication

Mass communication is whereby information is given to a large audience at the same time using
electronic or print media. Public communication becomes mass communication when it is
transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Mass communication uses
newspapers, magazines, radio and television. Print media such as newspapers and magazines
continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much
in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and
social media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly.

Functions of Communication
Communication performs many functions, such as informing and generating awareness,
educating, persuading, motivating, entertaining, etc. Let us examine some of these functions:
1. Sharing of Information
Information is key to progress in any society. Communication plays an important role in
information dissemination related to any form of human activity, such as social, political,
economic, educational and developmental. Communication provides us with information about
the environment we are placed in. It helps in moulding our opinions, formulating decisions and
in turn making 'informed choices' to safeguard our interests as well those of the society.
2. Education and Training
Communication results in sharing of information, which in turn makes people knowledgeable
and thus productive members of the society. Right from our childhood we are taught by our
teachers in the school and elders at home and we thus gain various new concepts and skills as we
grow up. However, you need to take note that we do not cease to learn when we grow up as we
continue to learn throughout our lives. In the modern educational scenario, training of personnel
is an ongoing process and communication plays an important role in orientation and training of
teachers and learners. The degree of learning depends to a great extent not only on the contents
of training but also how effectively the information and skills are shared. As we know,

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knowledge can be constructed through interaction between learners and his or her peers and also
with his or her teachers or sources of information. Hence, effective communication results in
effective teaching and training.
3. Socialization
For the well being of the society, nation and culture it is crucial that we are exposed to different
viewpoints so that we understand and appreciate the need for plurality of ideas and diversity of
views. Communication fosters the feeling of oneness in a society by exposing the various social
groups to different views. It develops the need to share and understand the feelings, emotions,
hopes, aspirations and expectations of varied groups in a social system.
4. Entertainment
To break the monotony of human life, we need to be exposed to art, literature, music, films,
dance, drama, sports and other modes of entertainment. Communication provides us with this
necessary diversion. Thus entertainment is an equally important function of communication.
However, of late, this element has overtaken other functions especially in various mass
communication media.
5. Motivation
A motivated individual plays a useful and active role in a society. Communication motivates and
persuades individuals to meet the mutually agreed upon goals. Sharing success stories of those
who have overcome the odds in life and have been able to achieve their goals can do this. This
function of communication, although relevant in all walks of life is more pronounced in business
and industry where communication is being increasingly used as a tool for motivation.
6. Persuasion
Yet another important function of communication is to persuade. This may be to influence us
towards a new idea, technique or a product and also to persuade us to buy these products. The
industrial and corporate houses and advertising agencies, while taking messages of new products
to potential consumers far and wide have amply exploited this function. Different mass
communication media are used for this purpose. However, many a time unscrupulous advertisers
tend to exploit the receiver of communication for ulterior motives. In the wake of globalization
and liberalization and the growing competitive environment and consumerist culture, we need to
take great care to understand the motives of the source.

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 7. Preservation of culture
Communication helps to preserve the culture and heritage of a nation and society. Through
communication, stories from the epics, Bible, Koran, etc. are shared with the younger generation.
The transmission of values from one generation to another has been taking place orally as well as
through written texts, over the ages. In the modern world different mass communication media
have taken up this function.

Models of communication

A communication model is chiefly a process in which information is enclosed in form of a

package and is channeled then imparted by the sender to the receiver through a medium. When
the receiver gets the information he or she decodes the message and gives the sender a certain
feedback. Models of communication refer to the conceptual model used to explain the human
communication process.

There are many models of communication developed by noted theorists of different disciplines.
Among the theorists are: Aristotle, Shannon, Winner and Norman. Some important and well-
known contributions are highlighted below;
Aristotle, a great philosopher was the first (300 B.C.) to develop a communication model called
‘Aristotle’s Model of Communication’. This model is more focused on public speaking than
interpersonal communication. Today, the Aristotelian model of communication is still widely
used and accepted. In this model of communication, the sender sends the message to the receiver
in an attempt to influence them to respond accordingly. The message has to be very impressive
and convincing. Therefore, the sender must know and understand their audience well. In this
model, the sender is an active participant and the receiver is passive. This concept is used in
public speaking, seminars, and lectures. Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with basic
elements. These are;

 Speaker
 Speech
 Audience

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 Figure 1 Aristotle‘s Model of communication

Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different time (occasion) and
for different effects. Speaker plays an important role in Public speaking. The speaker must
prepare his speech and analysis audience needs before he enters into the stage. His words should
influence in audience mind and persuade their thoughts towards him.

Linear Model
The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker
speaks and the listener listens. Laswell’s (1948) model was based on the five questions below,
which effectively describe how communication works:

Shannon's model of the communication process

Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process provides a general model of the
communication process that could be treated as the common ground of diverse disciplines or
fields

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 Figure 1: Shannon's (1948) Model of the communication process.

Shannon's model breaks the process of communication down into eight distinct parts:

 An information source, presumably a person who creates a message.

 The message, the content which is both sent by the information source and received by
the destination.
 A transmitter, for Shannon's immediate purpose, a telephone instrument that captures an
audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission
through the telephone network. Transmission is readily generalized within Shannon's
information theory to encompass a wide range of transmitters. The simplest transmission
system, that is associated with face-to-face communication, has at least two layers of
transmission. The first layer, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture), create and modulate
a signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a channel, is built on the air
(sound) and light (gesture) that enable the transmission of those signals from one person
to another.
 The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is
the case in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal
systems that depend on different channels and modes of transmission.
 A channel, the most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves,
paper, and postal systems.
 Noise, is in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried.

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  A receiver, in face to face communication a set of ears (to capture sound) and eyes (to
capture gestures). In television, several layers of receiver, including an antenna and a
television set.
 A destination, presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.

The challenge with this model is that it does indicate the flow of feedback. In communication
when feedback is not given it is assumed that communication is incomplete.

Katz Intermediary 1957 model

Figure 2: An Intermediary Model.

