AC POWER FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction

In a DC circuit, the voltages and currents are generally constant, that is not varying with time as there is
no sinusoidal waveform associated with the supply. However in an AC circuit, the instantaneous values
of the voltage, current and therefore power are constantly changing being influenced by the supply. So
we cannot calculate the power in AC circuits in the same manner as we can in DC circuits, but we can
still say that power (p) is equal to the voltage (v) times the amperes (i).
Another important point is that AC circuits contain reactance, so there is a power component as a result
of the magnetic and/or electric fields created by the components. The result is that unlike a purely
resistive component, this power is stored and then returned back to the supply as the sinusoidal
waveform goes through one complete periodic cycle.
Thus, the average power absorbed by a circuit is the sum of the power stored and the power returned
over one complete cycle. So a circuit’s average power consumption will be the average of the
instantaneous power over one full cycle with the instantaneous power, p defined as the multiplication
of the instantaneous voltage, v by the instantaneous current, i. Note that as the sine function is periodic
and continuous, the average power given over all time will be exactly the same as the average power
given over a single cycle.
Let us assume that the waveforms of the voltage and current are both sinusoidal, so we recall that:

Sinusoidal Voltage Waveform

This equation shows us that the instantaneous AC power has two different parts and is therefore the sum
of these two terms. The second term is a time varying sinusoid whose frequency is equal to twice the
angular frequency of the supply due to the 2ω part of the term. The first term however is a constant
whose value depends only on the phase difference, θ between the voltage, (V) and the current, (I).
As the instantaneous power is constantly changing with the profile of the sinusoid over time, this makes
it difficult to measure. It is therefore more convenient, and easier on the maths to use the average or
mean value of the power. So over a fixed number of cycles, the average value of the instantaneous power
of the sinusoid is given simply as:
As the instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time, then:

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Applying the trigonometric product-to-sum identity of:

and θ = θv – θi (the phase difference between the voltage and the current waveforms) into the above
equation gives:

Where V and I are the root-mean-squared (rms) values of the sinusoidal

waveforms, v and i respectively, and θ is the phase difference between the two waveforms. Therefore
we can express the instantaneous power as being:

Instantaneous AC Power Equation

Where V and I are the sinusoids rms values, and θ (Theta) is the phase angle between the voltage
and the current. The units of power are in watts (W).
The AC Power dissipated in a circuit can also be found from the impedance, (Z) of the circuit using the
voltage, Vrms or the current, Irms flowing through the circuit as shown.

Example 1

The voltage and current values of a 50Hz sinusoidal supply are given as: vt = 240 sin(ωt +60o)Volts and
it = 5 sin(ωt -10o)Amps respectively. Find the values of the instantaneous power and the average power
absorbed by the circuit.
From above, the instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is given as:

Applying the trigonometric identity rule from above gives:

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Three Phase Systems

Transmission lines are used to connect electric power sources to electric power loads. In general,
transmission lines connect the system’s generators to its distribution substations. Transmission lines
are also used to interconnect neighbouring power systems. Since transmission power losses are
proportional to the square of the load current, high voltages, from 110kV to 765kV, are used to
minimize losses.

Different lines have different values for R, XL, and XC, depending on: Length, Conductor spacing and
Conductor cross-sectional area.

XC is equally distributed along the line.

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Resistance (R) is the property of a material that opposes current flow causing real power or watt losses
due to I2R heating. Line resistance is dependent on: Conductor material, Conductor cross-sectional
area and Conductor length. In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in phase; instantaneous
power equalling the product of the two.

Reactance is the opposition to current caused by capacitors and inductors. Reactance causes current
to be out-of-phase with voltage. Inductive reactance (XL) causes current to lag the voltage. Capacitive
reactance (XC) causes current to lead the voltage. Loads containing pure capacitance or pure
inductance cause the current to be exactly 90o out of phase with the voltage.

For transmission lines less than 80km in length, capacitance is small and negligible. Capacitance is
always greater for underground cables where conductors and ground are very close. AC voltage causes
the charge on the conductors to increase and decrease as the voltage increases and decreases.
Charging Current is current that flows due to the alternate charge and discharge of the line due to
alternating voltage regardless of whether the circuit is closed or open-ended.

