A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
In
SW 102
Course Code

FILIPINO PERSONALITY
and SOCIAL WORK

College of Arts & Science

BS Social Work
 2

INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while

independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as
well to ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It
covers the topic of Social Work 102.

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be
learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social
media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation so that learning will still continue amidst this
Covid-19 pandemic.

Other special reminder for your own safety:

7. Observe health protocols: Wear a mask, sanitize and maintain

physical distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page 1

Instruction to the User 2

Table of Contents 3

Introduction 4
 Overview
 Learning Outcomes

Module 3 Theories of Personality 5

Pretest 6

Lesson 1 Psychology and Social Work 7

Lesson 2 Theories of Personality 8-27

Psychodynamic and socio-cultural theories:
 Psychosocial stages of development (Erik Erikson)
 Psychosexual Stages of development (Sigmund Freud)
 Feminine Psychology (Karen Horney)
 Analytical Psychology (Carl Jung)
 (Alfred Adler)
Behavioral theories (Watson, Pavlov, Skinner)
 Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
 Operant Conditioning (Burrhus Frederic Skinner)
(John B. Watson)
 Social Learning theory (Albert Bandura)

Lesson 3 Humanistic and Existential theories 28-37

 Humanistic Theory (Hierarchy of Needs) (Abraham Maslow)
 Humanistic (Person-Centered) Psychology (Carl Rogers)

Lesson 4 Cognitive and Moral 38-64

 Theory of Cognitive development (Jean Piaget)
 Moral Stages of development (Lawrence Kohlberg)
 Feminist Ethics (Giligan)
 Family Systems Theory (Bowen)
 Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)

Evaluation/Posttest 65
References 66

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 4

Welcome to Module 3!

Every person and its experiences encountered is unique. This module will
discuss about the Theories of Personality. You will learn the different theories of
personality which can give you a better understanding specifically on how the unique
individual response to the environment.

Personality theories study on how the individual develops their personality

and can be utilized in studying personality disorders. These theories address whether
personality is a biological trait or one that is developed through a person's interaction
with their environment. It addresses the origins of personality as well as the traits
that define a personality. These theories look to understand why people develop
different character traits and respond to external and internal stimuli differently.

Knowing the different theories of personality is quite interesting because even

yourself you can assess how your behavior manifest from a given situation and also
in the field of social work we are working with individuals, groups and communities
wherein they have different personalities and through this concept we can deeply
know the reason why our client act that certain behavior. Thus, from these learnings,
you can adjust yourself and have a better approach of developing a helping
relationship leading to an appropriate intervention to be provided for the best
welfare of our identified client.

At the end of this module, you can:

1. Identify and discuss theories/perspectives
in human behavior;
2. Practice integrative thinking, openness, and
Michell L Simyunn, RSW,MSW
Self-acceptance; Jade R. Baguna, RSW
3. Identify behaviors that are more holistic,
non-judgmental in dealing with other
people; and
4. Understand and appreciate individuality
through the use of personality development
theories.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 5

Module No. 3

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

2nd semester 2021-2022

MICHELL GUIA LUAGUE- SIMYUNN, RSW, MSW

JADE RODRIGUEZ BAGUNA, RSW
Social Work Faculty

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 6

PRETEST Instruction: Please answer the following questions

provided with honesty. It will serve as your assessment
tool to know your idea or knowledge pertaining to the
theories of personality.

___________ 1. At this stage, if people look back upon their lives and experiences
and are pleased, they feel integrity, while those who are not feel despair.

___________ 2. The basic ingredients of the adult personality according to Freud.

___________ 3. “If I give in, I shall not be hurt.”

___________ 4. “If I have power, none will hurt me.”

___________ 5. “If I withdraw nothing can hurt me.”

___________ 6. can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior

through the use of positive and negative reinforcement.

___________ 7. This theory was initiated by Abraham Harold Maslow which states
that people achieve their full potential by moving from basic needs to self-
actualization.

___________ 8. refers to organismic experiences of the individual; that is, it refers

to the whole person—conscious and unconscious, physiological and cognitive.

___________ 9. He believed that children take an active role in the learning process,
acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and
learn about the world.

___________ 10. This theory focuses on relationships and bonds (particularly long -
term) between people, including those between a parent and child and between
romantic partners.

“You may find the key to correction at the last page of this module. So, how’s your score? Is it perfect
or near perfect? If you got a perfect score, CONGRATULATIONS! Because it implies that you already
have knowledge in our topics in this chapter. Anyways, to those who didn’t make it, don’t lose hope,
instead use this as one of your motivations to study and love more our subject. Never stress yourself,
please enjoy while learning!”

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 7

PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK

LESSON 1

Sometimes, we feel confused about psychology and social work. In this lesson, we
will be going to differentiate psychology from social work….

R.A. 10029 defines psychology as the scientific study of human behavior…

Practice of Psychology consists of the delivery of psychological services that involve
application of psychological principles & procedures for the purpose of describing,
understanding, predicting and influencing the behavior of individuals or groups in
order to assist in the attainment of optimal human growth and functioning.

Skidmore asserted that psychologist and social worker are often members of
the same professional team, particularly in treatment clinics and related settings.
Although they are different, but there are aspects that they tend to overlap.

Psychology is the science of the mind. It seeks to study, explain and to change
the behavior, eventually. The psychologist is particularly interested in understanding
the individual and his/her behavior.

Both psychology and social work are interested in people’s behavior, the
interactional patterns in particular, although the psychologist focuses mainly on the
individual behavior and the social worker on social functioning. They both seek the
thinking and feeling process of the person.

The field of testing are areas entirely for the psychologist. She or he also
studies the biological and social factors underlying the person’s behavior. Individual
attributes of people and understanding their characteristics and behavior are the
concerns of the psychologist. Clinical psychologists go beyond the study phase and
work directly with people in the helping process. These activities overlap some with
social work, and yet the focus seems to be different when considered as a totality. The
psychologist works with individuals in rather intensive basis and sometimes becomes
a psychotherapist. On the other hand, the social worker is particularly interested in
the social functioning and relationships of his/her client and in utilizing community
resources to meet their personal or social problems.

Usually, a rehabilitation counselor according to Skidmore is trained in

educational psychology, skilled in the use of testing, and focuses attention and
abilities on the individual and his/her immediate problems of vocational
rehabilitation. When both are part of the team, the counselor helps with the testing,
the short-term counseling and related activities. The social worker usually assists
with the emotional and/or family problems, has fewer cases and works with clients
more intensively

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 8

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY OR
LESSON 2 PERSONALITY THEORIES

In this lesson we will be going to discuss some of the personality theories

which have marked significant contribution in understanding individuals behavior.
We believe that one behavioral problem is cannot be explain by only one theory
unless viewing it through multi-dimensional lenses. Hence, it is imperative that as a
future social worker you have to be well-oriented about it in order for you to come up
with concrete assessment and appropriate interventions to someone’s problem – the
client.

So now, let’s begin with the…….

“PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT”

Erik Erikson

Erikson’s stages of development focused on trying to

provide a theory on social development. He was influenced
by Sigmund Freud. Erikson's stages of development did not
stop when a child turned 18. He believed that the person
continued to develop and have personality outcomes into
adulthood as well.

ERIKSON’S VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE

Erikson extends the study of the developing child beyond puberty,

emphasizing that the ego continue to acquire new characteristics as it meets new
situations in life. He selected the ego as the tool by which a person organizes outside
information, tests perception, selects memories, governs action adaptively and
integrates the capabilities of orientation and planning. This positive ego produces a
sense of self in a state of heightened well-being. This state of well-being is when what
one thinks and does is close to what one wishes and feels he or she ought to be and
do.

The wishing and the “oughtness” for polarities in Erikson’s scheme. Excessive
and barbaric wishes pull at one end of the horizontal axis, and the internalized
restrictions of parents and society pull at the other end. Erikson’s super ego is as
barbaric as the id. The traditional technique of releasing the contents of the
unconscious mind could do more harm than good. The main focus should be in the
ego. Strong ego is characterized by eight virtues resulting from the positive solution
of each crisis in the eight stages of development.

The resolution of crisis is eversible. For example, a person leaving the first
stage of development without developing basic trust may gain it at a later stage, and a
person having it may lose it later.

EPIGENETIC MODEL OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Epigenetic development begins with a single fertilized cell that initiates a
process of division and differentiation. The sequence of development from a single
cell to a complex organism follows a clear pattern and sequence.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 9

Each organ system of the body has its own time of special growth and
development. It follows a pre-determined sequence. The strength and capacities
developed at each stage are related to the entire personality and can be affected at
any point of one’s life. These psychological capacities are affected most strongly
during the stage in which they are developing. Erikson stresses that each stage is
systematically related to all the others and must develop in a given sequence.

Each stage has a crisis in which the strength and skills tha form the essential
elements of that stage was developed and tested. By crisis, Erikson means a turning
point. Crises are special times in an individual’s life-moments of decision between
progress and regression, integration and retardation. Each stage is a crisis in learning
and developing new skills and attitudes. The crisis may not seem dramatic or critical;
an observer will see only later that it was a major turning point that was reached and
passed.

EGO PSYCHOLOGY

Erikson gave the ego properties and needs of its own. The ego may have started out
in the service of the id but, in the process of serving it, developed its own functions.
For example, it is the ego’s job to organize one’s life and to assure continuous
harmony with one’s physical and social environment. This concept emphasizes the
influence of the ego in healthy growth and adjustment and as the source of self-
awareness and identity. Because Erikson stressed the autonomy of the ego, his theory
was called ego psychology.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

Important
Basic Virtues/
Stage Stage Details and Outcomes Events/
Conflict Strength
Experiences

Infancy Trust versus  The child learns to trust or Feeding Hope

(Birth to 1 mistrust mistrust his caretakers.
year old)  Develop trust to self and other
people.
 Risk: development of mistrust to
others and lack of self-confidence
 Appreciation of interdependence
and relatedness
Early Autonomy  It is the stage in which we learn to Toilet Self-Control
Childhood versus walk, talk, eat, and gain small Training And
shame and motor control, as well as learning Courage
(2-3 years doubt toilet training. (Will)
old)  This is a vulnerable stage. If
parents are harsh, especially
during potty training, it may
create a child with low self-
esteem and lose sense of belief in
capabilities.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 10

Play Age Initiative  Children copy the adults around Exploration Purpose
versus guilt them they also take the initiative
(4-5 years to play on their own. Children
old) learn to do some things on their
own, such as get dressed and Socialization
familiarize environment
(initiative).
 If children feel guilty about doing
these things, they will have
difficulties later.
School age Industry  Children in this stage compare School Method
versus their own worth to those around And
(6 to 11 years inferiority them and may feel inferior if they Competence
old) do not measure up or if they think
that they incompetent.
Adolenscence Identity  At this stage, peer relationships Social Devotion
versus role are most important and these Relationships And Fidelity
(12 to 20 confusion teens question themselves. As
years old) they are trying to figure out who
they are and what their plans are,
they can experience role
confusion if their parents and the
surrounding are pushing a
different version of themselves
than they may feel (development
of sense of identity).
Early/Young Intimacy  The stage that we seek out a Relationships Love and
Adulthood and satisfying relationship and start a Affiliation
solidarity family. If someone is not
(20-24 years versus successful in this quest, he or she
old) may turn to isolation. Intimate
isolation relationships
 Sense of the complexity of life
relationships; value of tenderness
and loving freely
 Caring for others, agape, and
empathy and concern
 Success to social and intimate
relationship can lead to intimacy
and solidarity while failure can
result to isolation
 Shaky identity as a result of the
preceding stage can lead to
avoidance of others.
Adulthood Generativity  This is the stage that people often Work and Care
versus self- feel they have a "mid-life crisis." parenthood
(25 to 65 absorption  This is the stage in which people
years old) or often size up all they have done
stagnation thus far and measure to see if
they feel they have accomplished
enough.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 11

stage

Old Age Integrity  At this stage, if people look back Reflection in Wisdom
versus upon their lives and experiences life
(65 years old despair and are pleased, they feel
to death) integrity, while those who are not
feel despair.
 Existential identity; Strong sense
of integrity to accept death

Our personality development depends on these stages and success with these
can lead us to positive personality, while failure can result us to negative personality
development.