Others call it gatekeeper or 2 step model. Its focus is on editors or intermediaries to make the
message good for public consumption. Intermediaries are censors or moderators or editors; these
would censor the message or change the message or prevent it from reaching the public as it is.

Gatekeeper is an individual who tries to regulate which information should go forth to the
receiver and which information should not go forth. A good scenario of gate keeping could be
personal assistants or secretaries with their superiors; they would sieve information or even
choose individuals to go forth with their information or not.

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An Interactive Winer 1948 and 1986 Model

Figure 3: An Interactive Model:

This model is similar to Shannon's model. However, Winer capitalised on the weakness of
Shannon’s model by including feedback line to accommodate the idea that the receiver would
take part in the communication process by sending response to the one who initiated the process.

A Transactional: (Norman 1960 Model)

Figure 4: A Transactional Model:

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This model acknowledges neither creators nor consumers of messages, preferring to label the
people involved in communication as communicators who both create and consume messages.
This model focuses on equality on the sender and the receiver hence calling them
communicators A and B. The emphasis is on understanding each other.

Since there are a number of models, here is a simplified one whereby a number of aspects that
take place in communication have been considered generally.

Channel
Encoding Decoding
Sender Receiver
Messages

Feedback

The elements in this model have already been explained before.

Channels of communication
Communication in organizations is important since it enables individuals and departments to
coordinate and work towards achieving common goals. Communication in an organisation and
institutions could either use formal or informal channels. Formal channels are also categorised
into vertical and horizontal.
Horizontal channel
Horizontal flow of communication is the communication between or among people of the same
status or positions. In this flow there is no fear of status difference therefore communication is
relaxed and easily comprehensible.

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The illustration of horizontal flow of communication is presented below. The arrows represent
the movement of information.

Marketing Productions Human Resource

Manager Manager Manager

Vertical channel

Take note that vertical channels are also subdivided into two.
1. Downward flow of communication

This is from superiors to subordinates. In this communication tasks and jobs instructions ensures
that there is efficient reporting thereby completing the communication cycle. Here is an
illustration of downward flow of communication.

Senior
Management

Middle
Management

Lower Staff

1. Upward flow of communication

This is communication from subordinates to superiors. The advantage of this communication is

that it allows management to obtain feedback from subordinates to assist in decision-making.
below is an illustration of upward flow of communication.
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 Senior
Management

Middle
Management

Lower Staff

Informal channels of communication

Although there are prescribed flows of communication in organizations but informal channels
are also used. Here are examples of informal channels of communication in ogarnisations;

1. Grapevine channel

This is an informal communication characterized by rumour. The name comes in because grapes
ignore the stakes when climbing up in search of the sun. This channel helps management to
evaluate existing communication systems. In this kind of channel there is no record of what has
been shared therefore rendering it to rumour.

2. Open-door policy

This channel is also called by passing channel. This is a policy in communication flow where
managers or superiors give subordinates freedom to communicate certain issues directly without
following bureaucracy. The advantage with this informal channel is that important information is
communicated to management which can assist in evaluating policies.

26
Below is an illustration of open door policy of communication. Take note that communication
could either go upwards or downward.

Top management

Top-mid management

Lower-mid management

Lower staff

Barriers to communication
Some books refer to the barriers in communication as ‘noise’. Noise in communication is
anything that disturbs the communication process.

Categories of noise or barriers

Noise is categorized differently according to the book at hand. Some books put noise or barriers
into the following groups.
 Psychological
 Physical
 Structural

Psychological
In this type of noise or barriers one is affected psychologically rendering him or her in failing to
comprehend whatever is being communicated to him or her. Examples of noise under this could
be, stress, tiredness, boredom, sickness
Physical
In this type, actual noise or barriers that we all know is what disturbs the communication process.
Examples could be real noise (sound of a car passing nearby, lawn mower being used, some
students or children playing outside)

Structural
In this case, it is how the message has been structured or designed or put that’s what matters.
Examples could be:
 information overload (too much of information in a message)
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  information under load (too little information in a message to make sense)
 jargon/technical terms used to a lay person

(So many examples could be discussed or listed. Students are encouraged to find some examples
on their own)
This noise in some books is just put as barriers to communication as already discussed with
inclusion of the following
i. Language deficit as one of the barriers; when one’s language is deficient communication
process is affected.
ii. Cognitive impairment; when one’s brain is affected in that it does not function properly,
communication is affected.
iii. Sensory deficit is another barrier. If the senses on an individual are not functional he or
she cannot get information in a proper way therefore cannot get the meaning of the
message.
iv. Paralysis affects communication too.
v. Anxiety would also be described to be one of the barriers to communication.

Some books would classify the barriers/noise as internal or external. On your own try to find
which of the barriers already discussed could be internal and which ones could be external.
Each language skills has its own barriers to communication which are specific to that skill.

UNIT ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain each of the following directions and state the type of message that can be
conveyed.
a. Upward
b. Downward
c. Horizontal
d. Diagonal

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2. State any three advantages of horizontal flow of communication
3. Mention any one barrier for each of the forms of communication below
a. Visual communication
b. Oral communication
c. Non-verbal communication
d. Written communication
4. Explain the following communication contexts or levels and give one example of
message that can be communicated at that level in your own field of specialization
a. Intrapersonal communication
b. Interpersonal communication
c. Small group communication
d. Mass communication
5. Mention any four examples of nonverbal communication signals and suggest any
message that can be conveyed by each one of them.
6. Outline any five functions of non-verbal communication; illustrate your answer with
examples.
7. Outline five reasons why feedback is important in communication; giving examples from
your field.
8. How would wrong timing of a message be a barrier to communication
9. Open door policy helps when information to be passed on requires urgency. Give times
when it is not recommended and outline its drawbacks
10. Explain why language deficit could be one of the barrier
11. Explain what gate keeping means.
12. Explain how delayed feedback can be a barrier to organizational communication
13. Choose the most appropriate channel of communication for each of the following
situations and explain why you have chosen each channel:
a) when the message is very urgent;
b) when the message needs immediate feedback;
c) when the message is confidential;
d) when the message needs to be communicated to the general public
e) when the message has complex ideas.

