Psysiological psychology Núria Huguet Farràs

Unit 6. Control of movement.

Index
1. Organization of the sensorimotor function. ....................................................................................... 1
2. Skeletal muscle. ................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1. The muscles.................................................................................................................................. 3
2.2. Anatomy of the skeletal muscle. .................................................................................................. 4
2.2.1. Sensory feedback from muscles............................................................................................ 5
2.2.2. Muscle contraction: Actin – Myosin interaction. .................................................................. 6
2.3. The neuromuscular junction. ....................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1. Molecular mechanisms of neuromuscular junction. ............................................................ 8
2.3.2. Neuromuscular junction disorders........................................................................................ 8
3. Control of movement by the spinal cord. ........................................................................................... 9
3.1. Stretch (or knee jerk, myotatic, patellar) Reflex. ....................................................................... 10
3.2. Golgi Tendon Reflex.................................................................................................................... 11
3.3. Withdrawal (flexor) Reflex. ........................................................................................................ 11
4. Control of movement by the brain.................................................................................................... 12
4.1. Multimodal association cortex. .................................................................................................. 13
4.2. Secondary motor cortex............................................................................................................. 13
4.2.1. Mirror neuron system (MNS). ............................................................................................. 13
4.3. Primary motor cortex. ................................................................................................................ 14
4.4. Cortical lesions. .......................................................................................................................... 14
4.5. Subcortical structures. ............................................................................................................... 15
4.5.1. Basal ganglia: Modulation. .................................................................................................. 15
4.5.2. Cerebellum: Modulation. .................................................................................................... 15
5. Amount of physical activity required to offer significant health benefits and mitigate health risks in
adults..................................................................................................................................................... 16

The motor system is a top-down process, it starts in the brain and finishes in our muscles. Survival:
seeking resources and evading threats, vital for bodily systems.

• Development and behaviour: communication, emotions...

• Well-being: physical fitness, mental health.
• Passivity poses a risk factor to both our organic and mental health.
• Movement is not solely intense exercise, it includes subtle changes in posture, habits and
ideas.

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1. Organization of the sensorimotor function.

What purpose does movement serve?

Movement is necessary for life. For survival, behaviour, well-being, passivity, habits.

What is motor control? Principles in Sensorimotor function.

1. Motor control is complex (different

levels), coordinating muscles by
receiving signals from the brain's motor
cortex through electrical impulses.

This control happens at different levels, guiding

the initiation, direction and precision of
intentional voluntary movement.

2. Before the actual movement takes place,

there is a top-down process within the
nervous system (planning, programming
and execution).

There is a hierarchical organization with parallel

processes. The association cortex controls the
information in secondary motor cortex, that
controls the primary motor cortex.

The different structures of the secondary motor cortex are related to motor control, so the body can
adapt to changes and dangerous situations.

The purple ones are PFC and PPC which are multimodal areas involved in planning; the secondary
motor cortex involve premotor and supplementary motor area related to programming and execution;
the primary motor cortex (M1) send the order to the spinal cord and then the muscles through the
corticospinal pathway/pyramidal tract for the execution of movement.

3. The information gathered can be stored for later use when performing the same task. With
repetition, it can lead to learning a new skill (decrease mental effort). The aim is to decrease
the cognitive demand required for a skill or task (such as driving and speaking simultaneously,
attending class while texting...).

(video pp diapo 6)

The CNS is generally viewed as having a hierarchical organization with three levels — the spinal cord,
brainstem and cortex. The spinal cord is the lowest level, including motor neurons, the final common
pathway for all motor output, and interneurons that integrate sensory feedback from the skin, muscle
and joints with descending commands from higher centres. The motor repertoire at this level includes
stereotypical multi-joint and even multi-limb reflex patterns, and basic locomotor patterns.

At the second level, brainstem regions such as the reticular formation (RF) and vestibular nuclei (VN)
select and enhance the spinal repertoire by improving postural control and can vary the speed and
quality of oscillatory patterns for locomotion.