Activity #1
1. How does Erikson’s point of view differ from traditional pycho-analysis?

2. Explain how problems of over control and direction could defeat the child’s
early attempts at mastery.

Now that you have already familiar and understand the psychosocial stages of
development according to Erik Erikson, let’s proceed with the psychosexual stages of
development of Sigmund Freud.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
OF DEVELOPMENT
Sigmund Freud

Freud believed that every child goes through a

sequence of developmental stages, and the experiences
during these stages will determine his or her adult
personality characteristics. The adult personality is
formed by the end of the 5th year of life. Each stage has
an corresponding erogenous zone, which is the greatest
source of stimulation and pleasure during that stage. In
order to make a smooth transition from one
psychosexual stage to the next, the child must neither be overgratified nor
undergratified because it can lead to fixation or regression.

Freud uses the term fixation to describe what occurs when a person does not
progress normally from stage to stage and remains overly involved with a particular
stage. That person will prefer to gratify his or her needs in simpler or more child like
ways, rather than in an adult mode that would result in normal development.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 12

Freud's theory of personality development was that it was a result of a series

of stages during childhood. He believed that the development process involved a
pleasure-seeking source that revolved around psychosexual energy. His stages of
development include:

Stages Details Critical Events

Oral  This is the first stage, which begins at birth.  Oral

stage Calling it the "oral stage" makes sense Gratification/Satisfaction
because it is often oral fixation that soothes
(0-1 year- babies; e.g., bottle, nipple, pacifier.
old)  The child seeks oral gratification in order to
gain pleasure (eating and taking things into
the mouth).
 During this stage, if a child does not have its
oral needs met, for example, not being fed
when crying, he or she learns to not trust.
 If children have those needs met, they learn
to trust those around them.
Anal  It focuses on learning to control bowel  Disclipine and Authority
stage movements and maintain bladder control.  Toilet Training
(Toilet Training)
(1-3 years  When children gain this ability, they feel
old) independent and a sense of accomplishment.
 This stage is affected by how parents
approach potty training. If they punish and
ridicule or are very strict, the child can go on
to be anal-retentive and have such
personality traits as being obsessive, rigid,
etc. (Peeing in bed)
 This stage lasts up until the child is around 3
years old.

Fixation:

 Anal-explosive character – symbolical

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 13

acts are over generosity or wanting to give

away everything he or she owns.
 Anal-retentive character – symbolic
acts are stinginess, orderliness and
perfectionism.
Phallic  During this stage the focus is on the genitals.  Formation of gender
stage This is when males and females realize there identity
is a difference.
(3-6  Freud believed that the girls suffered from
years "penis envy" or “electra complex”
old) because they were not males and that boys
were in competition with their fathers to get
their mothers' attention.
 This stage lasts until the child is around 5.
Gender orientation is mostly based on the
dictation of the people around them.
Latent  This was believed to be an important period  Social relationship and
(Latency) in personality development, when children interest exploration
period focus on relationships with their peers,
finding hobbies they enjoy, and pursuing
(6-12 interests. This stage takes place from age 6 to
years about 12.
old)  Education and the beginnings of concern for
others
Genital  This final stage starts when the child is about
stage 12 years old. It is the period that children go
through puberty and start gaining sexual
interest. In this stage, the child begins to
establish an interest in other people and, in
turn, become well-balanced.

The three stages – oral, anal and phallic – are considered by Freud as the
basic ingredients of the adult personality.

Freud's stages of psychosexual development may seem a little odd at first, but
for a while they were all that people had to go off of. It is largely where some of the
first ideas regarding personality development originated.

Activity #2
1. Do you agree with Freud that the motivating forces of human beings are sex
and aggression? Explain.

2. List major areas where Erikson and Freud differed.

With the foregoing discussions, we have observed that Freud mainly focus on
the sexual drive of a certain individual. However, there is also a theorist who
emphasized cultural factors more than sexual drive. Freud suggested that penis envy
was largely responsible for a woman’s development; woman, he suggested, viewed

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 14

themselves as he himself viewed them – as castrated males. She contradicted Freud’s

hypothesis of penis envy as the primary determining factor in the psychology of
women. She pointed out that men and women may develop fantasies about
castration in their effort to cope with the oedipal situation. She further observed that
many men and boys express jealously over women’s ability to bear and nurse
children. She termed this phenomena womb envy and suggested that womb envy
and penis envy are complementary. This theorist is also gained popularity through
her analysis of the neurotic aspects of human behavior and she is Karen Horney.

“THEORY OF NEUROTIC NEEDS”

Karen Horney
Neurosis is a condition of extreme fear, and
to overcome these, Horney suggested that there are
Neurotic needs to address neurosis. The neurotic needs
come to existence because of a person’s intensive and
compulsive pursuit of their satisfaction as the only way to
resolve basic anxiety. Satisfying these needs will not help
us feel safe and secure but will aid only in desire to escape
the discomfort caused by our anxiety. We pursue
gratification of these needs solely to cope with anxiety, we tend to focus on only one
need and compulsively seek its satisfaction in all situations.

Karen Horney believed that neurosis resulted from basic anxiety caused by
interpersonal relationships. Her theory proposes that strategies used to cope with
anxiety can be overused, causing them to take on the appearance of needs.

In her book Self-Analysis (1942), Horney outlined the 10 neurotic needs she had
identified:

1. The Neurotic Need for Affection and Approval

This needincludes the desires to be liked, to please other people, and meet
the expectations of others. People with this type of need are extremely sensitive to
rejection and criticism and fear the anger or hostility of others.

2. The Neurotic Need for a Partner Who Will Take Over One’s Life
This involves the need to be centered on a partner. People with this need
suffer extreme fear of being abandoned by their partner. Oftentimes, these
individuals place an exaggerated importance on love and believe that having a
partner will resolve all of life’s troubles.

3. The Neurotic Need to Restrict One’s Life Within Narrow Borders

Individuals with this need prefer to remain inconspicuous and
unnoticed. They are undemanding and content with little. They avoid wishing
for material things, often making their own needs secondary and undervaluing
their own talents and abilities.

4. The Neurotic Need for Power

Individuals with this need seek power for its own sake. They usually
praise strength, despise weakness, and will exploit or dominate other people.
These people fear personal limitations, helplessness, and uncontrollable
situations.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 15

5. The Neurotic Need to Exploit Others

These individuals view others in terms of what can be gained through
association with them. People with this need generally pride themselves on
their ability to exploit other people and are often focused on manipulating
others to obtain desired objectives, including such things as ideas, power,
money, or sex.

6. The Neurotic Need for Prestige

Individuals with a need for prestige value themselves in terms of public
recognition and acclaim. Material possessions, personality characteristics,
professional accomplishments, and loved ones are evaluated based on prestige
value. These individuals often fear public embarrassment and loss of social
status.

7. The Neurotic Need for Personal Admiration

Individuals with a neurotic need for personal admiration are
narcissistic and have an exaggerated self-perception. They want to be admired
based on this imagined self-view, not upon how they really are.

8. The Neurotic Need for Personal Achievement

According to Horney, people push themselves to achieve greater and
greater things as a result of basic insecurity. These individuals fear failure and
feel a constant need to accomplish more than other people and to top even
their own earlier successes.

9. The Neurotic Need for Self-Sufficiency and Independence

These individuals exhibit a “loner” mentality, distancing themselves
from others in order to avoid being tied down or dependent upon other
people.

10. The Neurotic Need for Perfection and Unassailability

These individuals constantly strive for complete infallibility. A common
feature of this neurotic need is searching for personal flaws in order to quickly
change or cover up these perceived imperfections.

The ten neurotic needs are divided into three general categories, which
describes neurotics’ adjustment to other people (considered by many to be Horney’s
most significant contribution to personality theory).

1. Moving toward people

o “If I give in, I shall not be hurt.”
o This category includes the neurotic need for affection and approval, for
a dominant partner to control one’s life and to live life within narrow
limits.
o Horney calls this person the “compliant type.”
o The individual wants to be liked, wanted, desired, loved, accepted,
approved, etc. however, although the person wants love and affection,
he or she is basically hostile.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 16

2. Moving against people

o “If I have power, none will hurt me.”
o This category includes the neurotic need for power, for exploitation of
others, for prestige and for personal achievement.
o The individual is capable of acting polite and friendly but it is used as a
means to an end. Thus, the person’s friendliness is superficial and is
based on repressed aggressiveness. Horney call this individual the
“hostile type.”

3. Moving away from people

o “If I withdraw nothing can hurt me.”
o This adjustment pattern includes the neurotic needs for self-
sufficiency, independence, perfection and unavailability.
o Horney calls this person the “detached type.”
o A normal person utilizes these adjustment patterns when dealing with
other people depending upon which one is appropriate at a given time.
A neurotic individual cannot adjust. He or she emphasizes one of the
three adjustment patterns at the expense of the other two. This causes
further anxiety since all human beings sometimes need to be
aggressive, unsatisfied and detached or withdrawn.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 17

Activity #3
1. List the major differences between Freud’s theory and Horney’s point of
view.

“INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY”
Alfred Adler

Adler's Personality Theory was created by Alfred

Adler (1870 - 1937). Adler called his theory Individual
Psychology because he believed that people were
unique and that no theory created before his applied to all
people. He originally followed Sigmund Freud's teachings
but left after a disagreement of Freud's theory which says
that the drive of human behavior is sex. Adler's Personality
Theory is similar to that of Freud's Personality Theory
except that Adler's drive for human behavior is the need to
overcome the feelings of inferiority.

Inferiority is a feeling that humans feel since they are born, feeling that a
person is below or weaker than others. They grow up being dependent on their
parents and feeling like they cannot do anything on their own. It is humans drive to
overcome inferiority and become superior which causes humans to act. Humans act
to achieve perfection and superiority. Those that do feel like they are being
overwhelmed by feelings of inferiority will develop an inferiority complex. An
inferiority complex brings an exaggerated feeling of inferiority on the sufferer and
they will feel less motivated to strive for superiority.

His theory also contains the effects of the order of the family. Children who
are the only child will get pampered which will cause the child to feel inferior when
left to do things on their own. Those who are firstborn get all the attention at first
but then all that attention goes towards the middle child. Now the firstborn feels
neglected and inferior and develops to reserved and conservative. The middle child
will be competitive and constantly try to beat the firstborn. The youngest child will
be pampered and will feel inferior when left to do things by themselves. The
youngest child could also feel the need to constantly beat their older siblings like the
middle child. Adler identified 4 different psychological types that described people
based on their energy levels.

Adler's Psychological Types

Socially Useful
Ruling Type Learning Type Avoiding Type
Type

This type refers to Those who fall under this These people are This is a healthy
those who will push type are sensitive and people who survive person. They have
others in order to build a shell around by avoiding life. They the right amount of
gain superiority. themselves. They have have the lowest energy and take
They have a lot of low energy levels. They energy levels. They

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 18

energy which causes are dependent on others usually become interest in others.
them to push others to help them with life psychotic, living in
out of their way. difficulties. When their own worlds.
This type contains overwhelmed they
bullies, sadist, develop phobias,
alcoholics, etc. obsessions, anxiety, etc.

There are problems with Adler's Personality Theory however. One weakness of
this theory is that it isn’t very scientific. Adler’s theory is based on the strive for
superiority and the feelings of inferiority but you cannot measure or test such a
thing.
Also the theory doesn’t explain every personality of every human. A firstborn
child doesn’t always feel like the attention he was receiving went to the middle child
nor does the middle child always feel the need to surpass the firstborn child.

Perfection is the motivating force for humans to transcend to

superiority.

Aggression drive- an individual’s force/reason resulting to aggression.