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UNIT 2

LISTENING SKILLS

Expressing our views, thoughts, and feelings is only one part of the communication process. The
other is listening and understanding what others communicate to us. We spend most of our time
listening to people from our lecturers to friends. Therefore, listening is one of the key things in
any conversation.

Listening theory
In very brief terms listening theory says one has to hear, pay attention and understand. Another
way of characterizing listening is in terms of whether the listener is also required to take part in
the interaction. This is known as reciprocal listening.

Definition of listening
Listening is decoding and interpreting sounds heard correctly so as to gain an understanding of
the sent information or message. Many people make the mistake of thinking that listening and
hearing are the same activity. However listening is much more than just hearing.

The listening process

A number of people use hearing and listening as if they were synonyms but listening is process
that only begins with perceiving (hearing) a message and ends by responding to it.
Listening is a four-step process; this means that all the steps must be undertaken. If any of the
four steps has not been completed then effective listening has not occurred. There are no
shortcuts to effective listening.

a) Hearing is just the first step in the listening process – The physical step of sound waves
hitting your eardrums. After hearing the sound three more steps must be completed
before the listening process is completed
b) The other step is the interpretation of the sound waves which may lead to understanding
or misunderstanding.
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 c) The third step involves evaluating the message to see how you will use the information.
d) Finally comes the reaction or feedback stage, where you react to what you have heard.

Such listening as it can be noted is not passive, it requires activity. It is an active, difficult and
time consuming activity. Listening can be controlled as compared to hearing.

Listening is the channel used most often for learning. As a method of receiving information,
listening is used far more often than reading. Interestingly, although listening is the type of
channel that is engaged the most and learnt first it requires a skill that we are taught the least.

Here is the chart showing how we learn the four types of communication, the degree to
which we use them and the extent to which we are taught how to perform them.

TIME SPENT IN THE FOLLOWING COMMUNICATION ASPECTS

LISTENING 40% used 1st learnt Least taught

TALKING 35% 2nd Second least

READING 16% 3rd Next most

WRITING 9% 4th Most taught

Reasons for listening

The following are some of the major reasons for listening
a) To enjoy - Listening for enjoyment is light listening, for example, engaging in a pleasant
conversation, listening to music, or watching movies or television show for relaxation.
This type of listening is very casual and relaxed.
b) To become informed – You establish in your mind the motive for listening and then you
attend with all the concentration.
c) To understand/ for knowledge– Many people find listening to understand as being
difficult because it requires restrain, fair-mindedness, and objective thinking. Listening to
understand means one must approach the subject with unbiased and open mind. One must

31
 listen totally to the message, striving to understand. Allows himself to grasp the whole
message before reacting.
d) To express sympathy – To share or just listen to somebody’s expressing their feelings.
Sometimes one just needs someone to talk to in life. In this kind of listening one may not
be required to provide any service other than just listening.
e) To evaluate - of all the listening types, evaluative listening is the most difficult and the
most important because it requires more effort. There are a number of questions to bear in
mind when listening to evaluate.
i. What is the main purpose of the talk?
ii. Is the talk informative, entertaining, persuasive, or inspirational?
iii. Is the speaker making logical and valid points
iv. Are the arguments convincing? Are they based on fact or opinion?

Importance of effective listening

Effective listening is used to avoid many unnecessary problems such as:

i. Misunderstandings
ii. Hurt feelings
iii. Damaged relationships
iv. Confused instructions
v. Loss of important information
vi. Poor decision making
vii. Embarrassment
viii. Frustration
ix. Loss of initiative and innovation and
x. Ineffectiveness

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Tips to effective listening
According to Locker (2003:316) listening is crucial to building trust. During the listening process
hearing plays a crucial role in our understanding of spoken word or language. Hearing is the
principal sensory modality for human communication. For one to listen effectively he has to:

i. Take notes if possible. This is one characteristic of a good listener.

ii. Paraphrase; this means that the receiver must reword the message in his own expressions.
This is necessary for one to be an excellent listener
iii. Question in order to get clarification or to ensure that the meaning that the receiver has is
similar to that of the sender. In this case one would ask himself what would be said next
or ask for something to be repeated. The questioning could be interactive or non-
interactive. (Which one is better interactive and non-interactive questioning?)
iv. Listen for facts and do not concentrate on delivery and remember the key points
v. Stay active by asking mental questions related to what is being presented.
vi. Avoid any distractions by concentrating fully on the message
vii. Avoid emotional involvement with the speaker
viii. Listen for feelings and listen to even what has not been said; interpret the speaker’s point
of view, observe his or her non verbal signals.
ix. Maintain eye contact with the speaker.

Listening and college lectures

At college, lectures are one of the main methods of teaching. Think about some of the lectures
you have attended. You will probably find that lecturers aim to achieve different outcomes, but
generally include one or more of the following:
i. To provide a summary of essential knowledge in a subject area.
ii. To guide your reading and research.
iii. To demonstrate how to do something for example, solve a problem.
iv. To present appoint of view or different points of view.
v. To challenge your thinking by presenting an area of controversy.
vi. To stimulate your interest.

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Effective listening during lectures
Effective listening is the one that brings about positive results in the end. For effective listening
to be there one has to do the following:
a) Prepare for what is going to be discussed by least knowing the topic of the lecture.
b) Listen carefully during the first five minutes, because most lecturers outline the purpose
of the lecture and give an idea of what they hope one might gain.
c) Be aware that often thoughts may start wandering 20 – 25 minutes into the lecture, take
note that one way of maintaining focus is to think about what the speaker may say next or
the general point they may be making.
d) One could also think about what has already been covered and try to sum up the content
in a few phrases.
e) When listening, one needs to work hard on listening itself, understanding, identifying
main points and taking notes.