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The highest level of control is provided by the

cerebral cortex, which supports a large and
adaptable motor repertoire. The diagram
illustrates some of the key regions that are
involved in goal-directed reaching movements.
Motor planning and visual feedback are provided
through several parietal and premotor regions.
The primary motor cortex (M1) contributes the
largest number of axons to the corticospinal tract
and receives input from other cortical regions that
are predominantly involved in motor planning.
Somatosensory information is provided through
the primary somatosensory cortex (S1), parietal
cortex area 5 (5) and cerebellar pathways. The
basal ganglia (BG) and cerebellum (C) are also
important for motor function through their
connections with M1 and other brain regions. (RN, red nucleus; V1, primary visual cortex; 7, region of
posterior parietal cortex; dPM, dorsal premotor cortex; SMA, supplementary motor area; PF, prefrontal
cortex.)

(video diapo 8)

2. Skeletal muscle.
2.1. The muscles.
Skeletal or striated muscles (linked to the
skeleton through tendons), enable our
movements due to 3 key properties:

• Contractility (muscles can shrink or

stretch)
• Conductivity (propagation of action
potentials)
• Plasticity (muscles are dynamic, they
can return to their original state)

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2.2. Anatomy of the skeletal muscle.

Comprised of by muscle fibers (muscle cells), known as extrafusal muscle fibers:

• Enable muscle contractions.

• Receive signals from alpha motor neurons (α MN), which are efferent
nerve fibers.

α MNs:

• Situated in the ventral horn of spinal cord.

• Their axons, efferent fibers, extend to the muscles through spinal nerves.
• One can innervate multiple fibers within a muscle (the axon of an MN can synapse with
many fibers).
• One and the fibers innervated by it are called a motor unit (axon+fibers).

In which scenario do you believe the movements

could be more precise?

The red motor unit is the one that’s more precise,

because the number of neurons innervating this
unit are lower. The lesser the number of fibers, the
higher precision of movement.

The precision of movement is higher when one

motor unit innervates a few fibers, such as the eye
or finger muscles (ratio 1:10); while the muscles in
the biceps or quadriceps are innervated by
numerous fibers.

Each skeletal muscle is formed by several fasciculus. Then, each fasciculus is made up of several muscle
fibers. In a microvision, each fiber is composed of many myofibrils (allow the contraction), which are
formed by protein filaments called actin and myosin. These protein filaments also allow the muscle
contraction.

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Striated muscle tissue consists of lengthy, slender

fibers (cells), also known as extrafusal fibers, which
are essentially bundles of thinner myofibrils.

Within each myofibril, there are protein filaments -

myosin and actin- that slide past one another during
muscle contraction and expansion.

Regularly spaced dark bands, referred to as Z lines,

exist within each myofibril. The area between two Z
lines, known as the sarcomere, stands as the
fundamental structural and functional unit of muscle
tissue.

2.2.1. Sensory feedback from muscles.

Besides all this information, inside these fibers we have two types of receptors: our muscle are sending
information to our primary sensory cortex, which is ascending information.

1. Muscles contain INTRAFUSAL FIBERS aligned

parallel to the extrafusal muscle fibers, housing
stretch- (length) sensitive sensory endings
known as muscle spindles. Extrafusal fibers
receive information from alpha motor neurons.
Inserted in the middle of the muscle, there are
intrafusal fibers (or spindles) that inform about
the stretching of the muscle

2. Muscles also possess Golgi tendon organs,

situated in series with the extrafusal fibers,
specifically responding to force (tension).

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Local anesthesia can be injected in the Golgi tendon to avoid having some sense of protection of the
body.

2.2.2. Muscle contraction: Actin – Myosin interaction.

Actin and myosin overlap: myosin cross-
bridges (heads) undergo conformational
changes and shifts in position (“rowing”
movements) by pulling the actin filaments
along the myosin filaments.

The second one is shorted because the

muscle is contracted.

2.3. The neuromuscular junction.

The muscles are made up of fasciculi, each of them is composed of muscles cells. Each muscle cell is
made up of myofibril, which has different segments: the actin and myosin (the interaction of these
proteins allows the muscle contraction. The protein filaments are called sarcomere.

The neuromuscular junction are terminal buttons of the alpha motor neurons that synapse on muscle
cells; it’s also called the motor end-plate.

• The physical basis of muscular contraction: Neuromuscular junction.

• How do muscles receive commands to move protein filaments?

Contraction:

An action potential arrives at the neuromuscular junction. Then, Ach is released, binds to nicotinic
receptors, and opens Na+ ion channels leading to an action potential in sarcolemma. So, the action
potential travels along the T-tubules.

This leads to the thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filament interaction leads to muscle contraction. The
muscle shortens and produces tension

Relaxation:

Calcium is reabsorbed, beginning relaxation cycle; ATP is required. Thick and thin filaments interaction
relaxes and the muscle lengthens and relaxes.