Compensation- the process of striving to overcome one’s inherent
limitations. Adler postulated that since we all have various issues and
shortcomings as people, our personalities develop largely through the ways in
which we do (or do not) compensate for or overcome these inherent
challenges.

Masculine protest- upon observing the obvious differences in the cultural

expectations placed on boys and girls, and the fact that boys wished, often
desperately, to be thought of as strong, aggressive, and in control. Adler
contradicted the bias that suggested men’s assertiveness and success in the
world arose from some inexplicable innate superiority. Instead, he saw this
phenomenon as a result of the fact that boys are encouraged to be assertive in
life, and girls are discouraged from the very same thing.

Striving for Superiority- the unhealthy or neurotic striving, likely due to

the way it suggests the act of comparing one’s self to others, of attempting to
become “superior” to one’s fellows.

Teleology- in order to understand people, we have to take them as

summations rather than as parts, as unified wholes existing within the context
of their environments (both physical and social).

Adler decided to call his approach to psychology individual psychology, owing to

the exact meaning of the word individual: “un-divided.” He also generally avoided
the traditional concept of personality, steering clear of chopping it up into internal
traits, structures, dynamics, conflicts, etc., and choosing instead talk about people’s
“style of life” (or “lifestyle”, as we would call it today; the unique ways in which one
handles problems and interpersonal relations).

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 19

Adler differed a great deal from Freud, who felt that the things that happened in
the past (e.g. early childhood trauma), shaped the nature of people in the present.
Adler was essentially forward looking, seeing motivation as a matter of moving
toward the future, rather than a product of our pasts driving us with only our limited
awareness as to how and why. This idea that we are drawn towards our goals, our
purposes, our ideals is known as “teleology”.

Adler believed that some people become mired in their “inferiority”; he felt that
we are all born with a sense of inferiority (as children are, of course, smaller and both
physically and intellectually weaker than adults), which is often added to by various
“psychological inferiorities” later (being told we are dumb, unattractive, bad at
sports, etc.) Most children manage these inferiorities by dreaming of becoming
adults (the earliest form of striving for perfection), and by either mastering what they
are bad at or compensating by becoming especially adept at something else, but for
some children, the uphill climb toward developing self-esteem proves
insurmountable.

Adler’s theories may lack the excitement of Freud’s and Jung’s, being devoid of
sexuality or mythology, but they are nonetheless practical, influential, and highly
applicable. Other more famous names, such as Maslow and Carl Rogers, were fans of
Adler’s work, and various students of personality theories have espoused the idea
that the theorists called Neo-Freudians (such as Horney, Fromm, and Sullivan)
probably ought to have been called Neo-Adlerian instead.

Activity #4

1. What is the difference between feelings of inferiority and inferiority

complex?

“PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH”
Carl Jung

Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist whose

research was deep-rooted in psychoanalysis. In his theory of
personality, Carl Jung distinguishes two different attitude
types:
Introverts, which are those people who
receive stimulation from within, and;
Extroverts, which are those who receive
their stimulation from the environment.

Introverts are generally more withdrawn, while extroverts are generally

more sociable. For example, Donna is an extrovert. She loves to go out on adventures
with lots of people and see exciting new things. Her friend David, though, is the
opposite. Given the choice, he'd rather read a book on his couch than go skydiving
with Donna. David is an introvert.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 20

Jung also separates introverts and extroverts into four subtypes according to
the functions that control the way they perceive the world. Both introverts and
extroverts can be any of these subtypes, so there are eight possible personality types.
These four functions are:

1. Thinking- applying reasoning to the situations and environments you

encounter. For example, David likes to think things through and consider all
the pros and cons before he makes a decision about anything.
2. Feeling- applying subjective, personal assessment to the situations and
environments you encounter. Unlike David, Donna relies on her feelings to
tell her how to make a decision. If something feels good, she goes for it; if it
doesn't, she avoids it.
3. Sensation- applying aesthetic value to the situations and environments you
encounter. For example, when deciding how to arrange his living room, David
tries to make things very symmetrical. If there's a chair on one side of the
room, he has to put the same chair on the other side of the room to balance it.
This symmetry makes the room look nice.
4. Intuition- using your unconscious or the mystical to understand your
experiences. For example, Donna thinks David is arranging his furniture all
wrong. She thinks he should use feng shui, an ancient Chinese philosophy, to
choose where to put his furniture.

Jungian Archetypes
Archetypes are images and thoughts which have universal meanings across
cultures which may show up in dreams, literature, art or religion. Jung believes
symbols from different cultures are often very similar because they have emerged
from archetypes shared by the whole human race which are part of our collective
unconscious. For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche,
directing and influencing present behavior. Jung claimed to identify a large number
of archetypes but paid special attention to four.

1. The Persona- the persona (or mask) is the outward face we present to the
world. It conceals our real self and Jung describes it as the “conformity”
archetype. This is the public face or role a person presents to others as
someone different to who we really are (like an actor). This is who we act in
accordance with what the world wanted us to be seen.
2. The Anima/Animus- is the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the
unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women.
The psyche of a woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype),
and the psyche of a man contains feminine aspects (the anima archetype). We
all have both these archetypes and is normal. It can influence our personality.
3. The Shadow- is the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud). It is
the source of both our creative and destructive energies. In line with
evolutionary theory, it may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions
that once had survival value. This has the most tendency to be corrupt.
4. The Self- provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung, the ultimate aim
of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to self-
actualisation), and in this respect, Jung (like Erikson) is moving in the
direction of a more humanist orientation. This is who we really are.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 21

Jung argues that these archetypes are products of the collective experience of
men and women living together. However, in modern Western civilization men are
discouraged from living their feminine side and women from expressing masculine
tendencies. For Jung, the result was that the full psychological development both
sexes was undermined. Together with the prevailing patriarchal culture of Western
civilization this has led to the devaluation of feminine qualities altogether, and the
predominance of the persona (the mask) has elevated insincerity to a way of life
which goes unquestioned by millions in their everyday life.

Our personality development is influenced by the society and experiences.

Theory of the Unconscious

Like Freud (and Erikson) Jung regarded the psyche as made up of a number
of separate but interacting systems. The three main ones were the ego, the personal
unconscious, and the collective unconscious.

Ego represents the conscious mind as it comprises the thoughts, memories,

and emotions a person is aware of. The ego is largely responsible for feelings of
identity and continuity. Like Freud, Jung (1921, 1933) emphasized the importance of
the unconscious in relation to personality. However, he proposed that the
unconscious consists of two layers.
Personal unconscious contains temporality forgotten information and
well as repressed memories.
Collective (or transpersonal) unconscious is a level of unconscious
shared with other members of the human species comprising latent
memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past. ‘The form of the world
into which [a person] is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image or
sense of identity.
According to Jung, the human mind has innate characteristics “imprinted” on
it as a result of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral
past. Fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders might be examples, and it is
interesting that this idea has recently been revived in the theory of prepared
conditioning.
However, more important than isolated tendencies are those aspects of the
collective unconscious that have developed into separate sub-systems of the
personality. Jung called these ancestral memories and images archetypes.

Activity #5
1. In what way can the
anima or animus disrupt
relationships with
members of the opposite
sex? In what way can they
facilitate this
relationship?

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 22

“BEHAVIORISM”
John B. Watson

Behaviorism, is the science of observable behavior.

Only behavior that could be observed, recorded and measured
was of any real value for the study of humans or animals. John
B. Watson is the Founder of Behaviorism

Watson's behaviorism rejected the concept of the

unconscious and the internal mental state of a person because
it was not observable and was subject to the psychologist's
subjective interpretation. For example, Freud would ask his
patients to tell him their dreams. He would then interpret the dreams and analyze
what these dreams were indicating in the person's life. Watson found this emphasis
on introspection and subjective interpretation to be very unscientific and unhelpful
in understanding behavior.

The Core of Watson's Work

Watson is best known for taking his theory of behaviorism and applying it to
child development. He believed strongly that a child's environment is the factor that
shapes behaviors over their genetic makeup or natural temperament. He believed
that you can expose the child to certain environmental forces and, over time,
condition that child to become any type of person you want. As you might imagine,
this was radical thinking and a type of behavioral control that many people were not
comfortable with at that time.

Basic Assumptions
All behavior is learned from the environment: Behaviorism
emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the
near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a
focus on learning. We learn new behavior through classical or operant
conditioning (collectively known as 'learning theory'). Therefore, when born
our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate) - nothing is written until our
environment wrote in us.

Psychology should be seen as a science: Theories need to be supported

by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and
measurement of behavior. Watson (1913) stated that: 'Psychology as a
behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural
science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.’

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as

opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion: While
behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer
not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be
objectively and scientifically measured. Therefore, internal events, such as
thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated
altogether).

There is little difference between the learning that takes place in

humans and that in other animals: There's no fundamental (qualitative)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 23

distinction between human and animal behavior. Therefore, research can be

carried out on animals as well as humans (i.e., comparative psychology).

Behavior is the result of stimulus-response: All behavior, no matter

how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response association).
Watson described the purpose of psychology as: 'To predict, given the
stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the
situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction.

“CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING”

Ivan Pavlov and Burrhus Frederick Skinner

 What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical

conditioning? In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed
by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e.g. studying
for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical
conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary
response.

OPERANT CONDITIONING: (Burrhus Frederick

Skinner)
o Operant conditioning can be described as a
process that attempts to modify behavior through the
use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through
operant conditioning, an individual makes an
association between a particular behavior and a
consequence.
o Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent
grades with candy or some other prize.
o Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most
calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily
become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points.
o The term “operant conditioning” originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who
believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior
(rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations)
o Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative.

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

 Positive Reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the
individual after the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise,
rewards, etc.
 Negative Reinforcers typically are characterized by the removal of an
undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is
strengthened as something considered negative is removed. The goal in both
of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.

Positive and Negative Punishment

Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable
attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 24

 Positive Punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in

order to weaken the response that follows.
 Negative Punishment is characterized by when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after an undesired behavior occurs. The goal in both of
these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: (Ivan Pavlov)

o Classical conditioning is a process that involves
creating an association between a naturally existing stimulus
and a previously neutral one. Sounds confusing, but let's
break it down:
o The classical conditioning process involves pairing a
previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with
an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food).
o This unconditioned stimulus naturally and
automatically triggers salivating as a response to the food,
which is known as the unconditioned response. After associating the neutral
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the bell alone will start to
evoke salivating as a response. The sound of the bell is now known as the
conditioned stimulus and salivating in response to the bell is known as the
conditioned response.
o Imagine a dog that salivates when it sees food. The animal does this
automatically. He does not need to be trained to perform this behavior; it simply
occurs naturally. The food is the naturally occurring stimulus. If you started to
ring a bell every time you presented the dog with food, an association would be
formed between the food and the bell. Eventually the bell alone, a.k.a. the
conditioned stimulus, would come to evoke the salivation response.

Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral
psychology. While both result in learning, the processes are quite different. To
understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is
also essential to understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning
differ from one another.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING

 Involuntary  Voluntary
 Associating an involuntary response  Associating a voluntary behavior and a
and a stimulus consequence
 Involves no reward  The learner is rewarded with incentives
 Passive on the part of the learner  Requires the learner to actively participate and
perform some type of action in order to be
rewarded or punished.
 Forming an association with some sort  Subject must first display a behavior which can
of already naturally occurring event then be either rewarded or punished
 Focuses on involuntary, automatic  Involves applying reinforcement or
behaviors punishment after a behavior
 Involves placing a neutral signal  Focuses on strengthening or weakening
before a reflex voluntary behaviors
 Internal Motivations and becomes a  External influence and operated

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 25

natural knowledge and response

Practical Example:
1. Eddie was a street child, he lives through begging and stealing from others
when no one is around, he also support his family from everything he can
acquire through begging and stealing. Since he was a child, he was forced to
do those things- if he can’t bring anything to his family, his parents will scold
and beat him (positive punishment) and not allow him to sleep with them
(negative punishment). Therefore Eddie must do all he can to bring something
for his family- that is Operant conditioning. As Eddie and his family gets
hungry, they need food (natural stimulus) and thus he needs to make a way to
find food, either to buy food or steal. To buy food, he needs money and money
can be acquired if he beg or steal thus he will steal or beg to get the money
because the money can buy food (no money= no food and no food=hunger)
without further motivation from his family- that is classical conditioning.
2. Mark wore a skirt in the public market, the people talked about him and some
laughed at his attire and released hurting remarks, since then, he never wore
the same attire again. He undergone classical conditioning.
3. Mark was seen by his parents wearing skirts, his father became so furious and
hit him hard many times to make him stop wearing women clothes. He
undergone operant conditioning.

“SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY”

Albert Bandura

o Behaviour is learned through observation,

modelling, and imitation from the person viewed as the
model.
o People learn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modelling.
o Most human behavior is learned observationally
through modelling: from observing others, one forms an
idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.

Key tenets of Social Learning Theory are as follows:

Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes
place in a social context.

Vicarious Reinforcement- learning can occur by observing a behavior and

by observing the consequences of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement).

Observational Learning or Modelling- learning involves observation,

extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions
about the performance of the behaviour. Thus, learning can occur without an
observable change in behavior.

Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for

learning.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 26

Reciprocal Determinism- the learner is not a passive recipient of

information. Cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence
each other.

MODELING AND UNDERLYING COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Three (3) types of modeling:
1. Live models, where a person is demonstrating the desired behavior (actual
person is being observed/modelled).

2. Verbal instruction, in which an individual describes the desired behavior in

detail and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior (the
learner is being instructed verbally or being told what to do)

3. Symbolic, in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including

movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. Stimuli can be either real or
fictional characters. (Watching, reading, and listening can be a source of
modeling).

Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of

model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes.

Learning Process:
 Attention – the observer directly observed, watched, read, or heard about a
certain behavior/action.
o (Ex: a child watched his father beating his mother)

 Retention – the observer is able to retain or remember details of that

behavior.
o (Ex: the child remembered how his father beat his mother including the
action, expression, and the stance).

 Reproduction – the observer will imitate the behavior or do the same in

accordance with what he/she has observed and remembered.
o (Ex: based on what the child remembered, he/she will do or imitate the
action towards his enemy)

 Motivation – The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an

observed behavior is dependent on the motivations and expectations of the
observer, including anticipated consequences and internal standards.
Bandura's description of motivation is also fundamentally based on
environmental and thus social factors, since motivational factors are driven by
the functional value of different behaviors in a given environment. This
determines whether the observer will do the same behavior again or not; if the
observer was punished for that behavior, then he/she will less likely repeat the
behavior but if he/she received reward or praised for that behavior then
he/she will be motivated to do that act again.
o (Ex: when the parents saw the child doing the action and
apprehended him for that, he will be discouraged to do it again but if
the parents praised him in doing it, he will be motivated to do it again
and thus become part of his behavior).

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 27

Activity #6
1. Cite examples of how cinema and television can influence behavior.

2. Can emotional responses be conditioned by observation? Explain.

3. Explain the role of imitation in personality development.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 28

LESSON 3 Humanistic and Existential theories

A. Humanistic Theory (Hierarchy of Needs)

This theory was initiated by Abraham

Harold Maslow which states
that people achieve their full
potential by moving from basic
needs to self-actualization. As a
leader of humanistic psychology,
Abraham Maslow approached the study
of personality psychology by focusing
on subjective experiences and free will.

View of Human Nature

Maslow advocated a holistic analytic approach to study the total

person. It should emphasize the positive qualities of human beings. His theory
is concerned with growth motivation, which can be gained through self-
actualization.
Human nature consists of a number of instinctoidal (innate but weak)
needs that are arranged in hierarchy according to their potency. Self-
actualizing individuals are no longer motivated by deficiencies (D motivation);

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 29

they are motivated by being values (B motivation); B values are also called
metamotives. D motivation is called D perception or D cognition.
Maslow believed that there is basic goodness in human nature and a
natural tendency toward self-actualization.

Self -actualizing people exhibit the following characteristics:

a. They perceive reality accurately and fully.
b. They demonstrate a greater acceptance of themselves, others and
nature in general.
c. They exhibit spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness.
d. They tend to be concerned with the problems rather than with
themselves.
e. They have a quality of detachment and the need for privacy.
f. They are autonomous, and therefor tend to be independent of their
environment and culture.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Growth towards self-actualization requires the satisfaction of the

hierarchy needs. In Maslow’s Theory, there are five (5) basic needs:
a. Physiological – food, clothing, shelter and sleep.
b. Safety- security, protection, stability, freedom from fear and
anxiety, and the need for structure and limits.
c. Love and belongingness- need for family and friends, relationships
and being part of the group.
d. Esteem- refer to the reaction of others towards the individual, how
one views him/herself, and the need for a favorable judgement.
e. Need for self-actualization- the tendency, inspite of the lower needs
being satisfied, to feel restless we are doing what we think we are
capable of doing.

According to Limpingco and Tria (1999) that there is a misconception

about Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

Maslow was quick to point out that his initial five-level need
of hierarchy is sometimes oversimplified when it comes to the
relationship between the need and behavior. For example, some
people need to satisfy their needs for self-esteem and respect first
before they can enter a love relationship.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 30

Another common misconception about the need hierarchy is

the assumption that the physiological needs must first be satisfied
100% before proceeding to the higher needs. For Maslow, our needs
are only partial at any given moment.

Although the need hierarchy was described as universal.

Maslow admitted that the means of satisfying a particular need
vary across cultures. A person can win self-esteem and respect in
our society by becoming a doctor or a political leader. But in other
societies, this esteem is awarded for good hunting or farming skills.
Maslow argued that these differences are somewhat superficial.

Another oversimplication of the hierarchy of needs is that any given behavior

is motivated by a single need. Maslow argued that behavior is the result of
multiple motivations.

Let us think over through knowing the evaluation of the Maslow Theory of
Motivation:

Weak points Strong points

 Maslow’s theory has been  His theory is an extension of the need
criticized as being unscientific, for actualization.
using uncontrolled and  He believed that society has to create a
unreliable techniques. loving, harmonious and a non-
 His subjects were subjectively aggressive society.
selected.  He rejected the Freudian notion that
 He used ambiguous terms. human beings and society had to be
 Some individuals seem to be engaged in constant conflict; rather he
productive and creative believed that society could be designed
eventhough the two basic needs to maximize the probability of self-
are have not been satisfied. actualization.
 He presented human needs arranged
in a hierarchy according to potency.
 He believed that if human beings are
given complete freedom, they could
create eupsychia ( a loving,
harmonious and non-aggressive
society)

As a summary, for Maslow point of view he stated that exposure to

environmental conditions that permit or prohibit gratification of the basic needs
prompt changes up or down the hierarchy of needs. That is, since our behavior is
governed by the lowest unfulfilled need, changes in career, family, or social

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 31

conditions can alter fundamental motives structures. Such movement would

surely result in a personality change.
Maslow stimulated interest in optimal development. He studied that self-
actualization and formulated descriptions of self-actualizing persons. Among the
key attributes of self-actualizing persons Maslow listed are: efficient perception of
reality, acceptance of self and others, a sense of autonomy and a capacity for
solitude, a capacity for intimacy and sharing, a sensitive feeling for ethics, and
empathy for humankind.

B. Humanistic (Person-
Centered) Psychology or Self
Theory

Carl Rogers is an American Clinical

Psychologist who introduced this
theory. For him, the core of our
nature is essentially positive. The
direction of our movement basically
is toward self-actualization,
maturity, and socialization. It is his
contention that religion, particularly the Christian religion, has taught us to
believe that we are basically sinful. Furthermore, Rogers contends that Freud and
his followers have presented us with a picture of the person with an id and an
unconscious that would, if permitted expression, manifest itself in incest, murder,
and other crimes. According to this view, we are at heart irrational, unsocialized,
and destructive of self and others. For Rogers, we may at times function in this
way, but at such times we are neurotic and not functioning as fully developed
human beings. When we are functioning freely, we are free to experience and to
fulfill our basic nature as positive and social animals, ones that can be trusted and
basically are constructive (Aquino & Miranda, 2003).

The Self and Self-Actualization

According to Rogers (1959), infants begin to develop a vague concept of self when
a portion of their experience becomes personalized and differentiated
in awareness as “I” or “me” experiences. Infants gradually become aware of
their own identity as they learn what tastes good and what tastes bad, what feels
pleasant and what does not. They then begin to evaluate experiences as positive
or negative, using as a criterion the actualizing tendency. Because nourishment is
a requirement for actualization, infants value food and devalue hunger. They also
value sleep, fresh air, physical contact, and health because each of these is needed
for actualization.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 32

Once infants establish a rudimentary self- structure, their tendency to

actualize the self begins to evolve. Self-actualization is a subset of the
actualization tendency and is therefore not synonymous with it.
The actualization tendency refers to organismic experiences of the individual;
that is, it refers to the whole person—conscious and unconscious,
physiological and cognitive. On the other hand, self-actualization is the
tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness. When the organism
and the perceived self are in harmony, the two actualization tendencies are
nearly identical; but when people’s organismic experiences are not in
harmony with their view of self, a discrepancy exists between the actualization
tendency and the self-actualization tendency.
Rogers (1959) postulated two self subsystems, the self-concept and the ideal
self.

The Self-Concept
The self-concept includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s
experiences that are perceived in awareness (though not always accurately) by
the individual. The self-concept is not identical with the organismic
self. Portions of the organismic self may be beyond a person’s awareness or
simply not owned by that person.

The Ideal Self

The second subsystem of the self is the ideal self, defined as one’s view of self
as one wishes to be. The ideal self contains all those attributes, usually
positive, that people aspire to possess. A wide gap between the ideal self and
the self-concept indicates incongruence and an unhealthy personality.
Psychologically healthy individuals perceive little discrepancy between their
self-concept and what they ideally would like to be.

Awareness
Without awareness the self-concept and the ideal self would not exist. Rogers
(1959) defined awareness as “the symbolic representation (not necessarily in
verbal symbols) of some portion of our experience” (p. 198). He used the term
synonymously with both consciousness and symbolization.

Levels of Awareness
First, some events are experienced below the threshold of awareness and are
either ignored or denied. An ignored experience can be illustrated by a woman
walking down a busy street, an activity that presents many potential stimuli,
particularly of sight and sound. Because she cannot attend to all of them,
many remain ignored.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 33

Second, Rogers (1959) hypothesized that some experiences are accurately

symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure. Such experiences are
both nonthreatening and consistent with the existing self-concept.
A third level of awareness involves experiences that are perceived in
a distorted form. When our experience is not consistent with our view of self,
we reshape or distort the experience so that it can be assimilated into our
existing self-concept.

Becoming a Person
Rogers (1959) discussed the processes necessary to becoming a person.
First, an individual must make contact—positive or negative—with another
person. This contact is the minimum experience necessary for becoming a
person. In order to survive, an infant must experience some contact from a
parent or other caregiver. As children (or adults) become aware that another
person has some measure of regard for them, they begin to value positive
regard and devalue negative regard.
That is, the person develops a need to be loved, liked, or accepted by another
person, a need that Rogers (1959) referred to as positive regard. If we
perceive that others, especially significant others, care for, prize, or value us,
then our need to receive positive regard is at least partially satisfied.
Positive regard is a prerequisite for positive self-regard, defined as the
experience of prizing or valuing one’s self. Rogers (1959) believed that
receiving positive regard from others is necessary for positive self-regard, but
once positive self-regard is established, it becomes independent of the
continual need to be loved.
The source of positive self-regard, then, lies in the positive regard we receive
from others, but once established, it is autonomous and self-perpetuating. As
Rogers (1959) stated it, the person then “becomes in a sense his [or her] own
significant social
other” (p. 224).
Source: https://sites.google.com/site/ubmichellebadillo/theories-of-personality/carl-rogers-person-centered-theory

Carl Rogers explained further on the STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY.