Active listening
Active listening is a communication technique that requires the listener to feed back what they
hear to the speaker, by way of re-stating or paraphrasing what they have heard in their own
words, to confirm what they have heard and moreover, to confirm the understanding of both
parties. The ability to listen actively demonstrates sincerity, and that nothing is being assumed or
taken for granted.
Making notes from books
a) Making notes requires one to think because one has to decide which information is
important or useful.
b) Firstly survey the text to be familiar with it.
c) Then read the text quickly making a note of the related main points either in mind or by
underlining. Others copy all the related main points and give them their code.
Characteristics of notes
a) Notes should be concise (brief and to the point.)
b) Notes should be clear (hold on to the main idea). Always look to add flesh to the bone.
c) Notes should be understandable.

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Hints to note- taking
a) Attend class fully as another person’s notes cannot compare to your own.
b) Use abbreviations to save time.
c) Look out for the signals of important points.
d) Be sure to write down the lecturers examples and mark them.
e) Review your notes immediately after your class.
f) Try in general to have a write up/summary for each class.

Aims of note taking during lectures

Note taking is of paramount importance when one is attending lectures. Some of the aims of
note-making are the following:
a) To enable active listening, since it is impossible to take every word and detail that is
presented in the lecture; you need to take down important points. If you attempt to take
every word and detail you will be unable to listen actively.
b) To identify the key ideas, if you pre-read, you easily find key ideas in the lecture and you
take them into your notes.
c) To gain information that is not available in texts.
d) To record facts that are being presented for reference sake.
e) To clarify the subject matter.

Skills when taking notes

Listen carefully to the lecture’s introduction; you will be much more likely to identify the key
ideas to be presented. Think about the type of the lecture you are attending as this should also
influence the way you take notes. For example, if much of the material is available in your
textbook, your notes should include minimal detail. However, if the information is not available
in other forms you will need to take full notes. Becoming familiar with lecturers’ styles makes
note making and taking easier.
Layout and methods
When making notes it is helpful to identify the writer’s argument by writing it down.
Notes should show, clearly and briefly, the main points, some supporting detail, and how the
points are linked to one another.

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In addition, when making notes from read texts as well as lectures observe the following too:

1. Present the controlling ideas and some significant supporting details of the writes
argument.
2. Indicate the way in which these points and details are related to one another. This can be
done in various ways:
a. By spacing your notes so that the controlling ideas and their relationship to other
points could be clearly seen.
b. By using headings and underlining to emphasize or draw attention to something.
c. By using numbers and letters to list points which fall under a particular heading:
by using symbols to indicate relationships between points e.g. ≤,≠, →, ↓,#, etc.
3. Be as concise as possible, you need to write down a few words which will bring to your
mind a whole idea when you read them again later.
Summarizing
Re-read your notes preferably on the day of the lecture, this will increase the likelihood of you
remembering the key concepts
Summarize your notes (into paragraphs that are related) by:

a) Re-visiting your notes.

b) You can also expand your notes where necessary.
c) Tie points together and/or consult references mentioned to develop points or further
clarify certain concepts.
d) Grouping your notes together and organizing them in folder, you will be building up your
own set of revision notes, and compiling a valuable reference for the future.

Interactive questioning
Interactive questioning is using open-ended questions to gain a deeper understanding of the
problem and promote additional communication. Open ended questions help one to elaborate and
give much more information unlike close ended questions. These questions help in making the
listener and the speaker mutually understand each other. Questions are useful to help encode and
provide rehearsal of information.

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Non-verbal signals

When we interact with others, we continuously give and receive wordless signals commonly
called non-verbal signals. Non-verbal signs or indicators are ways of communication non-
verbally. Many of these signs are involuntary and may give away our underlying intentions.
When non-verbal signals match up with what one is saying they enhance trust, clarity and
rapport. All of our nonverbal behaviors—the gestures we make, the way we sit, how fast or how
loud we talk, how close we stand, how much eye contact we make—send strong messages.
These messages don’t stop when you stop speaking either. Even when you’re silent, you’re still
communicating non-verbally.
Examples of non-verbal signals
There could be a lot of examples on non-verbal signals but the common ones are:

Facial expressions
The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions without saying a
word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The
facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across
cultures.

Body movements and posture

The way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This
type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and other movements.

Gestures
Gestures are part of our daily lives. We wave, point, beckon, and use our hands when we’re
arguing or speaking—expressing ourselves with gestures often without thinking. However, the
meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures and regions, so it’s important to be
careful to avoid misinterpretation.

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Eye contact
A visual connection made as one person gazes into the eyes of another. Gazing at another's eyes
arouses strong emotions. Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an
especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can
communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is
also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s
response.

Touch
We communicate a great deal through touch. Think about the messages given by the following: a
firm handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring pat on the back, a
patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm.

Space
Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation because the other person was standing
too close and invading your space? We all have a need for physical personal space, although that
need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. You
can use physical space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of
intimacy, aggression, dominance, or affection.

Voice
It’s not just what you say; it’s how you say it. When we speak, other people “read” our voices in
addition to listening to our words. Things they pay attention to include your timing and pace,
how loud you speak, your tone and inflection, and sounds that convey understanding, such as
“mmm”, “ahh” and “uh-huh.” Tone of voice, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection,
or confidence.

Barriers to listening
There are so many barriers that could be specific to this skill. Some of them are:
a) Linguistic barrier.

38
 b) Sensory barrier.
c) Fatigue or Physical discomfort on the part of the listener.
d) Information overload.
e) Information under load.
f) Thought speed. We think up to four times as fast as we listen and this can lead our mind
drift off or race ahead and away from the speaker’s words.
g) Prejudice or perceptual bias. Your own attitude whether positive or negative plays an
important part in determining how actively you will listen.
h) Distractions from the speakers appearance, noise from other students outside
environment and
i) Consequences of your lifestyle play a part.
Add some more barriers that fit under listening.
Overcoming the barriers during the lecture/tutorial
There are a number of ways of overcoming barriers so that one could effectively listen during
lectures. The list is not exhaustive.
a) Seat close to the speaker.
b) Avoid distractions.
c) Acknowledge any other emotions and suspend them till later.
d) Listen with your ears and as well as with your eyes.
e) Acknowledge the points in the speech non-verbally.
f) Actively respond to questions and directions.