Flow of Real Power

MW flow on a transmission facility is the result of the resistive component (R). Real power is measured
in watts (W) and is in-phase with the load. VAR flow on a transmission facility is the result of the
reactive component (X). VARs supply magnetizing current for inductive loads and charging current for
capacitive loads. Real Power (PR) flow between two buses is obtained by:

Angle θ, is the symbol for the angle difference between current and voltage used in determining power
factor indicating the portion of total current and voltage that is producing real power. Angle δ, is the
symbol for phase angle difference between the sending and receiving voltages. Negative MW’s
indicate flow into the sending bus Positive MW’s indicate flow out of the sending bus.

Example 2

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Example 3

In order to transfer real power across a transmission line, there must be an angle δ between the
voltages at each end of the line. For greater phase angle difference; more real power transferred.
Maximum power transfer theoretically occurs at 90o. Real Power flows “downhill” to a more lagging
angle.

Flow of Reactive Power

Reactive Power (PQ) flow on a transmission line is a result of the inductive reactance of the load
requirement and is obtained by:

VARS flow only if there is a difference in bus voltage potential. VAR’s flow downhill from a higher per
unit value to a lower per unit value of voltage. Reactive power flow is similar to real power flow:
• Negative VAR value indicates flow into the reference bus
• Positive VAR value indicates flow out of the reference bus
Example 4

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Example 5

3-Phase Systems

The voltage induced by a single coil when rotated in a uniform magnetic field is known as a single-
phase voltage. Most consumers are fed by means of a single-phase AC supply. Two wires are used, one
called the live conductor (usually coloured red) and the other is called the neutral conductor (usually
coloured black).

A three-phase supply is generated when three coils are placed 120° apart and the whole rotated in a
uniform magnetic field. The result is three independent supplies of equal voltages which are each
displaced by 120◦ from each other as shown below:

1. The convention adopted to identify each of the phase voltages is: R-red, Y-yellow, and B-blue.

2. The phase-sequence is given by the sequence in which the conductors pass the point initially taken
by the red conductor. The SI standard phase sequence is R-Y-B.

A three-phase AC supply is carried by three conductors, called ‘lines’ which are coloured red, yellow
and blue. The currents in these conductors are known as line currents (IL) and the potential differences

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between them are known as line voltages (VL). A fourth conductor, called the neutral (coloured black,
and connected through protective devices to earth) is often used with a three-phase supply.

If the three-phase windings are kept independent, then six wires are needed to connect a supply
source (such as a generator) to a load (such as a motor). To reduce the number of wires it is usual to
interconnect the three phases. There are two ways in which this can be done, these being: (a) a star
connection, and (b) a delta connection. Sources of three phase supplies, i.e. alternators, are usually
connected in star, whereas three-phase transformer windings, motors and other loads may be
connected either in star or delta.

(i) A star-connected load is shown in the figure below, where the three line conductors are each
connected to a load and the outlets from the loads are joined together at N to form what is termed
the neutral point or the star point.

(ii) The voltages, VR, VY and VB are called phase voltages or line to neutral voltages. Phase voltages are
generally denoted by VP. The voltages, VRY, VYB and VBR are called line voltages.

(v) The line voltage, VRY, shown in the figure (a) is given by VRY = VR -VY (VY is negative since it is in the
opposite direction to VRY).In the phasor diagram of figure (b), phasor VY is reversed, well-illustrated as

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The star connection of the three phases of a supply, together with a neutral conductor, allows the use
of two voltages – the phase voltage and the line voltage. A four-wire system is also used when the load
is not balanced. The standard electricity supply to consumers in most countries is 415/240V, 50Hz,
three phase, four-wire alternating current.