He said that the principal conceptual framework on his theory revolves
around:

1. The organism, which is the total organism;

2. The phenomenological field, which is the totality of experience; and
3. The self, which is a differentiated portion of the phenomenological
field.

The ORGANISM is the focus of experience that includes

everything potentially available to awareness. The organism has
one basic tendency- it is striving to actualize, maintain and
enhance the experiencing organism.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 34

The PHENOMENOLOGICAL FIELD, which is perceptual, is “reality”

accepted by the individual’s perceptual system. Hence, the best
vantagepoint for understanding behavior is from the internal frame of
reference of the individual him/herself.

The SELF, the differentiated portion of the phenomenological field,

consists of a pattern of conscious perceptions and values of the “I” or
“Me”. Parental influence is essential at this stage of structuring the
self.

ULTIMATE GOAL: TO BE A FULLY FUNCTIONING

PERSON

Rogers believes that the ultimate goal of each human

being is to be fully functioning person. It is a process in which
the individual is constantly pursuing his or her actualizing tendency and at the same
time behaving in a manner that is true to the self. Individuals, not limited by
conditions of worth, perform behavior that they believe are appropriate on the basis
of their experiences. They are willing to accept the pain and anxiety that may
accompany their unwillingness to act in a manner inconsistent with the expectations
of their significant others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSON:

Open to Self-trust Creativity

experiences

Sense of
Existential
freedom
living

Another explanation of Roger’s theory is that he believed the education would be

vastly improved if it took into consideration the following facts about the learning
process:
1. Human beings have a natural potential for learning.
2. Learning is best when students see relevance in what is being
learned.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 35

3. Some learning may require a change in the learner’s self-

structure and that such learning may be resisted.
4. Learning which necessities a change in the learner’s self-
structure occurs more easily in situations where external threats
are at a minimum.
5. When threats to the learner’s self-concept are minimal,
experience can be perceived in great detail, thus optimizing
learning.
6. Many learning takes place by doing.
7. Learning proceeds best when students participate responsibility
in the learning process.
8. Self-initiated learning, which involves the whole person
intellectually and emotionally, is the most long lasting learning.
9. Independence and creativity are facilitated when self-criticism
and self-evaluation are given primary importance, and
evaluation by others secondary.
10. The most useful kind of learning is that which gives a continuing
openness to experiences and a tolerance for change.

For Rogers, the term “teacher” is inappropriate since it suggests person who
dispenses information to students. He preferred using the term “facilitator” to
emphasize the fact that the person is there to create an atmosphere conducive to
learning. A facilitator of education acts upon the principles of learning listed above,
and thereby treats each student as a unique person with his or her own feelings
rather than as an object to be taught something.

As evaluation of this theory, Rogers influenced psychotherapy the most since

the time of Freud. His positive, humanistic approach to counseling and therapy has
widespread application to education, the church and business. There appears to be
three (3) reasons for its popularity:
1. It is effective;
2. The approach does not require the long tedious training
that psychoanalyst need;
3. It is positive and optimistic about human nature.

Roger’s accomplishment also include the fact that he, more than any other
therapist, exposed the psychotherapeutic process to scientific investigation. Like the
other theories, Rogers’ has not gone uncriticized. The following is a list of weaknesses
observed in Rogers; theory:

1. It ignores the unconscious mind even after the psychoanalytic theory has
demonstrated its importance.
2. It does not use diagnostic categories such as neurotic, psychotic, or manic-
depressive in therapeutic practices.
3. Its view of human nature is overly religious and simplistic such that it
ignored the importance and forcefulness of sexual and aggressive drives.
4. It does not explain why some people seem to be fully functioning without
experiencing unconditional positive regard.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 36

To sum up with this theory, Rogers believed that each person lives in one’s
subjective world where each interprets his or her own experiences. Rogers referred to
this ongoing subjective account of experiences as an individual’s phenomenological
field. The primarily concern is wow one views the world, and whether that view is
accurate or distorted.

Rogers differentiated between experience and awareness. Experience is all

that is going on within the organism’s environment at any given moment, which is
potentially available to awareness. When these potential experiences become
symbolized, they enter awareness and become part of the person’s phenomenological
field.

The phenomenological field has the property of being conscious or

unconscious depending upon whether the experiences that constitute the field are
symbolized or not. The symbols that act as vehicles for experiences to enter
awareness are usually words, although they need not be. Symbols can also be visual
and auditory images.

TASK 04

Instructions: Comprehend appropriately the question stated below. Write your

answers in the prescribed answer sheet. This is the criteria in giving points of your
discussion:

Criteria Points

Organization (ideas are organized not vague) 20

Content (has a specific idea and has a supporting details) 20

Clarity of thoughts (very clear and ideas are not confusing) 20

Conventions (grammar, mechanics, spelling, usage & sentence formation 20

Total 80

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 37

1. List the positive and negative traits of self-actualizing

individuals. (20 pts.)
Positive Negative

2. Explain why Roger’s theory is labeled humanistic and

existential. Write your explanation into 150-200 words. (80 pts.)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.

3. Explain at least five (5) characteristics of self-actualized person

and give at least 2 examples from the said characteristics.
(80 pts.)
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

4. At what level in the hierarchy of needs do you feel you are

operating? Justify your answer in 150 words. (80 pts.)
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 38

LESSON 4 Cognitive and Moral

A. Theory of Cognitive
development

Jean Piaget's theory of

cognitive development suggests
that children move through four
different stages of learning. His
theory focuses not only on
understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of
intelligence.

Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting
much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add
new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.

The Sensorimotor Stage

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire
experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses.

Birth to 2 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

 Know the world through movements and sensations

 Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
 Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
 Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 39

 Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them

During the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic growth and
learning. As kids interact with their environment, they continually make new
discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively
short time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to
perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal
about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage
down into substages. Early representational thought emerges during the final part of
the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to
begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development.3

2 to 7 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during

this stage:

 Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words

and pictures to represent objects
 Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things
from the perspective of others
 Getting better with language and thinking, but still
tend to think in very concrete terms

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still

struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other
people. They also often struggle with understanding the
idea of constancy.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play

during this stage of development, yet they continue to
think very concretely about the world around them.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 40

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces,
and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of
clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape.
Because the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that
piece, even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point
in development, they become much more adept at using logic.2 The egocentrism of
the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how
other people might view a situation.

7 to 11 Years

Major characteristics and developmental

changes during this stage:

 Begin to think logically about

concrete events
 Begin to understand the concept of
conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, for example
 Thinking becomes more logical and
organized, but still very concrete
 Begin using inductive logic, or
reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

While thinking becomes much more logical

during the concrete operational state, it can
also be very rigid. Kids at this point in
development tend to struggle with abstract
and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin
to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. 3 At this point,
adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions
to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 41

Age 12 and Up

Major characteristics and

developmental changes during this
time:

 Begins to think abstractly and

reason about hypothetical problems
 Begins to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begins to use deductive logic,
or reasoning from a general principle to
specific information

The ability to thinking about abstract

ideas and situations is the key hallmark of
the formal operational stage of cognitive
development. The ability to systematically
plan for the future and reason about
hypothetical situations are also critical
abilities that emerge during this stage.

Important Concepts

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual

development as a quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more
information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.

Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children

think as they gradually process through these four stages. At age 7, children don't just
have more information about the world than they did at age 2; there is a fundamental
change in how they think about the world.

Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.

Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the

process of obtaining that knowledge.3 As experiences happen, this new information is
used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog.
If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all
dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 42

enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously
existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is
known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to
modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In
the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the
animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation

Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light of

new information; this process is known as accommodation.5 New schemas may also
be developed during this process.

Equilibration

As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is

important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation)
and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation
and accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps
explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

One of the main points of Piaget's theory is that creating knowledge and
intelligence is an inherently active process.

"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality,"
Piaget wrote. "I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing
systems of transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing
reality means constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less
adequately, to reality.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of

children's intellectual growth. It also stressed that children were not merely passive
recipients of knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and experimenting
as they build their understanding of how the world works.

Source: https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

According to Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman (2007) that the Piaget Theory

proposed that people go through various stages in learning how to think as they
develop from infancy into adulthood. His theory, which concerns the stages through
which people must progress in order to develop their cognitive or thinking ability,
was derived from careful observations of his own children’s growth and

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 43

development.
Piaget postulates that virtually all people learn how to think in the same way.
That is, as people they all go through various stages of how they think. In infancy and
early childhood, thinking is very basic and concrete. As children grow, thinking
progresses and becomes more complex and abstract. Each stage of cognitive
development is characterized by certain principles or ways in which an individual
thinks.

Let us consider this:

CRITICAL THINKING: Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory

One general criticism is that the vast majority of his

suppositions are based on his observations of his own
children instead of on scientific studies conducted under
laboratory conditions. Questions have been raised about the manner in which he
observed and interviewed his children, the language he used to obtain information
from them, and personal biases that may have emerged. His findings were primarily
based on only three subjects, his own children, instead of on a variety of subjects
from different backgrounds.
A second general criticism involves the fact that Piaget focuses on the
“average” child. Questions can be raised regarding who the average child really is.
Cultural, socio-economic, and ethnic differences were not taken into account.
Consideration of only limited dimensions of human development poses yet a
third general criticism. Little is said of personality or emotional growth except in
specific instances where they relate directly to cognitive development. The effects of
social interaction are virtually ignored. Piaget concentrates on how the children see
and think of objects instead of the people closest to them.
The idea that cognitive growth through these stages stops at adolescence is a
fourth general criticism. Riegel (1973) suggests adding a fifth stage as people move
into and through adulthood. In this stage, there would be “no” clear plateus- no
levels of cognitive accomplishment clearly evident in the ability to solve a new class
of problems. Instead, there is a renewed realization that development occurs on
different levels, that is replete with contradictions,” and that different levels of
behavior are entirely appropriate (Lefrancois, 1996, p. 402) as stated by Zastrow and
Kirst-Ashman (2007).
Piaget (1972) has offered several possible explanations for such findings. First,
an individual’s environment may influence cognitive development. Persons from
deprived environments many not be offered the same types of stimulation and
support necessary to achieve such high levels of cognition. Second, individual
differences might have to be taken into account. Some persons might not have the

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 44

necessary ability to attain the levels of thought that characterize the formal
operations period. Finally, even if the person develops a capacity for formal
operational thought, this capacity may not be versatile in its application to all
problems. In other words, some individuals might be unable to use formal operations
with some problems or in some situations.
Questions have been raised regarding the meaning and appropriate age level
attributed to some of Piaget’s specific concepts. He appears to have erred by
underestimating children’s abilities concerning various conceptual achievements.
Some research replicates Piaget’s in terms of principle. However, by simplifying the
language used to communicate with children and by using words and concepts with
which they are familiar, the children’s performance tends to improve. In other words,
sometimes when children can relate better to the experiment, they better understand
what is expected from them and thus can perform better.
Regardless of the various criticisms, Piaget must be given great credit.
Decades ago, he provided us with a foundation for thinking about cognitive
development and has tremendously influenced research in this area. Additionally, he
set the stage for establishing appropriate expectations regarding what types of things
children at various age levels can realistically accomplish.

B. Moral Stages of
Development
There were three levels of moral
reasoning that encompassed the six
stages. Like Piaget, subjects were
unlikely to regress in their moral
development, but instead, moved
forward through the stages:

1. pre-conventional,
2. conventional, and finally
3. post-conventional.

Each stage offers a new

perspective, but not everyone
functions at the highest level all the time. People gain a more thorough
understanding as they build on their experiences, which makes it impossible
to jump stages of moral development.

Stage 1 (Pre-Conventional)

o Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid

punishment?)
o Self-interest orientation (What’s in it for me? aiming at a
reward)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 45

Stage 2 (Conventional)

o Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms, good

boy – good girl attitude)
o Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law
and order morality)

Stage 3 (Post-Conventional)

o Social contract orientation (Justice and the spirit of the law)

o Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)

Preconventional morality – young

children under the age of 9

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment

Orientation

The first stage highlights the self-interest

of children in their decision making as
they seek to avoid punishment at all
costs. In relation to our example above,
the man should not steal the medication
from the pharmacy as he may go to jail if
he is caught.