Unit assessment questions

1. Explain why is interactive questioning important
2. Differentiate note making and note taking
3. Explain the process of listening in detail
4. Differentiate listening and hearing
5. What does the statement ‘listen with your ears as well as with your eyes’ mean?
6. How could a listener avoid thought speed?
7. Give two reasons why use of abbreviations is helpful in note taking
8. How could linguistic barrier be a barrier to effective listening?
9. How can speaker be encouraged to continue giving information?
10. Describe four consequences of poor listening in an organization
11. Describe types of listening and give a situation in which each type would be used.
12. Explain five ways in which you could improve your listening skills.
13. Explain three advantages of listening in an organisation.
14. Mention five advantages of listening in an organization.

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UNIT 3

DEFINITION OF READING

Reading is an active skill based process of constructing meaning and or gaining knowledge from
oral, visual and written text (including Braille).

Benefits of reading closely/carefully

Reading and writing are closely connected skills – practising one helps the other, and neglecting
one hurts the other. As a student; reading helps to find topics for writing. Some of the selections
or sections provide helpful practical information. You would learn how to argue you point or
discuss your points through reading a lot. Reading helps to develop skills of recognising main
ideas and identify and evaluate supporting material that develops the main idea. One becomes
more aware of author’s stylistic devices, for instance their introductions and conclusions, their
way of presenting a point and developing it, their use of transitions and choice of language to a
chive a particular tone.
Types/strategies of reading
There are so many types of reading. Do not use the same approach to reading all the time. These
techniques apply to books, magazines, or anything in printed form. Just a few types of reading
are explained here. Choose your approach to suit the task at hand.

Scanning
Scanning is looking for particular or specific information in a book or any piece of writing.
Check what you are reading at a rapid glance. Are the contents relevant (specific or particular for
what you need).

When you are scanning a book for specific information you will sometimes get help from the
index, or the list of contents which are there for that very purpose.

40
Skimming
Skimming is a type of reading whereby you try to get a general idea or general picture of the
article you are reading. It is making a rapid survey of the subject. This may be to get a rough
idea, to see what the book is all about.

Glance through the book quickly and pick up the main points. Try to get a general picture of the
part being surveyed. This is a useful skill which becomes easier with practice.

Studying
Here you are reading to understand the contents of the book. It’s the most common approach to
any serious form of reading. There is need to concentrate whilst reading.

Writers use different ways according to the style they are used to. One has to understand them
through reading. You might be taking notes whilst reading.

You might also need to read a book more than once to grasp the point it is making. Reading may
be part of the coursework, research project etc.

Factors affecting studying

So many factors affect studying. Only four factors are outlined here:

Environment
If possible study in a well-lighted place where you can sit comfortably and quiet. The place
should have nothing to disturb you (no TV or radio). Get used to your place as your study place
so that you shift into gear and begin studying when you go to that place.

Health
Stay in good physical condition and even mental health. If you are tired give yourself a simple
subject to study.

41
Availability of assistance
Use available assistance. Studying with other people is beneficial if everyone is committed to
help each other to learn the material. Force yourself to make the group stay on track and be
helpful. If the institution has tutorial services – do not hesitate to get the service.

Ability to manage time

All of us need free time, it is easy to lose track of time if you do not manage it. Everyone is given
equal time per day, it is the management that matters. To manage time, a student should have
a) A large monthly calendar to scribble onto it deadlines of assignments and dates for
examinations. This calendar should put at a position that s/he will not miss to look at
every day.
b) Study programme that should guide him what to read on weekly basis especially when it
is a modular system. The programme should have some breathing spaces for some
unexpected things.
c) Weekly to do list or daily to do list. A list of priority things to be done and not be missed

Strategies for study

There are so many strategies that would be employed when studying. For the case of our course
two strategies; SQ3R and MURDER will be discussed, on your own find out what are the
differences.

SQ3R
This is a reading study system for improving your reading technique. The letters stand for what
is involved in each level. When you use this strategy, it is possible to retain information and to
think critically in any subject. Let us look at the strategy.

a. Survey
Read the chapter title, introduction, prologue and epilogues, learning objectives, summary and
end of chapter questions. Also review bold face headings and sub headings, graphics, and italics

42
throughout the chapter. This will provide an overview of the chapter and create a mental
framework for understanding the chapter more thoroughly as you read.
b. Question
Before reading each section, turn each heading into one or more questions you think the section
should answer. Some books already have these questions at the end of the chapter. This step
helps one’s mind engage and concentrate and creates an active learning environment.
c. Read
Read carefully with concentration and with a pen and a paper to make notes. Think of what the
material means to you and what it implies. Find if there are any contradictions with what you
already know. As you read each section, look for answers to your questions. This fills in the
information around the mental framework you have created in the previous steps.

d. Recite/ Recall
Describe or explain or recite to yourself what you read or to a friend if you were reading with a
friend. After reading each section and before moving on to the next go back to your questions to
see if you can answer them. If you can then you are ready to move on to the next chapter.

e. Review
This is the final step in your reading session. Look over the information again. Go back/reread
the section that you did not understand and amend the notes that you made. Compare it with
some relevant material that you have. Again review the questions and see if you can answer
them. This step helps to refine your mental organisation and begin to build your memory and
understanding of the material. Following this model will help you reduce the time you spend
studying since you begin to learn the material as you move through the process.

Murder strategy
The murder system provides an alternative to study (Dansereau, 1978). Murder is an acronym.
a) In murder, the first step is to establish an appropriate Mood for studying by setting goal
for study session and choosing a time and place so that you will not be distracted.

43
 b) Next step is reading for Understanding, paying careful attention to the meaning of the
material being studied.
c) Recall is an immediate attempt to take back the material from memory without referring
to the text.

d) Digesting the material comes next, you should correct any recall errors, and attempt to
organize the newly learned material into memory.

e) You should work next on Expanding [analyzing and evaluating] new material, trying to
apply it to situations that go beyond the situations discussed in the text by incorporating
in the memory network, you will recall it more easily in future.

f) Finally the last step is Review just as with SQ3R system, murder suggests that systematic
review of material is a necessary condition for successful studying.

