Introduction

1. Course overview
2. Digital Signal Processing
3. Basic operations & block diagrams
4. Classes of sequences

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2. Digital Signal Processing
◼ Signals:
Information-bearing function
◼ E.g. sound: air pressure variation at a
point as a function of time p(t)
◼ Dimensionality:
Sound: 1-Dimension
Greyscale image i(x,y) : 2-D
Video: 3 x 3-D: {r(x,y,t) g(x,y,t) b(x,y,t)}
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Example signals
◼ Noise - all domains
◼ Spread-spectrum phone - radio
◼ ECG - biological
◼ Music
◼ Image/video - compression
◼ ….

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Signal processing
◼ Modify a signal to extract/enhance/
rearrange the information
◼ Origin in analog electronics e.g. radar
◼ Examples…
◼ Noise reduction
◼ Data compression
◼ Representation for
recognition/classification…

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Digital Signal Processing
◼ DSP = signal processing on a computer
◼ Two effects: discrete-time, discrete level
x(t)

x[n]

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 DSP vs. analog SP
◼ Conventional signal processing:
p(t) Processor q(t)

◼ Digital SP system:
p[n] q[n]
p(t) A/D Processor D/A q(t)

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Digital vs. analog
◼ Pros
◼ Noise performance - quantized signal
◼ Use a general computer - flexibility, upgrde
◼ Stability/duplicability
◼ Novelty
◼ Cons
◼ Limitations of A/D & D/A
◼ Baseline complexity / power consumption
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DSP example
◼ Speech time-scale modification:
extend duration without altering pitch

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3. Operations on signals
◼ Discrete time signal often obtained by
sampling a continuous-time signal

◼ Sequence {x[n]} = xa(nT), n=…-1,0,1,2…

◼ T= Samp. period; 1/T= Samp. frequency
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Sequences
◼ Can write a sequence by listing values:
{x[n]} = {, − 0.2, 2.2,1.1, 0.2, − 3.7, 2.9,}

◼ Arrow indicates where n=0
◼ Thus, x[−1] = −0.2, x[0] = 2.2, x[1] = 1.1,

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Left- and right-sided
◼ x[n] may be defined only for certain n:
◼ N1 ≤ n ≤ N2: Finite length (length = …)
◼ N1 ≤ n: Right-sided (Causal if N1 ≥ 0)
◼ n ≤ N2: Left-sided (Anticausal)
◼ Can always extend with zero-padding

Left-sided Right-sided

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Causal, Non-causal and Anti-Causal Signal

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Example

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Example

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Operations on sequences
◼ Addition operation:
x[n] + y[n]
◼ Adder
w[n] y[n ] = x[n ] + w[n ]

◼ Multiplication operation
A
◼ Multiplier x[n] y[n]
y[n] = A  x[n]

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More operations
◼ Product (modulation) operation:
x[n]  y[n]
Modulator
◼
w[n] y[n ] = x[n ]  w[n ]

◼ E.g. Windowing: multiplying an infinite-

length sequence by a finite-length
window sequence to extract a region

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Time shifting

◼ Time-shifting operation: y[n] = x[n − N ]

where N is an integer
◼ If N > 0, it is delaying operation
◼ Unit delay x[n] z −1 y[n]
y[n] = x[n − 1]
◼ If N < 0, it is an advance operation
◼ Unit advance
x[n] z y[n] y[n] = x[n + 1]
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Up- and down-sampling
◼ Certain operations change the effective
sampling rate of sequences by adding
or removing samples
◼ Up-sampling = adding more samples
= interpolation
◼ Down-sampling = discarding samples
= decimation

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Down-sampling
◼ In down-sampling by an integer factor
M > 1, every M-th samples of the input
sequence are kept and M - 1 in-between
samples are removed:

x[n] M

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 Down-sampling
◼ An example of down-sampling
Input Sequence Output sequence down-sampled by 3
1 1

0.5 0.5
Amplitude

Amplitude
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n Time index n
x[n] 3

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Up-sampling
◼ Up-sampling is the converse of down-
sampling: L-1 zero values are inserted
between each pair of original values.

 x[n / L], n = 0,  L,  2 L,

xu [n] = 
 0, otherwise

x[n] L xu [n]

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 Up-sampling
◼ An example of up-sampling
Input Sequence Output sequence up-sampled by 3
1 1

0.5 0.5

Amplitude
Amplitude

0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time index n
xu [n]
Time index n
x[n] 3
not inverse of downsampling!