Example 6

(i) A delta connected load is shown below, where the end of one load is connected to the start of the
next load.
(ii) From the figure, it can be seen that the line voltages VRY, VYB and VBR are the respective phase
voltages, i.e. for a delta connection:

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(iii) Using Kirchhoff’s current law in the figure above, IR = IRY - IBR = IRY + (-IBR). From the phasor diagram
below, by trigonometry or by measurement, IR = √3IRY, i.e. for a delta connection:

Three-Phase Transformer Connections

A three-phase transformer can be constructed by having three primary and three secondary windings
on a common magnetic circuit. The 3-phase transformer is illustrated below. In three-phase core
type transformers, each with windings (primary and secondary) on only one leg. The primaries as
well as secondaries may be connected in star or delta. If the primary is energized from a 3-phase
supply, the limb carries the fluxes produced by the 3-phase primary windings. Since the phasor sum
of three primary currents at any instant is zero, the sum of three fluxes passing through the limbs at
any instant must be zero. In this case, any two legs will act as a return path for the flux in the third
leg.

For example, if flux is ɸ in one leg at some instant, then flux is ɸ/2 in the opposite direction through
the other two legs at the same instant as shown in the figure below. A three-phase system in used to
generate and transmit electric power. Three phase voltages are raised or lowered by means of three-
phase transformers.

A three-phase transformer can be built by suitably connecting a bank of three Single-phase

transformers or by one three-phase transformer. The primary or secondary windings may be
connected in either star (Y) or delta (D) arrangement. The four most common connections are (i) Y-Y
(ii) D-D (iii) Y-D and (iv) D-Y. These four connections are shown below. The Windings at the left are the
primaries and those at the right are the secondaries. The primary and secondary voltages and currents
are also shown.

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From above, the following respective relations are established for the star and delta connections:

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Delta-Delta Transformer Connection
In this scheme, the primary and secondary windings of the transformer are connected in the Delta-
Delta configuration, usually used in the generating system or at the receiving station. In this type of
connection, we have only three phases and no neutral, so this connection is used where there is no
need for a neutral such as in transmission lines. The transmission system is called a 3-phase 3-wire
system.
Delta-Wye Connection
At the distribution level, the step-down transformers are installed to step down the voltage level used
for electricity distribution and configured in the Delta-Star connection. The reason to use a start
connection is that we need neutral at the distribution level. It is also called a 3-phase 4-wire system.
In the Delta, we have 3-phases at the primary side, and at the secondary side, we have four wires
containing 3-phase and one neutral wire. In a Delta connection, the line current is times the phase
current, and the line voltage is equal to the phase voltage.
Wye-Wye Connection
In the Wye-Wye connection, the primary and secondary windings are connected in the Wye
configuration. There are two points to remember in a Star-Star connection: the line current and phase
current are equal and in phase, but the line voltage is times the phase voltage.
Wye-Delta Connection
In the Star-Delta connection, the primary winding is connected to the Star, while the secondary
winding is connected to the Delta. On the transformer's primary side, which is connected in the start
configuration, the line voltage is equal to the times the primary phase voltage, and the primary line
current is the same as the phase current. Likewise, the secondary winding of the transformer is
connected in a delta configuration, the line voltage is equal to the phase voltage, and the line current
is times the phase current. The advantage of having a Star configuration at the primary side is that
neutral is available, which can be grounded to avoid distortion. These types of transformers can handle
large unbalanced loads.
Delta-Wye connection is common for high-voltage and low-voltage applications. For high voltage and
low current rating transformers (KVA), the Wye-Wye connection is used. The Delta-Delta connection
is used for low voltage and high current rating transformers.
Example 7

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Power in three phase systems
The power dissipated in a three-phase load is given by the sum of the power dissipated in each phase.
If a load is balanced then the total power P is given by:
P = 3 × the power consumed per phase
The power consumed in one phase:

Example 8

Advantages of three phase systems

The advantages of three-phase systems over single-phase supplies include:
(i) For a given amount of power transmitted through a system, the three-phase system requires
conductors with a smaller cross-sectional area. This means a saving of copper (or aluminium) and thus
the original installation costs are less.
(ii) Two voltages are available.
(iii) Three-phase motors are very robust, relatively cheap, generally smaller, have self-starting
properties, provide a steadier output and require little maintenance compared with single-phase
motors.

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