Barriers to reading

Very few barriers are listed here, therefore students are encouraged to find some more barriers on
their own.
a) Size of font.
b) Face of font.
c) Colour of the print.
d) Fatigue or illness on the part of the reader.
e) Level of vocabulary of the reader.
f) Language used by the author, Etc.

Vocabulary
A good vocabulary is vital part of effective communication. A command of many words will
make you a better writer, speaker, listener, and reader.
When reading any text, you are likely to have a better understanding if you know the meaning of
the words.
If you are not familiar with the specialised vocabulary used in a particular field of study, you
may not understand, and your reading may well be affected. Regular reading helps to learn new
44
words. Repeated exposure to a word in context will eventually make it part of your working
language. Try to redirect a regular period that was used for chatting to reading rather than
watching movies.

Many students fail to perform well because they are handicapped by poor vocabulary. To expand
your vocabulary, choose a larger dictionary. Do not usually use dictionaries when studying refer
to them only when you are really stuck. (Meanings of words are in the sections we are reading,
therefore, use your experience). For instance without use of a Dictionary one would know the
meaning of the new word encountered here: On his shaven head the old man wore a puggree to
protect it from the sunlight

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UNIT 4

WRITING SKILLS

Paragraph and paragraphing

A paragraph consists of an opening point called a topic sentence followed by a series of
sentences supporting that point. To support point a writer could use examples and details that
back up reasons for supporting a point. Supporting evidence in a paper can also consist of
anecdotes, personal experiences, facts, studies, statistics, and opinions of experts.

Types of and functions of paragraphs

Basically there are three types of sentences:
a) Introductory paragraph; that presents the central idea being discussed in the
presentation. Apart from presenting the thesis (central idea) introductory paragraphs
should also attract the reader’s interest and indicate a plan for development.

b) Body (supporting) paragraphs; that give the content of what has been introduced by the
introductory paragraph. Most essays have three or more supporting points, developed into
separate paragraphs. Each of the supporting paragraphs should begin with a topic
sentence that states the point to be detailed in that paragraph. Just as the thesis provides a
focus for the entire essay, the topic sentence provides a focus for each supporting
paragraph.

c) Concluding paragraphs; often summarizes the essay by briefly restating the thesis and,
at times, the main supporting points. The conclusion also brings the paper to a natural and
graceful end, sometimes leaving the reader with a final thought on the subject. In
conclusion you ‘Say that you have said it’. Traditionally this section of the essay only sums up all
the points that have been discussed inside the essay. However, there are modern ways o writing a
conclusion where you only drive home your central position in a logical and accurate manner
with critical consideration that the matter has been discussed in-depth, without actually pointing
out all the supporting points.

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Topic sentences
The point that opens a paragraph or an essay is a general statement. A good topic sentence
should not be too broad to be supported adequately with specific details in a single paragraph or
too narrow to be expanded into a paragraph. A narrow statement is sometimes called a dead-end
statement because there is no place to go with it. It is a simple fact that does not need or call for
any support.

Examples of topic sentences

a) Too broad a statement e.g. many people have problems with their cars. You have lots of
things to write about.
b) Too narrow a statement e.g. My car is a Ford Escort. You fail to progress

c) Effective topic sentence e.g. I hate my Ford Escort. From here you can easily continue

A topic sentence is made up of two parts:

a) The limited topic and
b) The writer’s attitude toward the limited topic

My pickup truck is the most reliable vehicle I have ever owned.

Limited topic writer’s attitude

If it is difficult to write a topic sentence then it is good to start with the details and lastly write
the topic sentence.
Supporting sentences
The evidence that supports a point is made up of specific details, examples, and facts. Specific
details have two key functions. Firstly details excite the reader’s interest. They make writing a
pleasure to read, for we all enjoy learning particulars of other people or places. Secondly, these
details support and explain a writer’s point; they give the evidence needed for us to see and
understand a general idea. To develop fully an idea we need to give adequate details in our piece
of writing.

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 Concluding sentences
Are sentences that will indicate that the central idea that was being discussed in that particular
paragraph is coming to an end.
Essay writing
An essay is simply a paper of several paragraphs, than one paragraph, that supports a single
point. In an essay, subjects can and should be treated more fully than they would be in a single-
paragraph paper.

The main idea or point developed in an essay is called the thesis statement or thesis sentence
(rather than, as in a paragraph, the topic sentence). The thesis statement appears in the
introductory paragraph, and it is then developed in the supporting paragraphs that follow. A short
concluding paragraph closes the essay.

Parts and organization (an outline of an essay)

Introduction The introduction attracts the reader’s interest.
Thesis statement

Plan of
The thesis statement states the main idea in the paper.
development:
points 1,2,3 etc.
The plan of development is a list of points that support the thesis. The points are
presented in the paper.

Topic sentence
(point 1)
The topic sentence advances the first supporting point for the thesis, and the specific
Specific evidence
evidence in the rest of the paragraph develops that first point.

Topic sentence
(point 2)
The topic sentence advances the second supporting point for the thesis, and the specific
Specific evidence
evidence in the rest of the paragraph develops that second point.

Topic sentence
(point 3)
The topic sentence advances the third supporting point for the thesis, and the specific
Specific evidence
evidence in the rest of the paragraph develops that third point.

Summary,
conclusion A summary is a brief restatement of the thesis and its main points. A conclusion is a final
or both thought or two stemming from the subject of the paper.

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The specific evidence could be explanation expounding the idea in the topic sentence, or could
be examples to back up the statement that has been put forth.

Purpose and audience

Before a writer engages himself or herself into the actual writing itself they have to think of the
purpose their writing is to achieve and the audience for whom they are writing.

You have to decide on the purpose for your writing. Whatever topic you have chosen, do you
wish to:
 Define it?  Describe it?
 Explain it?  Analyse it? etc.