Similar to the first stage in Piaget’s

theory, Kohlberg reflects on the moral thought of children. At a young age, they
believe that rules are meant to be followed and those in charge will undoubtedly
follow through with punishment. A child’s reasoning to the above example may
include “it’s bad to steal,” or “it’s against the law,” without assessing the perspective
of the man whose wife is sick.

This stage is labeled preconventional due to the limited association that

children have with the outlined principles. They view the ethics taught as something
that society implements, not as something they internalize themselves.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

This stage observes how children begin to

adopt the views taught, but also recognize
that there is more than one point of view for
each matter. Each person is different and
will, therefore, have a unique outlook
according to their interests. In terms of our
example above, they may reason that “he

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 46

may think that it is right to take the drug, but the pharmacist would not.”

The second stage relies heavily on the exchange of favors and can be
summarized with the common marketing saying “what’s it in for me?” Children at
this stage are not motivated by friendship or respect but by the personal advantages
involved. For example, if a parent asks their child to complete a chore around the
house, the child may ask what the benefit would be to them. Parents often recognize
the “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” mindset at this stage and offer a
reward, such as an allowance.

Conventional morality – older children, adolescents, and most adults

Stage 3: Good Interpersonal

Relationships

This stage recognizes the desire to

be accepted into societal groups as well
as how each person is affected by the
outcome.

Children in the third stage are

typically pre-teens or early teenagers and
have now adopted the societal norms as
their own. While they believe that people
should behave appropriately in their
communities, they recognize that there is
no simple solution to moral dilemmas. In Kohlberg’s study per the example above,
they accepted that he should steal the medicine and “he was a good man for wanting
to save her.” They also reasoned that “his intentions were good, that of saving the life
of someone he loves.”

Stage 4: Maintaining the Social

Order

In this stage, laws and social

order reign supreme. Rules and
regulations are to be followed and
obeyed. In the above example, the
man should not steal the medicine
because it is against the law.

Stage four shows the moral

development of a person as a part of
a whole society. Each person
becomes more aware of the impact of everyone’s
actions on others and focuses now on their own
role, following the rules, and obeying authorities.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 47

While stage three highlights the close relationships with family and friends, stage
four attempts to maintain social order in the community. Pertaining to the example
above, participants in stage four would argue that while they understood why he
wanted to steal the medication, they could not support the idea of theft. Society
cannot maintain order if its members decided to break the laws when they thought
they had a good enough reason to do so.

Postconventional morality – rare with adolescents and few adults.

Stage 5: Social Contract and

Individual Rights

This stage acknowledges the

introduction of abstract reasoning as
people attempt to explain specific
behaviors. In our example above, the
man should steal the medication for his
wife because she is deathly ill and the
laws do not take the circumstances into
account.

In the fifth stage, members begin to consider “What makes for a good
society?” They are able to step back and assess each situation as a whole, reflecting
on what is good and just. Reflecting on the morals and ethics of their current
community allows them to address inconsistencies in their values and attempt to fix
what they do not agree with. A society that runs smoothly does not necessarily
uphold their desired principles. This is one step ahead of stage four, where the main
goal is to keep a society functioning at all costs.

Stage 6: Universal Principles

The final stage of Kohlberg’s theory

states that moral reasoning is based on
personal values. In the above example, it is
okay for the man to take the medication
without paying as objects or property are
not as valuable as his wife’s life.

Stage six was developed when

Kohlberg discovered that elected processes
do not always result in fair outcomes.
Individuals at the fifth stage of moral reasoning recognized the importance of
protecting human rights while also resolving challenges in a democratic way.
Unfortunately, some majority votes resulted in regulations that actually hurt a
minority group, leading to questions of an even higher level of reasoning.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 48

The sixth stage was created to acknowledge the use of justice in moral
reasoning. General, universal morals and ethics are used as a baseline for what is
right and just. These are often abstract concepts that cannot be clearly defined, only
outlined. Equality, justice, dignity, and respect are all ideas that form the basis of
universal principles. Laws and rules are only effective if they support the universal
principles, which each person at this stage works to uphold.

Similarly, they work on disobeying laws that are unfair, and feel guilty if they
don’t obey the laws that they believe in. Individuals at this level of reasoning behaved
in a certain way because it was the right thing to do, and were not motivated by laws
or societal expectations. Kohlberg found it challenging to identify participants in his
studies who could consistently display moral reasoning in the sixth stage.

In the first stage, children obey the rules taught and believe what society says
is right. Avoiding punishment is a leading factor in their desire to obey authority.
This has diminished by stage two, where children can see that they are multiple
points of view to the matter in question. They tend to reason according their own
self-interests, including bartering with others.

In stage three, people value a supportive community and therefore have the
desire to be a good, helpful member. This changes as they move into stage four,
where they seek instead to meet the goals of the society, which includes maintaining
law and order. Throughout both stages, we see how young teens value the morals and
ethics of the group of which they are part.

In stage five, people evolve from the idea of being ‘good’ into what would be
the right thing to do. They seek to create morals and values for a good society instead
of maintaining the society for the sake of doing so. They take these ideas one step
further in stage six, where they work to incorporate justice and creating a fair society
for all.

Source: https://educationaltechnology.net/stages-of-moral-development-lawrence-kohlberg/

C. Feminist Ethics Theory

Carol Gilligan, a feminist theorist and

psychologist, presumes that the morality
of women is merely different from
that concerning men's and that it is
not at all inferior as her male
counterparts claim it to be.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 49

Feminist ethics is an approach to ethics that builds on the belief that

traditionally ethical theorizing has undervalued and/or
underappreciated women's moral experience, which is largely male-
dominated, and it therefore chooses to reimagine ethics through a holistic feminist
approach to transform it.

This theory is based on the assumptions that the world is male oriented, devised
by men and dominated on a male emphasis on systems of inflexible rules.
The goal of feminist ethics is to create a plan that will hopefully end the social
and political oppression of women. It is believed that the female perspective of
the world can be shaped into a value theory.

From the Omonia Vinieris (QCC, 2002) on the Feminist Theory of Care
it was stated that:

It has been conventionally thought by

traditional thinkers of ethics that the moral
development of females is slow-paced and
secondary to that of males. Standard ethical
attitudes entail hostile, aggressive, and masculine
principles of authority, supremacy, and social
order. Feminist opponents consider the latter to
incite the debasement of women’s moral
capabilities and to demoralize the conception of
morality altogether. The “ethics of justice” is often the terminology used to denote
moral duty based on the masculine traits of reason and aloofness. Feminists strive
for vindication by formulating a theory entitled the “ethics of care” to counter its
antithetical parallel, the manly principle, “ethics of justice”.

Ethics of care focus on the morality and integrity of women which primarily
center on interpersonal relationships. Feminine values such as gentleness,
sympathy, and genuine caring are devalued and deemed irrelevant to the public
world where self-rule and power thrive. Carol Gilligan, a feminist theorist and
psychologist, presumes that the morality of women is merely different from that
concerning men’s and that it is not at all inferior as her male counterparts claim it to
be. She profoundly opposes the theories of moral development devised her
colleague, Kohlberg, who only confined his study to males. His study neglects a
woman’s ability to possess self-legislated ethical dogma.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 50

Gilligan, in attempt to refute Kohlberg’s philosophy, composes a scale to

illustrate the different stages of a woman’s moral development. In the first stage, the
female is only concerned with herself as she is basically helpless and vulnerable and
finds comfort in her seclusion. She steers clear of any type of relation with others. In
the second stage of moral development, she acquires an awareness of others around
her and clings on to various personal contacts that she develops. She feels a sense of
responsibility and devotion to care for them. She essentially cares for and finds
interest in the people she relates with. She is naturally able to sacrifice herself for
these people out of her innate goodness. Finally in the third stage, she masters
equilibrium between the first two stages. She exhibits self-concern for herself and
others. In order to essentially care for others, she must care for herself first, and
perhaps the reciprocation of care between her and different people is an indication
that she cares for herself. This universal factor of ethical principle verifies a woman’s
ability to control the moral principles concerning her, as it also exemplifies the
potency she holds in concurrently providing for others.

Gilligan further goes on to say that an ethics of care is an essential component

of ideal moral thought. Children must be taught to “value their hearts over their
heads” (Gilligan) rather than disregard their natural emotions in fear of resorting to
subjection which defies the traditional male-oriented “ethics of justice”. In sum,
women and children may exhibit more moral depth than men (Gilligan).

If women are to tolerate the

impersonal and “rational” principles
anchored in the “ethics of justice” they
might as well become merciless,
heartless brutes. However, women are
humane and acknowledge the fact that
genuine impartiality requires emotive
input in ethical reasoning and
assessment. In order to judge morally,
we must identify emotionally with the
individual to make sense of his or her
motives that triggered their actions. Yet, masculine or “traditional” ethical principles
eschew the idea of involving emotion in moral judgment. Sarah Hoagland comments
that traditional ethics undermine rather than promote individual moral ability and
agency because the direction of traditional ethics is impersonal and merely focuses
on control and social organization. Thus it does not uphold individual integrity as
social organization is acquired through oppressive and authoritative means.

Unfortunately, feminists realize that in their own quest to incorporate their

“ethics of care” principle into the canons of society, society is much too fixated on the
masculine tenets of competition and self-interest. An environment based on
interfamilial relations and mutual communication is one where an “ethics of care”
ideology will be embraced by its people. Human emotional responses are now a low

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 51

key supplement to traditionalist ethical principles, as sensitivity and kindness were

never equated with human goodness. Yet, it still seems that rationale and intellect
overpower these feminine aspects in a male-dominated world.

As published on May 2019 by Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy that:

Feminist Ethics aims “to understand, criticize, and correct” how gender
operates within our moral beliefs and practices (Lindemann 2005, 11) and our
methodological approaches to ethical theory. More specifically, feminist ethicists aim
to understand, criticize, and correct: (1) the binary view of gender, (2) the privilege
historically available to men, and/or (3) the ways that views about gender maintain
oppressive social orders or practices that harm others, especially girls and women
who historically have been subordinated, along gendered dimensions including
sexuality and gender-identity. Since oppression often involves ignoring the
perspectives of the marginalized, different approaches to feminist ethics have in
common a commitment to better understand the experiences of persons oppressed
in gendered ways. That commitment results in a tendency, in feminist ethics, to take
into account empirical information and material actualities.

According to

Moral Development and Women: Gilligan’s Approach

A major criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that virtually all of the research on

which it is based used only men as subjects. Gilligan maintains that women fare less
well according to Kholberg’s theory centers on a justice perspective in which “
individuals stand alone and independently make moral decisions”. In contrast,
Gilligan maintains that women are likely to adopt a care perspective that “views
people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal
communication, relationships with others, and concern for others “ (Newman &
Newman, 2003; Santrock, 2006, p.336). In other words, women tend to view
morality in terms of personal situations.
Women often have trouble moving from a very personalized interpretation of
morality to a focus on law and order. This bridge involves generalization from the
more personal aspects of what is right and wrong (how individual moral decisions
affect one’s own personal life) to morality within the larger, more impersonal society
(how moral decisions, such as those instilled in law, affect virtually everyone).
Kohlberg has been criticized because he has not taken into account the different
orientation and life circumstances common to women.
Gilligan describes the following levels and transitions of moral development
for women.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 52

Level 1: Orientation to Personal Survival.

 This level focuses purely on the woman’s self-interest. The
needs and well-being of others are not really considered. At
this level, a woman focuses first on personal survival. What
is practical and best for her is important.

Transition 1: Transition from Personal Selfishness to Responsibility.

The first transition involves a movement in moral thought from
consideration only of self to some consideration of the others involved.
During this transition, a woman comes to acknowledge the fact that she
is responsible not only for herself but also for others, including the
unborn. In others words, she begins to acknowledge that her choice will
affect others.