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Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) →Terminal buttons of the α MN synapse on muscle cells.

(1) The action potential propagates down the axon of an α MN

(2) Voltage-dependent calcium channels open at the axon terminal, allowing Ca2+ influx

(3) Neurotransmitter vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing ACh into the
synaptic cleft

(4) ACh binds to postsynaptic nicotinic receptors on the sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane)

(5) Ion channels open, allowing sodium to enter the muscle cell, causing depolarization the cell
(endplate potential, EPP)

(6) The depolarization initiates an action potential that spreads across the muscle cell membrane
and travels to the myofibrils

(7) Calcium is released from storage inside the cell (sarcoplasmic reticulum)

(8) Myosin heads interact with actin filaments, initiating muscle contraction

(9) Movement!!

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2.3.1. Molecular mechanisms of neuromuscular junction.

Schematic representation of the contraction-relaxation cycle.

(a) The active site on actin is exposed as calcium binds to troponin.

(b) The myosin head is attracted to actin, and myosin binds actin at its actin-binding site, forming the
cross-bridge.

(c) During the power stroke, the phosphate generated in the previous contraction cycle is released.
This results in the myosin head pivoting toward the center of the sarcomere, after which the attached
ADP and phosphate group are released.

(d) A new molecule of ATP attaches to the myosin head, causing the cross-bridge to detach.

(e) The myosin head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and phosphate, which returns the myosin to the cocked
position.

How does muscle structure adapt during intense physical activity?

And during periods of inactivity?

2.3.2. Neuromuscular junction disorders.

Myasthenia Gravis:

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Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis:

3. Control of movement by the spinal cord.

Reflexes:

• Reflexes represent the basic level

of sensorimotor integration.

• Many reflexes operate

involuntarily within the spinal
cord, regulating muscle
contractions, postural
corrections, rapid responses to
unexpected stimuli, etc.

• The simplest reflexes (like the stretch reflex), function through monosynaptic pathways,
involving just one synaptic connection.

There is the somatosensory information coming from the spindles (intrafusal fibers) which enter the
spinal cord through the dorsal horn and make synapse with motor neurons.

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• Most reflexes are polysynaptic (such as the flexor or withdrawal reflex, and the Golgi tendon
reflex), which involve multiple synapses and interneurons. The interneurons mediate the
responds, so the information enters the spinal cord through the dorsal horn and then connect
with the motor neuron (there are two synapses: first with interneurons and then with motor
neurons).

Muscular sensory organs

• Stretch Reflex (monosynaptic): When a muscle undergoes stretching, nerve signals from
the muscle spindles increase their impulse frequency, eliciting muscle contraction.
• Golgi tendon Reflex (polysynaptic): Muscle contraction triggers the Golgi tendon reflex,
acting as a regulator to prevent rapid or extreme muscle contractions (a brake mechanism)

3.1. Stretch (or knee jerk, myotatic, patellar) Reflex.

When the tendon in the knee is tapped, the extensor muscle is stretched slightly. This stretch activates
the Group I sensory afferent
axons (blue S neuron in
dorsal root ganglion) from
the muscle spindles. The
sensory neurons synapse
on and activate motor
neurons (yellow E neuron)
that constrict the extensor
muscle, causing the leg to
kick upward.

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3.2. Golgi Tendon Reflex.

It’s also a polysynaptic

reflex because it
needs the
intervention of
interneurons.

3.3. Withdrawal (flexor) Reflex.

It’s a polysynaptic
reflex because there
are interneurons
mediating between
sensory and motor
neurons.

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4. Control of movement by the brain.

The prefrontal cortex is where we have the intention to move. The information is coming from the
somatosensory areas, which in turn project to the posterior parietal cortex.

To plan and learn the sequence of complex movements, these are executed by the premotor areas
(dPM) and supplementary motor area (SMA). Then, the primary motor cortex is the one to properly
execute movements. The commands from M1 go to the alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord, and
then to the muscles (descending pathway, the main one is the corticospinal). The ascending pathway
is in charge of giving us feedback of the execution, to correct the movements; the main one is the
spinothalamic pathway and the medial lemniscus-dorsal column. The thalamus has two nuclei involved
in motor control: the ventral lateral nucleus and the ventral anterior nucleus, which project to the
basal ganglia (ventral anterior) and to the motor cortex and supplementary motor area (ventral
lateral).