Your purpose will make your topic even more specific.

Knowing who your readers are will help you to decide how much background material you will
need to include in your topic. Also, the attitudes of your readers, their opinions or their needs
will help you to choose details that will be more effective when you put your ideas across. Your
readers will also determine the type of language to use if you are writing for your superiors or
people who are older than you. You may need to use formal and polite language. If you are
writing for your peers you will want to use informal language. If you are writing for people of
your profession you will feel free to use the jargon of your profession. If you are writing for
children you will need to come down to their level of language.

Steps in writing an essay

When writing an essay the first step in writing is to begin with a point; decide what point to
make and write it in a single sentence. Put that point in the first sentence of your paragraph.
Everything else in the paragraph should then develop and support in specific ways the single
point given in the first sentence.

The second essential and basic step is to support that point with specific evidence. (the specific
details will excite the reader’s interest and they also support and explain the writer’s point to help

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the reader to understand the idea being put across. For these reasons it is good to provide enough
details.

The third step is to organize and connect the specific evidence. The common methods of
organization are: time order and emphatic order, using transitional words.

The forth step is to make sure that the sentences in the paragraphs are united, they support each
other, and that there is coherence in the essay. In this case you need to revise the sentences by
editing them.

REFERENCING

Referencing is the act or process of acknowledging the source of information that has been used
mainly in someone’s written work. This is where you cite authority for statements in a text. It is
the opposite of plagiarism which in other words is called academic theft.

Reasons for referencing

Your paper is meant to draw on the work of others and correct referencing is expected. Avoiding
plagiarism is one among several reasons why it is important to reference your writing.
Understanding the reasons for referencing and acquiring the skills to correctly reference your
writing are vital for success in your written assignments at university.
There are several reasons for referencing:

1. To show that you have read

It's useful to keep in mind the audience and the purpose for your writing as a student at
university. Your audience is your marker, who most likely is already familiar with much of the
information you will present. Thus your purpose is not to explain to someone who does not
know. Rather it is to display your new knowledge-to show that you have read about the topic and
thought about what you are supposed to in the light of this reading.

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 2. To show what you have read
At university you are expected to read widely and deeply in your subject. Referencing allows to
you to demonstrate the breadth and depth of your reading and connects you to the academic
discussion that is going on among thinkers and researchers in your field.

3. To enable the reader to locate the sources mentioned in your paper

Readers need to be able to locate where you obtained each quote, finding or idea. They may be
interested in the idea and want to read more themselves. They may want to check that you have
conveyed it accurately and not misunderstood the original author's meaning. Importantly, giving
the details of the source (including the page number) indicates that you are not plagiarising other
people's writing.

4. To acknowledge your sources and avoid plagiarism

Referencing is a distinguishing feature of writing in the Western academic tradition. This
tradition is based on the notion of intellectual property-the concept that ideas and findings belong
to the person who first formulates them. According to this way of thinking about knowledge,
failure to acknowledge sources is intellectual theft.

Together with this notion of intellectual property is the recognition that new knowledge is built
upon the work of those who have gone before, and they must be given credit for their
contribution. In reading for your assignments you'll notice that academic journal articles provide
references to thinkers and researchers in the discipline, whose ideas or research the article draws
upon.

5. To show continuity of research

When a certain article or work has been cited you easily know when similar research was done
and how related is it to the research underway.

What should be referenced?

You are required to acknowledge not only words and ideas, but also facts and figures, sounds
and images that you have obtained from all sources including:
 tables and graphs  statistics  designs and plans
 laboratory data  diagrams  images
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  logos  experiment results  formulae
 photographs  music
As well as information from books and journal articles, you need to cite material obtained from
sources such as:

 the internet
 computer programs
 study guides and readers guides
 newspapers and magazines
 films and documentaries
 DVDs and CD-ROMs
 interviews
 brochures and pamphlets
 television and radio programs
 YouTube

How to write references

There are two main styles: The American Psychological Association (APA) and The Modern
Language Association (MLA) approaches. It depends on the institution or the lecturer as to what
model a student is to use in his/her paper.

You must reference all material you use from all sources. Citing sources in your assignment and
avoiding plagiarism It is necessary to reference your sources whenever you paraphrase (use your
own words to explain or discuss what someone has said) or when you quote (use an author’s
exact words).

1. Basic format for a quotation

Ordinarily, introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author’s last name
followed by the year of publication in parentheses. Put the page number preceded by "p." (or
"pp." for more than one page) in parentheses after the quotation.

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Critser 2003 noted that despite growing numbers of overweight Americans, many health care
providers still “remain either in ignorance or outright denial about the health danger to the poor
and the young” (p. 5).

If the author is not named in the signal phrase, place the author’s name, the year, and the page
number in parentheses after the quotation: (Critser, 2003, p. 5).

NOTE: APA style requires the year of publication in an in-text citation. Do not include a month,
even if the entry in the reference list includes the month.

2. Basic format for a summary or a paraphrase

Include the author’s last name and the year either in a signal phrase introducing the material or in
parentheses following it. Give a page number to help readers find the passage. For online sources
without page numbers, see No page numbers in item 12

Yanovski and Yanovski 2002 explained that sibutramine suppresses appetite by blocking the
reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain (p. 594).

Or

Sibutramine suppresses appetite by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and
norepinephrine in the brain (Yanovski & Yanovski, 2002, p. 594).

3. Work with two authors

Name both authors in the signal phrase or the parentheses each time you cite their work. In the
parentheses, use “&” between the authors’ names; in the signal phrase, use “and.”

According to Sothern and Gordon (2003), “Environmental factors may contribute as much as
80% to the causes of childhood obesity” (p. 104).

Obese children often engage in limited physical activity (Sothern & Gordon, 2003, p. 104).

4. Work with three to five authors

Identify all authors in the signal phrase or the parentheses the first time you cite the source.
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In 2003, Berkowitz, Wadden, Tershakovec, and Cronquist concluded, “Sibutramine . . . must be
carefully monitored in adolescents, as in adults, to control increases in [blood pressure] and pulse
rate” (p. 1811).