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Complex numbers
◼ .. a mathematical convenience that lead
to simple expressions
◼ A second “imaginary” dimension (j√-1)
is added to all values.
◼ Rectangular form: x = xre + j·xim
where magnitude |x| = √(xre2 + xim2)
and phase q = tan-1(xim/xre)
◼ Polar form: x = |x| ejq = |x|cosq + j· |x|sinq
( )
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Complex math
◼ When adding, real and
imaginary parts add:
(a+jb) + (c+jd)
= (a+c) + j(b+d)
◼ When multiplying,
magnitudes multiply
and phases add:
rejq·sejf = rsej(q+f)
◼ Phases modulo 2
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Complex conjugate
◼ Flips imaginary part / negates phase:
conjugate x* = xre – j·xim = |x| ej(–q)
◼ Useful in resolving to real quantities:
x + x* = xre + j·xim + xre – j·xim = 2xre
x·x* = |x| ej(q) |x| ej(–q) = |x|2

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Classes of sequences
◼ Useful to define broad categories…
◼ Finite/infinite (extent in n)
◼ Real/complex:
x[n] = xre[n] + j·xim[n]

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Classification by symmetry
◼ Conjugate symmetric sequence:
xcs[n] = xcs*[-n] = xre[-n] – j·xim[-n]

◼ Conjugate antisymmetric:
xca[n] = –xca*[-n] = –xre[-n] + j·xim[-n]
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Conjugate symmetric decomposition
◼ Any sequence can be expressed as
conjugate symmetric (CS) /
antisymmetric (CA) parts:
x[n] = xcs[n] + xca[n]
where:
xcs[n] = 1/2(x[n] + x*[-n]) = xcs *[-n]
xca[n] = 1/2(x[n] – x*[-n]) = -xca *[-n]
◼ When signals are real,
CS → Even (xre[n] = xre[-n]), CA → Odd
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 Basic sequences
1, n = 0
◼ Unit sample sequence: d [ n] = 
0, n  0

◼ Shift in time:
d[n - k]
◼ Can express any sequence with d:
{a0,a1,a2..}= a0d[n] + a1d[n-1] + a2d[n-2]..
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More basic sequences
1, n  0
◼ Unit step sequence: [ n] = 
0, n  0

◼ Relate to unit sample:

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 Exponential sequences
◼ Exponential sequences= eigenfunctions
◼ General form: x[n] = A·an
◼ If A aand
= 1.2 a are real: a = 0.9
50 20

40
15
Amplitude

Amplitude
30
10
20

10 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
|a| > 1
Time index n
|a| < 1
Time index n

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Complex exponentials
x[n] = A·an
◼ Constants A, a can be complex :
A = |A|ejf ; a = e(s + jw)
→ x[n] = |A| esn ej(wn + f)
scale varying varying
phase
magnitude

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 Complex exponentials
◼ Complex exponential sequence can
‘project down’ onto real & imaginary
axes to give sinusoidal sequences

x[ n] = exp(− 12 + j 6 ) n Imaginary part
1
Real part
1 1

0.5 xre[n] 0.5 xim[n]

Amplitude
Amplitude

0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40

xre[n] = en/12cos(n/6) xim[n] = e

Time index n n/12
Time
sin(n/6)M
index n

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 Periodic sequences
◼ A sequence ~ x [ n] satisfying ~x [ n ] = ~x [ n + kN ],
is called a periodic sequence with a
period N where N is a positive integer and
k is any integer.
Smallest value of N satisfying ~ x [ n] = ~x [ n + kN ]
is called the fundamental period

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 Periodic exponentials
◼ Sinusoidal sequence A cos(w o n + f ) and
complex exponential sequence B exp( jw o n )
are periodic sequences of period N only if
with N & r positive integers
◼ Smallest value of N satisfying w o N = 2 r
is the fundamental period of the
sequence
◼ r = 1 → one sinusoid cycle per N samples
r > 1 → r cycles per N samples M

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Symmetry of periodic sequences

◼ An N-point finite-length sequence xf[n]

defines a periodic sequence:
x[n] = xf[<n>N] “n modulo N”

◼ Symmetry of xf [n] is not defined

because xf [n] is undefined for n < 0
◼ Define Periodic Conjugate Symmetric:
xpcs [n] = 1/2(x[n] + x*[<-n >N])
= 1/2(x[n] + x*[N – n]) 0 ≤ n < N
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Sampling sinusoids
◼ Sampling a sinusoid is ambiguous:

x1 [n] = sin(w0n)
x2 [n] = sin((w0+2)n) = sin(w0n) = x1 [n]

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Aliasing
◼ E.g. for cos(wn), w = 2r ± w0
all r appear the same after sampling
◼ We say that a larger w appears
aliased to a lower frequency
◼ Principal value for discrete-time
frequency: 0 ≤ w0 ≤ 
i.e. less than one-half cycle per sample

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