Level 2: Goodness as Self-sacrifice.

 Level 2 involves putting aside one’s own needs and wishes.
The well-being of other people becomes important. The
“good” thing to do is to sacrifice herself so that others may
benefit. A woman at this level feels dependent on what other
people think. Often a conflict occurs between taking
responsibility for her own actions and feeling pressure from
others to make her decisions.

Transition 2 : From Goodness to Reality. During this transitional

period, women begin to examine their situations more objectively. They
draw away from depending on others to tell them what they should do.
Instead, they begin to take into account the well-being of everyone
concerned, including themselves. Some of the concern for personal
survival apparent in level 1 returns, but in a more objective manner.

Level 3: The Morality of Nonviolent Responsibility.

 Level 3 involves women thinking in terms of the
repercussions of their decisions and actions. At this level, a
woman’s thinking has progressed beyond mere concern for
what others will think about what she does. Rather, it
involves accepting responsibility for making her own
decisions. She places herself on an equal plane with others,
and accepts that she will be responsible for these
consequences. The important principle operating here is that
of minimizing hurt, both to herself and to others.
Gilligan’s sequence of moral development provides a good example of
how morality can be viewed from different perspectives. It is especially
beneficial in emphasizing the different strengths manifested by men and
women. The emphasis of feelings, such as direct concern for others, is
just important as the ability to decisively make moral judgments.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 53

Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Gilligan’s Theory

Some research has established support for Gilligan’s proposed gender-based

differences in moral reasoning. For example, some studies have found that females
consider moral dilemmas concerning caring aspects of social relationships more
important and a greater moral dilemma than males do (Eisen berg & Morries, 2004;
Wark & Krebs, 2000). Another study found that girls were more likely than boys to
use Gilligan’s caring-based approaches when addressing dating predicaments (Weisz
& Black, 2002).
Other research has found that little if any difference exists between the moral
reasoning of men and women (Glover, 2001; Walker, 1995; Wilson, 1995). Results
question the accuracy of Gilligan’s belief in significant gender differences concerning
moral development (Jaffee & Hayde, 2000). This study found that overall picture
revealed only small differences in how females and males made moral decisions.
Although females were slightly more likely than males to use Gilligan’s caring-based
approach instead of Kohlberg’s justice-based perspective, this disparity was larger in
adolescence than adulthood. Whether caring or justice-based approaches were used
depended more on the situation being evaluated. For example, both females and
males were more likely to emphasize caring when addressing interpersonal issues
and justice when assessing more global issues.

Application of Gilligan’s Theory to Client Situations

Social work has a sound foundation of professional values expressed in the

National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics. Ethics involve
making decisions about what is right and what is wrong. Ethics provide social
workers with guidelines for practice with clients.
Gilligan emphasizes the relationship between responsibility and morality.
People develop morally as they gradually become more capable and willing to
assume responsibility. Morality provides the basis for making ethical decisions.
Gilligan “bases the highest stage of decision making on care for and sensitivity to the
needs of others, on responsibility for others, and on nurturance” (Rhodes, 1985, p.
101). This principle is central to the NSW Code of Ethics. Gilligan’s theory can
provide some general ethical guidelines to which we can aspire in our day-to-day
practice with clients. Social workers should strive to be sensitive to the needs of their
clients. They should assume responsibility for effective practice with clients. Finally,
they should provide help and nurturance to meet their clients’ needs.

Source: Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman (2007); Understanding Human Behavior and

Social Environment

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 54

D. Family Systems Theory

(Dr. Murray Bowen)

This is developed by a Psychiatrist and

Researcher named Dr. Murray Bowen.
It is a theory backed up by a growing
body of empirical research.1 In recent
years Bowen’s concept of ‘differentiation
of self’ — which describes differing levels
of maturity in relationships — has been
shown by researchers to be related to
important areas of well-being, including
marital satisfaction, and the capacity to
handle stress, make decisions and
manage social anxiety.

Bowen was a US army physician during World War II who became interested
in psychiatry after seeing the varying effects of trauma on soldiers. Bowen’s theory is
invaluable for helping us to understand the variations in how different people
manage similarly stressful circumstances. He originally trained in Freud’s
psychoanalysis but departed from this theory as he observed that human difficulties
went beyond unresolved issues in the individual’s psyche and were, rather,
embedded in each person’s family system — the focus of this book on relationship
systems. In researching whole families at the US National Institute of Mental Health
in the late 1950s, Bowen noticed patterns of managing anxiety in families that
were similar to the instinctive ways other species dealt with threats in (or to) their
herds and packs. Bowen saw our personal and relationship problems as coming from
exaggerated responses to sensing a threat to family harmony and that of other
groups. For example, the reaction to a family disagreement can be such an inflated
pull for unity that there’s no tolerance for differences of opinion. Or an upset in a
child is responded to with such an intense effort to protect the child that he or she
consequently has no room to develop their own capacity to soothe themself.

Bowen’s concept of ‘differentiation of self’ forms the basis of a systems

understanding of maturity. The concept of differentiation can be confusing but, put
simply, it refers to the ability to think as an individual while staying meaningfully
connected to others. It describes the varying capacity each person has to balance
their emotions and their intellect, and to balance their need to be attached with their
need to be a separate self. Bowen proposed that the best way to grow a more solid self
was in the relationships that make up our original families; running away
from difficult family members would only add to the challenges in managing
relationship upsets.

Bowen is unusual in the field of psychiatry in that he described himself as

needing to address the same self-management issues as those his patients were

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 55

learning to deal with. He didn’t think that any human was close to being completely
differentiated, and is reported by close colleagues to have said that only on his very
best days might he appear to be in the upper to moderate range of emotional
maturity.

Bowen theory is grounded in the observation that the human family, like all of
nature, is a living system. This means that individual members and the group as a
whole influence one another’s functioning in many complex ways. The development
of each member as a person, their resulting health and happiness, and the quality of
connection with one another in the family unit are impacted by this interdependence,
for better and for worse.

A second core observation is that individuals and families as a whole vary

greatly in their ability to develop in ways that contribute to both the betterment of
themselves, their families, and their society. There are many factors that impact an
individual’s and a family’s ability to act in the best interest of oneself, one’s family,
and one’s society, all at the same time. The level of emotional/cognitive integration in
our brain, the level of chronic anxiety we carry and sustain, the degree of cut-off we
have from important others are all factors that influence our ability to think, feel and
act in ways conducive to an optimal outcome for ourselves and to our families and
communities.
Bowen’s theory doesn’t focus on mental illness but on the
challenges of being human in the relationships which affect us all. It’s not
an easy theory to grasp, as it focuses on the big-picture patterns of a system rather
than the narrower view of what causes difficulties for one individual. These ideas
invite us to see the world through the lens of each family member rather than just
from our own subjective experience; they don’t allow room for simply seeing victims
and villains in our relationship networks. Seeing the system takes people beyond
blame to seeing the relationship forces that set people on their different paths. This
way of seeing our life challenges avoids fault-finding and provides a unique path to
maturing throughout our adult lives.

The eight (8)concepts are:

Differentiation of Self:
“The ability to be in emotional contact with others yet still autonomous in one’s
own emotional functioning is the essence of the concept of differentiation.”
(Kerr & Bowen. 1988)

“Differentiation is a product of a way of thinking that translates into a way of

being. Such changes are reflected in the ability to be in emotional contact with
a difficult, emotionally charged problem and not feel compelled to preach
about what others “should” do, not rush in to “fix” the problem and not pretend
to be detached by emotionally insulating oneself.” (Kerr & Bowen,
1988).fferentiation of Self:
“The ability to be in emotional contact with others yet still autonomous in one’s own
emotional functioning is the essence of the concept of differentiation.” (Kerr & Bowen. 1988)

“Differentiation is a product of a way of thinking that translates into a way of Rev.00 (09.15.20)
WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A
being….Succhanges are reflected in the ability to be in emotional contact with a difficult,
emotionally charged problem and not feel compelled to preach about what others “should” do,
 56

The term differentiation comes from biology. It is the scientific concept that
most closely matches the processes Dr. Bowen was observing within families and
between families. People vary across a broad continuum in their ability to function as
emotionally separate individuals while being in good emotional contact with
important others in their families and workplaces. This is a naturally existing
continuum that develops over several generations. It is neither bad nor good; it just
is.
At one end of the continuum are individuals who are the most underdeveloped
as persons, the most relationship focused. They have the least self. They tend to live
life in reaction to others rather than out of their own well-defined beliefs and
principles. They have little tolerance for short-term discomfort and delayed
gratification. Short-term urges tend to dictate their lives at the expense of longer-
term goals and gains. They are very sensitive to what others think about them.
Feeling and anxiety states tend to dominate their behavior and decision-making. This
leads to swings between being overclose/positive and overdistant/ negative. Their
behavior is often at the expense of someone: themselves, their loved ones, employers,
friends. They tend to have the most life problems.

At the other end of the continuum are those who are most fully developed as
persons, who have the most self. They have clearly thought out beliefs and principles.
Their behavior matches these beliefs and principles most of the time. They function
consistently as persons in all their roles and responsibilities in life unless under very
high levels of stress. They can experience strong feeling and anxiety states without
losing their capacity to think and act more objectively and in the long-term best
interest of self and other. They are able to assume high levels of self-responsibility
and leadership in family, workplace and society.

Emotional Cut-off:
Fusion:
“The concept of emotional cut-off refers
“Fusion or lack of differentiation is to the phenomenon of emotional
where individual choices are set distancing, whether the cut-off takes the
aside in service of achieving form of internal mechanisms or physical
harmony in the system” (Brown, distancing.”(Titelman,1987).
1999)
“The emotional cut-off is a natural
Fusion is where “people form process. On a simple level people speak
intense relationships with others of the need for personal space…as a
and their actions depend largely means of “explaining” their avoidance of
on the condition of the others. Distance seems to be the safety
relationships at any given valve of the emotional system. Yet at the
time…Decisions depend on what same time distance leaves people primed
others think and whether the for closeness….The more an individual
decision will disturb the fusion of employs cut-off to manage attachment to
the existing relationships.” parents and the original family, the
(Papero, 2000). greater his or her vulnerability to intense
emotional processes in current
relationships.” (Papero.1990)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 57

Unresolved Emotional
Individuality and Togetherness:
Attachment
“The emotional system operates as if it
Everyone has some degree of
is governed by the interplay of two
unresolved attachment to his or her
counterbalancing “life forces”…defined
original family, but well-differentiated
as individuality and togetherness.”
people have much more resolution than
(Kerr & Bowen 1988)
less differentiated people. An
unresolved attachment can take many “When it is possible to observe the
forms. For example, (1) a person feels details of family interactions without
more like a child when he is home and being seduced into an undue focus on
looks to his parents to make decisions certain details, then it can be seen that
for him that he can make for himself, or what family members think, feel say
(2) a person feels guilty when he is in and do reflects an emotional process
more contact with his parents and that that pertains to the family as a whole.
he must solve their conflicts or This emotional process is assumed to
distresses, or (3) a person feels enraged be regulated by the interplay of a force
that his parents do not seem to that inclines people to follow their own
understand or approve of him. An directives, to be independent
unresolved attachment relates to the (individuality), and a force that inclines
immaturity of both the parents and the them to respond to directives from
adult child, but people typically blame others, to be connected (togetherness).
themselves or others for the problems. (Kerr & Bowen 1988)
(Kerr, 2003)

Family Projection Process:

Systems Anxiety:
“The degree of a child’s relationship
“When aroused, the emotional system dependence is a product of the particular
of the anxious individual tends to balance of forces that promote and
override the cognitive system and undermine emotional separation of the
behaviour becomes increasingly child from the family……When a parent
automatic. As the tension or anxiety and a child function in ways that
mounts, the manifestations of undermine separation, the anxiety and
togetherness and loss of individuality undifferentiation of the parental
increase.” (Papero,1990). generation are transmitted to the next
generation.” (Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

“An intense child focus, which can be

positive or negative, presents significant
developmental challenges to the young
person as they come to function in reaction
to others. This leaves them with little
emotional breathing space to grow in
thinking, feeling and acting for
themselves.” (Brown, 2008).