In subsequent citations, use the first author’s name followed by “et al.” in either the signal
phrase or the parentheses.

As Berkowitz et al. (2003) advised, “Until more extensive safety and efficacy data are available .
. . weight-loss medications should be used only on an experimental basis for adolescents” (p.
1811).

5. Work with six or more authors

Use the first author’s name followed by “et al.” in the signal phrase or the parentheses.

McDuffie et al. 2002 tested 20 adolescents, aged 12-16, over a three-month period and found that
orlistat, combined with behavioral therapy, produced an average weight loss of 4.4 kg, or 9.7
pounds (p. 646).

6. Work with unknown author

If the author is unknown, mention the work’s title in the signal phrase or give the first word or
two of the title in the parenthetical citation. Titles of articles and chapters are put in quotation
marks; titles of books and reports are italicized.

Children struggling to control their weight must also struggle with the pressures of television
advertising that, on the one hand, encourages the consumption of junk food and, on the other,
celebrates thin celebrities (“Television,” 2002).

NOTE: In the rare case when “Anonymous” is specified as the author, treat it as if it were a real
name: (Anonymous, 2001). In the list of references, also use the name Anonymous as author.

7. Organization as author
If the author is a government agency or another organization, name the organization in the signal
phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source.

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Obesity puts children at risk for a number of medical complications, including type 2 diabetes,
hypertension, sleep apnea, and orthopedic problems (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004,
p. 1).

If the organization has a familiar abbreviation, you may include it in brackets the first time you
cite the source and use the abbreviation alone in later citations.

First citation
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2009)

Later citations
(CDC, 2009)

8. Authors with the same last name

To avoid confusion, use initials with the last names if your reference list includes two or more
authors with the same last name.

Research by E. Smith 1989 revealed that . . .

9. Two or more works by the same author in the same year

When your list of references includes more than one work by the same author in the same year,
use lowercase letters (“a,” “b,” and so on) with the year to order the entries in the reference list.
(See item 6) Use those same letters with the year in the in-text citation.

Research by Durgin 2003b has yielded new findings about the role of counseling in treating
childhood obesity.

10. Two or more works in the same parentheses

When your parenthetical citation names two or more works, put them in the same order that they
appear in the reference list, separated with semicolons.

Researchers have indicated that studies of pharmacological treatments for childhood obesity are
inconclusive (Berkowitz et al., 2003; McDuffie et al., 2002)

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 11. Personal communication
Personal interviews, memos, letters, e-mail, and similar unpublished communications should be
cited in the text only, not in the reference list. (Use the first initial with the last name in
parentheses.)

One of Atkinson’s colleagues, who has studied the effect of the media on children’s eating
habits, has contended that advertisers for snack foods will need to design ads responsibly for
their younger viewers (F. Johnson, personal communication, October 20, 2009).

12. Electronic source

When possible, cite electronic sources, including online sources, as you would any other source,
giving the author and the year.

Atkinson 2001 found that children who spent at least four hours a day watching TV were less
likely to engage in adequate physical activity during the week.

Electronic sources sometimes lack authors’ names, dates, or page numbers.

Unknown author
If no author is named, mention the title of the source in the signal phrase or give the first word or
two of the title in the parentheses (see also item 6). (If an organization serves as the author, see
item 7.)

The body’s basal metabolic rate, or BMR, is a measure of its at-rest energy requirement
(“Exercise,” 2003).

Unknown date
When the date is unknown, use the abbreviation “n.d.” (for “no date”).

Attempts to establish a definitive link between television programming and children’s eating
habits have been problematic (Magnus, n.d.).

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No page numbers

APA ordinarily requires page numbers for quotations, summaries, and paraphrases. When an
electronic source lacks stable numbered pages, include paragraph numbers or headings to help
readers locate the particular passage being cited.

If the source has numbered paragraphs, use the paragraph number preceded by the abbreviation
“para.”: (Hall, 2008, para. 5). If the source contains headings, cite the appropriate heading in
parentheses; you may also indicate the paragraph under the heading that you are referring to,
even if the paragraphs are not numbered.

Hoppin and Taveras 2004 pointed out that several other medications were classified by the Drug
Enforcement Administration as having the “potential for abuse” (Weight-Loss Drugs section,
para. 6).

NOTE: Electronic files in portable document format (PDF) often have stable page numbers. For
such sources, give the page number in the parenthetical citation.

13. Indirect source

If you use a source that was cited in another source (a secondary source), name the original
source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include it in
your parenthetical citation, preceded by the words “as cited in.” In the following example,
Satcher is the original source, and Critser is the secondary source, given in the reference list.

Former surgeon general Dr. David Satcher described “a nation of young people seriously at risk
of starting out obese and dooming themselves to the difficult task of overcoming a tough illness”
(as cited in Critser, 2003, p. 4).

14. Sacred or classical text

Identify the text, the version or edition you used, and the relevant part (chapter, verse, line). It is
not necessary to include the source in the reference list.

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Peace activists have long cited the biblical prophet’s vision of a world without war: “And they
shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift
up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more” (Isaiah 2:4, Revised Standard
Version).

Quotes
Short quote (fewer than 40 words) should run on as part of your sentence with double quotation
marks to signal where the quote starts and finishes. The page where the quote comes from must
be included as already seen in the previous quotations.
Long quotes, known as ‘block quotes’ (more than 40 words) should:
 start on a new line
 be indented about 5 spaces from the left hand margin
 be double spaced (same as assignment, unless your Lecturer requires single spacing for
quotes)
 omit quotation marks.

Below is an extract that serves as an example.

An important stage in assignment writing is planning. Clay 2003 comments that:

Some students are tempted to plunge into writing their assignment, beginning with the
introduction, but soon find that they experience “writer’s block” and cannot decide what
to write next. The problem occurs because they have not given sufficient thought to
reviewing course content and developing their ideas about relating the theory to their
practice. (p. 47)

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59