SQL Constraints:

Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used to limit the type of data that can
go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the database.

Following are commonly used constraints available in SQL:

• PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.

• UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
• NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
• DEFAULT Constraint : Provides a default value for a column when none is specified. CHECK Constraint: The
CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy certain conditions.
• FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table.
NOT NULL Constraint:
By default, a column can hold NULL values. If we do not want a column to have a NULL value then we need
to define such constraint on this column specifying that NULL is now not allowed for that column.

CREATE TABLE SALESS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
EID VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2)
);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

ALTER COLUMN SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) NOT NULL;
DEFAULT Constraint:
The DEFAULT constraint provides a default value to a column when the INSERT INTO statement does
not provide a specific value

CREATE TABLE SALESS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
EID VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00
);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

ADD CONSTRAINT DSAL DEFAULT 5000.00 FOR SALARY;

ALTER TABLE SALESS

DROP CONSTRAINT DSAL;
UNIQUE Constraint:
The UNIQUE constraint provides a unique value to a column.

CREATE TABLE SALESS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
EID VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL UNIQUE,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00
);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

ADD CONSTRAINT <CONSTRAINT EID > UNIQUE (AGE);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

ADD CONSTRAINT myUniqueConstraint UNIQUE(AGE, SALARY);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

DROP CONSTRAINT myUniqueConstraint;
CHECK Constraint:
The CHECK Constraint enables a condition to check the value being entered into a
record. If the condition evaluates to false, the record violates the constraint and it s not
entered into the table.

CREATE TABLE SALESS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
EID VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL CHECK (AGE > 18),
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00
);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

ADD CONSTRAINT ckAge CHECK (AGE > 18);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

DROP CONSTRAINT ckAge;
PRIMARY KEY Constraint:
A primary key is a field in a table which uniquely identifies the each rows/records in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values. A primary key column cannot have NULL values.
A table can have only one primary key which may consist of single or multiple fields. When multiple fields are
used as a primary key, they are called a composite key.

CREATE TABLE SALESS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
EID VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) ,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

ADD CONSTRAINT pkID PRIMARY KEY (ID);

ALTER TABLE SALESS

DROP CONSTRAINT pkID;
FOREIGN KEY Constraint:
A foreign key is a key used to link two tables together. This is sometimes called a referencing key.

CREATE TABLE SALESS(

ID INT NOT NULL,
EID VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

CREATE TABLE ORDERS(

OID INT NOT NULL,
CUST_ID INT REFERENCES SALESS (ID),
ODATE DATE,
QTY INT,
PRICE INT
);

ALTER TABLE ORDERS

ADD CONSTRAINTS FKID FOREIGN KEY (CUST_ID) REFERENCES SALESS (ID);
 ASSIGNMENT – 3
CREATE TWO TABLES EMP & EMP_SAL AS PER THE BELOW STRUCTURE:

EMP EMP_SAL
Field EID Constraints
Field EID Constraints
EMPID Primary Key
EMPID Foreign Key
NAME NOT NULL
ADDR No employee from UTTAM NAGAR DEPT HR, MIS, OPS , IT ADMIN, TEMP

CITY DEL, GGN, FBD, NOIDA DESI ASSO, MGR, VP, DIR

PHNO UNIQUE BASIC >=20000

Should be on Gmail / Yahoo DOJ -
EMAIL Domain
DOB <= '1-Jan-2000'
By default DEPT should be TEMP
SQL CLAUSES
SQL BETWEEN Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN FROM table_EID WHERE column_EID BETWEEN
val-1 AND val-2;

SQL IN Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_EID
WHERE column_EID IN (Val1, Val2... Valn);

SQL Like Clause

SELECT column1, column2....columnN FROM table_EID WHERE column_EID LIKE {
PATTERN}

SQL COUNT Clause

SELECT COUNT(column_EID) FROM table_EID WHERE CONDITION;

SQL DISTINCT Clause

SELECT DISTINCT (column) FROM table_EID;
SQL CLAUSES
SQL ORDER BY Clause
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_EID
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_EID {ASC|DESC};

SQL GROUP BY Clause

SELECT SUM(column_EID)
FROM table_EID
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_EID;

SQL HAVING Clause

SELECT SUM(column_EID)
FROM table_EID
WHERE CONDITION GROUP BY column_EID
HAVING (arithematic function condition);
 ASSIGNMENT – 4

In the EMP table display :

CITY WISE COUNT OF EMPLOYEES ARRANGED IN DESCENDING ORDFER

DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WHO DOES NOT HAVE AN ACCOUNT ON YAHOO

DOMAIN

From the Emp_Sal table display:

DESIGNATION WISE TOTAL COST AND NUMBER OF MEMBERS ARRANGED IN

DESCENDING ORDER OF THE TOTAL COST
SQL Joins
The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a
database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using
values common to each.

SQL Join Types:

•INNER JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in both tables.
•LEFT JOIN: returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in
the right table.
•RIGHT JOIN: returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no
matches in the left table.
•FULL JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
•CARTESIAN JOIN: returns the cartesian product of the sets of records from the
two or more joined tables.
•SELF JOIN: is used to join a table to itself, as if the table were two tables,
temporarily renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.
INNER JOIN
The most frequently used and important of the joins is the INNER JOIN. They
are also referred to as an EQUIJOIN..

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;
LEFT JOIN
The SQL Left Join returns all the values from the left table, plus matched
values from the right table or NULL in case of no matching.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;
RIGHT JOIN
The SQL Right Join returns all the values from the right table, plus matched
values from the left table or NULL in case of no matching.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;
FULL JOIN
The SQL FULL JOIN combines the results of both left and right outer joins.

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2...

FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.common_filed = table2.common_field;
JOINS