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 58

Multigenerational Transmission Sibling Positions:

Process:
The multigenerational transmission Based on Walter Toman’s sibling
process not only programs the levels of position profiles (1961)
“self” people develop, but it also Toman’s “basic thesis is that important
programs how people interact with personality characteristics fit with the
others. Both types of programming sibling position in which a person grew
affect the selection of a spouse. For up……The degree to which a personality
example, if a family programs someone profile fits with normal provides a way
to attach intensely to others and to to understand the level of
function in a helpless and indecisive differentiation and the direction of the
way, he will likely select a mate who not projection process from one generation
only attaches to him with equal to generation.” (Bowen, 1978).
intensity, but one who directs others
and make decisions for them. (Kerr,
2003)

“Over the generations, the invested

children of each generation marry Defining a Self:
partners and operate with greater A person can, through a gradual
emotional intensity than did their process of learning that is converted
parents. Their siblings create families into action, become more of a self in
with emotional levels that are similar or his/her family and other relationship
less intense than those of the original systems. This process of change has
family. From this perspective in any been called “defining a self” because
family there are lines moving through visible action is taken to which others
time towards greater and lesser levels
respond. A change in basic level can be
of differentiation.” (Papero, 1990). achieved while in relationship to
emotionally significant others, but not
when others are avoided or when one’s
actions disrupt a relationship.” (Kerr &
Bowen, 1988).

“If a therapist reacts to a family’s

anxiety by telling people what to do, the
resources of the family will quickly
become submerged. If a therapist does
not react, but just helps a family define
the nature of the problem with which it
is confronted (especially the
relationship process that create and
reinforce it), the resources of the family
will resurface”(Kerr & Bowen, 1988: ).

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 59

Nuclear Family Emotional

System:

A: Couple Conflict; B: Illness in a

spouse: C: Projection of problem onto 1 The Emotional System:
or more children.
(As distinct from the feeling and
“The degree to which the intellectual systems; Common to all life
undifferentiation of a nuclear family forms; an automatic process)
system is absorbed in one relationship “The existence of a family emotional
or in the poor functioning of one person field is the product of an emotionally
is the degree to which other driven relationship process that is
relationships and other people are present in all families….This emotional
protected from dysfunction.” (Kerr & process results in people’s occupying
Bowen, 1988) different functioning positions in a
family.” (Kerr & Bowen 1988)

Source: https://www.thefsi.com.au/definitions-bowen-theory/
https://www.thefsi.com.au/us/bowen-theory/

E. Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)

John Bowlby (February 26, 1907 -

September 2, 1990) was a British psychologist
and psychoanalyst who believed that early
childhood attachments played a critical role in
later development and mental functioning. His
work, along with the work of psychologist Mary
Ainsworth, contributed to the development of
attachment theory.

Attachment theory focuses on relationships and bonds (particularly long -

term) between people, including those between a parent and child and between
romantic partners.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 60

Bowlby believed that children

are born with a biologically-
programmed tendency to seek and
remain close to attachment figures.
This provides nurturance and
comfort, but it also aids in the child’s
survival. Sticking close to a caregiver
ensures that the child’s needs are met
and that he or she is protected from
dangers in the environment.

Understanding Attachment
Attachment is an emotional bond with another person. Bowlby believed that
the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous
impact that continues throughout life. He suggested that attachment also serves to
keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival.

Bowlby viewed attachment as a product of evolutionary processes. 3 While the

behavioral theories of attachment suggested that attachment was a learned process,
Bowlby and others proposed that children are born with an innate drive to form
attachments with caregivers.

Throughout history, children who maintained proximity to an attachment

figure were more likely to receive comfort and protection, and therefore more likely
to survive to adulthood. Through the process of natural selection, a motivational
system designed to regulate attachment emerged.

So what determines successful attachment? Behaviorists suggest that it was

food that led to forming this attachment behavior, but Bowlby and others
demonstrated that nurturance and responsiveness were the primary determinants of
attachment.

The Stages of Attachment

Researchers Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson analyzed the number of

attachment relationships that infants form in a longitudinal study with 60 infants.
The infants were observed every four weeks during the first year of life, and then
once again at 18 months.

Based on their observations, Schaffer and Emerson outlined four distinct phases of
attachment, including:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 61

Pre-Attachment Stage

From birth to 3 months, infants do not show any particular attachment to a specific
caregiver. The infant's signals, such as crying and fussing, naturally attract
the attention of the caregiver and the baby's positive responses encourage the
caregiver to remain close.

Indiscriminate Attachment

Between 6 weeks of age to 7 months, infants begin to show preferences for primary
and secondary caregivers. Infants develop trust that the caregiver will respond to
their needs. While they still accept care from others, infants start distinguishing
between familiar and unfamiliar people, responding more positively to the primary
caregiver.

Discriminate Attachment

At this point, from about 7 to 11 months of age, infants show a strong attachment and
preference for one specific individual. They will protest when separated from the
primary attachment figure (separation anxiety), and begin to display anxiety around
strangers (stranger anxiety).

Multiple Attachments

After approximately 9 months of age, children begin to form strong emotional bonds
with other caregivers beyond the primary attachment figure. This often includes a
second parent, older siblings, and grandparents.

Factors That Influence Attachment

While this process may seem straightforward, there are some factors that can
influence how and when attachments develop, including:

 Opportunity for attachment: Children who do not have a primary care

figure, such as those raised in orphanages, may fail to develop the sense of
trust needed to form an attachment.
 Quality caregiving: When caregivers respond quickly and consistently,
children learn that they can depend on the people who are responsible for
their care, which is the essential foundation for attachment. This is a vital
factor.

Attachment Styles

There are four patterns of attachment, including:8

 Ambivalent attachment: These children become very distressed when a

parent leaves. Ambivalent attachment style is considered uncommon,
affecting an estimated 7% to 15% of U.S. children. As a result of poor parental

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 62

availability, these children cannot depend on their primary caregiver to be

there when they need them.
 Avoidant attachment: Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid
parents or caregivers, showing no preference between a caregiver and a
complete stranger. This attachment style might be a result of abusive or
neglectful caregivers. Children who are punished for relying on a caregiver will
learn to avoid seeking help in the future.
 Disorganized attachment: These children display a confusing mix of
behavior, seeming disoriented, dazed, or confused. They may avoid or resist
the parent. Lack of a clear attachment pattern is likely linked to inconsistent
caregiver behavior. In such cases, parents may serve as both a source of
comfort and fear, leading to disorganized behavior.
 Secure attachment: Children who can depend on their caregivers show
distress when separated and joy when reunited. Although the child may be
upset, they feel assured that the caregiver will return. When frightened,
securely attached children are comfortable seeking reassurance from
caregivers. This is the most common attachment style.

The Lasting Impact of Early Attachment

Research suggests that failure to form secure attachments early in life can have a
negative impact on behavior in later childhood and throughout life. 9

Children diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct

disorder (CD), or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently display
attachment problems, possibly due to early abuse, neglect, or trauma. Children
adopted after the age of 6 months may have a higher risk of attachment problems.

Although attachment styles displayed in adulthood are not necessarily the same as
those seen in infancy, early attachments can have a serious impact on later
relationships. Adults who were securely attached in childhood tend to have good self-
esteem, strong romantic relationships, and the ability to self-disclose to others.

Children who are securely attached as infants tend to develop stronger self-
esteem and better self-reliance as they grow older. These children also tend to be
more independent, perform better in school, have successful social relationships, and
experience less depression and anxiety.

Source:
https://www.verywellmind.com/john-bowlby-biography-1907-1990-2795514,
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-attachment-theory-2795337

TASK 05

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 63

Instructions: Discuss the following cases stated below which base on the Cognitive
and Moral development theory. This is the criteria in giving points of your
discussion:
Criteria Points

Organization (ideas are organized not vague 25

Content (has a specific idea and has a supporting details) 30

Clarity of thoughts (very clear and ideas are not confusing) 25

Conventions (grammar, mechanics, spelling, usage & sentence formation 20

Total 100

Case No. 1.

Mr. R. is a church leader and one of the

guidance counselors in a prestigious university in Northern Luzon. He was
already five years in teaching and every year there will be a complains
from his high school female students of being sexually harassed
particularly during their activity time. The complains against Mr. R. was
submitted to the investigating committee of the said school and the
findings came out that it was true. So, the committee decided for a final
disciplinary action that Mr. R. will be terminated from his work to give
justice to the young students who are experiencing trauma as victim of the
situation.
So, what would be your explanation why this case happens? How it
relates to the personality theory as explained in this lesson? You need to
discuss it briefly in 200-300 words.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 64

Instruction:
This time you can now create/formulate ideas of having
your own theory of personality. So, choose among the
theories that you want to enhance. You can follow this
prescribe format:

I. Introduction
II. View of Human Nature
III. Components of individual’s personality
IV. Stages of personality development
V. Theories which related to your created theory
(explain why the said theory is your basis)

After doing all the activities in this module, you need to comply the post
test which measure your ability in comprehending the lesson. So, now
please prepare your ball pen and paper to answer the said post test.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 65

Instruction: Please answer the following questions

provided with honesty. It will serve as your assessment
tool to know your idea or knowledge pertaining to the
theories of personality.

___________ 1. At this stage, if people look back upon their lives and experiences
and are pleased, they feel integrity, while those who are not feel despair.

___________ 2. The basic ingredients of the adult personality according to Freud.

___________ 3. “If I give in, I shall not be hurt.”

___________ 4. “If I have power, none will hurt me.”

___________ 5. “If I withdraw nothing can hurt me.”

___________ 6. can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior

through the use of positive and negative reinforcement.

___________ 7. This theory was initiated by Abraham Harold Maslow which states
that people achieve their full potential by moving from basic needs to self-
actualization.

___________ 8. refers to organismic experiences of the individual; that is, it refers

to the whole person—conscious and unconscious, physiological and cognitive.

___________ 9. He believed that children take an active role in the learning process,
acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and
learn about the world.

___________ 10. This theory focuses on relationships and bonds (particularly long -
term) between people, including those between a parent and child and between
romantic partners.

The knowledge that you have learned from this lesson can help you
understand why some individuals committed such deviant behavior.
And now, please be prepared for Module 4 which is about the Filipino
Psychology

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 66

References:

Limpingco, D. & Tria, G. Personality. 2nd edition. Ken Incorporated. Quezon City,
Philippines.

Zastrow, C. & Kirst-Ashman, K. (2007). Understanding Human Behavior and the

Social Environment; 7th edition; Thomson Brooks/Cole;USA

https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/ethics_text/Chapter_12_Femi
nism/What_is_it.htm#:~:text=Carol%20Gilligan%2C%20a%20feminist%20theorist
,counterparts%20claim%20it%20to%20be.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-ethics/
https://www.verywellmind.com/john-bowlby-biography-1907-1990-2795514,
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-attachment-theory-2795337

https://www.thefsi.com.au/definitions-bowen-theory/
https://www.thefsi.com.au/us/bowen-theory/

PRETEST’S KEY TO CORRECTION

1. Integrity vs. Despair 6. Operant conditioning

2. Oral, Anal and Phallic 7. Hierarchy of needs
3. Moving toward people 8. Actualization tendency
4. Moving against people 9. Jean Piaget
5. Moving away from people 10. Attachment Theory

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 67

Congratulations for completing this module!

Student’s Information

Name:
Program:
Year and Section:
Contact No.:
E-mail address:
Facebook Account:
Messenger Account:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

 68

Vision 2020
WPU: the leading knowledge center for sustainable
development of West Philippines and beyond.

Mission
WPU commits to develop quality human resource and green
technologies for a dynamic economy and sustainable
development through relevant instruction,
research and extension services.

Core Values (3CT)

Culture of Excellence
Commitment
Creativity
Teamwork

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)