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4.1. Multimodal association cortex.

Location, making decisions

Associative regions that significantly

influence motor action by planning
voluntary movements to accomplish
specific goals.

PFC PPC
• Receives inputs from the PPC and other • Receives multisensory inputs and
associative regions, processing and conveys information to both the PFC and
relaying this information to the motor motor association cortex.
association cortex. • Spatial information (body’s positioning
• Decision-making for movement in space and objects)
initiation and anticipation of its
consequences.
4.2. Secondary motor cortex.
Planning and initiating movements.

Receive inputs from both the PPC and PFC, relying this
information to the primary motor cortex for action
implementation.

SMA (medial Brodmann 6) PMC (lateral Brodmann 6)

Planning and executing proficiently learned Learning and executing complex movements
behavioral sequences where the completion of guided by abstract sensory cues (e.g. verbal
one action acts as a signal for the next (e.g. a instructions)
series of movements)

4.2.1. Mirror neuron system (MNS).

Parieto-frontal cortical circuit involved in matching action
observation to action execution:

These neurons are active when an individual engages in

behavior and when observes (or hears) the behavior.

For example, playing the piano, these neurons are activated

when thinking about the sequence of movements or when
executing these exact movements.

Help to understand the actions of others (basis of

imitation). We can image the emotional state of others (parietal neurons that connect to the premotor
cortex). Therefore, these are important for imagination and empathy.

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4.3. Primary motor cortex.

Causing movement.

M1 (Brodmann 4, precentral gyrus)

• Inputs from VL thalamus, somatosensory cortex, and motor

associative areas. Transmits signals to lower-level motor
neuron (e.g., spinal cord), forming the corticospinal
(pyramidal) tracts (alongside the secondary motor cortex)

• These signals orchestrate movement commands rather than targeting specific muscle cells.

• Somatotopic organization.

Motor homunculus: Complexity and

precision of movements (plasticity)

What are the upper and the lower

neurons?

4.4. Cortical lesions.

In what ways do various cortical lesions impact sensory-motor control?

Hemispatial neglect (PPC): Unawareness or lack of response to objects, people,

and other stimuli, including their own limbs, specifically on the left side of
space. It’s not that the patient can't see the stimuli (foot, shoe), but rather that
they’ve lost the will to pay attention or respond to them. They might walk
barefoot because they aren't aware of their left foot.

Lack of proprioception (S1): Challenge to perform fine motor actions accurately. They can’t tie a shoe
as they can’t sense their hand’s position.

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Apraxia (premotor area M2): Loss of the ability to execute skilled movements and gestures despite the
intention and physical capability to do so. The inability to tie a shoe arises from the inability to initiate
the correct motor sequence required for the task.

Voluntary movement loss (M1): Difficulty in coordinating muscle groups. They can’t t shoelaces due
to the inability to effectively contract the muscles in the fingers.

4.5. Subcortical structures.

4.5.1. Basal ganglia: Modulation.
The substantia nigra projects dopamine neurons to the
caudate and putamen, it’s involved in Parkinson’s
disease.

• Input integration: Receives information from

cerebral cortex (mainly M1, S1) and substantia
nigra, sending outputs to M1, SMA, PMC (via
thalamus VL and VA). Includes several loops.
• Functional roles: Manages planned
movements and somatosensory information,
and modulates movements (amplitude, speed,
direction…), facilitating specific sequences and
inhibiting unwanted movements.
• Clinical Implications: Neurogenerative
diseases, such as Parkinson’s (movement
initiation issues, tremors, rigidity, slowness, impaired
balance…) and Huntington’s (uncontrollable movements,
reduced stopping ability, rigidity, swallowing and speaking
difficulties...)

4.5.2. Cerebellum: Modulation.

• Comprises different systems (flocculonodular, vermis, intermediate), crucial for multiple
functions.

• Receives information from various sensory systems to fine tune aspects of locomotion, such
as rhythm, gait, balance, and posture (some reflexes)

• Controls repetitive movements requiring accurate orientation and timing

(e.g. locomotion), ensures smooth motion (by integrating sensory
feedback), stops movements accurately (time/position), coordinates
movement sequences …

• Assists in motor planning and learning.

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5. Amount of physical activity required to offer significant health

benefits and mitigate health risks in adults.

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