What is Forensic Science?

□ …the application of science to those

criminal and civil laws that are
enforced by police agencies in a
criminal justice system.
 Forensic Science is…
□ Applied Science
□ Often called “criminalistics”
 Forensic Science applies

}
□ Chemistry
□ Biology
to civil and criminal law
□ Physics
□ Geology

Places physical evidence into a

professional discipline.
 Value of Forensic Science
□ The scientific examination of physical
evidence can help to answer the
following investigative and legal
question:
who?
What?
When?
Where?
Definition:
Investigation a crime (Forensic Science):
□ It involves the study of facts that are
used to identify, locate and prove the
guilt of an accused criminal.
Crime:
□ Activity that is against the law, an
illegal act for which someone can be
punished by the government. There
are many types of crimes, for example
a theft, rape, murder, drink-driving,
drug dealing and some others.
Criminal:
□ A person who has committed a crime
or who has been proved to be guilty of
a crime by a court.
Suspect: A person who believed to be
guilty of committing a crime.
Victim:
□ A person, who has been attacked,
injured, robbed or killed by a criminal.
Eye witness:
□ A person who sees something (such as
a crime) happens.
The development of
Forensic Science
 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
□ Popularized physical
detection methods in a
crime scene.
□ Developed the character
Sherlock Holmes.
□ He found a re-agent which
is precipitated by haemoglobin, and by
nothing else.
 Mathieu Orfila (1787 – 1853)
□ Father of Forensic Toxicology

□ 1814 - Treatise on detection of poisons

& their effects on animals.
 Alphonse Bertillon (1853 – 1914)

□ Father of Criminal Detection

□ Devised the first scientific
system of personal
identification, using body
measurements known as
anthropometry in 1879.
 Francis Galton (1822 – 1911)
□ Conducted the first definitive study of
fingerprints and their classification.

□ 1892 – Treatise entitled Finger Prints

 Leone Lattes (1887 – 1954)
□ Devised a simple procedure for
determining the blood type (A,B,O,AB)
of a dried bloodstain.
 Calvin Goddard (1891 – 1955)

□ Used a comparison microscope to

determine if a bullet was fired from a
specific gun.
□ Published study of “tool marks” on
bullets.
 Albert S. Osborn (1858 – 1946)
□ Developed fundamental principles of
document examination
□ 1910 – Treatise Questioned Documents.

□ Was responsible for the acceptance of

documents as scientific evidence by
the courts.
 Edmond Locard (1877 – 1966)
□ Demonstrated how the principles
developed by Hans Gross could
be incorporated into a workable
crime lab.
□ Locard's exchange principle
states that once contact is
made between two surfaces a
transfer of material(s) will occur.
 Classification of Forensic Science
Death can be classified into five different
categories: natural death, homicide, suicide,
accident or undetermined manner of death.
1) Forensic Pathology
□ The cause of death
can often be
determined by
performing an
autopsy
□ Rigor Mortis  immediately following
death, muscles relax and become rigid;
appears in the first 24 hours; disappears
within 36 hours.
□ Liver Mortis  early stages of decomposition;
heart stops pumping; blood begins to settle in
places close to the ground; skin will appear dark
blue or purple in these areas; begins immediately;
continues up to 12 hours after death.
Algor Mortis:
The process in which the body
temperature continually cools after
death until it reaches room
temperature, enabling the medical
examiner to establish the general time
of death.
2) Forensic Anthropology:
□ Primarily involves the identification and
examination of skeletal remains, in order
to determine if the remains are human or
another type of animal.
□ If human, ethnicity, sex, approximate age,
and manner of death can often be
determined by an anthropologist.
3) Forensic Entomology
□ The study of insects and their
developmental stages.
□ Can help to determine the time of death
by knowing when those stages normally
appear in the insect's life cycle
4) Forensic Psychiatry
□ The study of human behavior and legal
proceedings in both civil and criminal
cases.
□ In criminal trials, the evaluation of
behavior disorders is often required in
order to establish the psychological profile
of a suspect.
5) Forensic Odontology
□ An odontologist can match bite marks to
a suspect's teeth, or match a victim to his
dental x-rays.
□ Results in an identification of an unknown
individual.
6) Forensic Engineering
□ Used to analyze construction accidents,
and the causes and origins of fires or
explosions.
7) Forensic Chemistry:
□ To analyze physical evidence, forensic
chemistry draws on chemistry principles
and concepts investigating the physical
and chemical properties of substances
central to forensic chemistry without an
appreciation for these properties and the
scientific method, forensic chemistry
would not be possible.
8) Forensic Medicine:
Branch of “medical” practice concerns with
• Legal issues.
• In life and death.
• Usually performed by pathologists.
Organization of a
Crime Laboratory
 Crime Labs
□ Since the 1960's the number of crime
labs increased due to the courts
demanding secure scientifically
evaluated evidence.
□ More crime
□ More drug related crime
□ Greater need for physical evidence
□ Use of DNA profiling (1990’s)
 Services of the Crime Lab
□ Many local crime laboratories have been
created solely for the purpose of
processing evidence.
□ Currently most of their energy and funds
are used to analyze drugs and DNA.
□ In 1932, Hoover first established a national
forensics laboratory to support all law
enforcement in the U.S.
 Crime Lab Units

Standard Optional
Physical Science Toxicology
Biology Fingerprints
Firearms Polygraph
Documents Voice Print
Photography Evidence
 Basic Services Provided by
Full-Service Crime Laboratories
□ Physical Science Unit:
□ Applies the principles and techniques of
Chemistry
Physics
Geology
to the identification and comparison of
crime-scene evidence
□ Biology Unit:
□ Identifies dried bloodstains and body fluids
□ Compares hairs and fibers
□ Identifes and compares botanical materials such
as wood and plants
□ Performs DNA analysis
 Basic Services (continued)
□ Firearms Unit: examines
□ Firearms
□ Discharged bullets
□ Cartridge cases
□ Shotgun shells
□ Ammunition of all types

□ Document Examination Unit:

□ Analyzes handwriting, paper and printers of
documents

□ Photography Unit:
□ Examines and records physical evidence at the
crime scene and at suspects' locations
 Optional Services Provided by
Full-Service Crime Labs
□ Toxicology Unit:
□ Examines body fluids and organs in order to
determine the presence and identification of
drugs and poisons

□ Latent Fingerprint Unit:

□ Processes and examines evidence for latent
fingerprints
□ i.e. those found on surfaces

□ Polygraph Unit:
□ Uses lie detectors, an essential tool of the crime
investigator rather than the forensic scientist
 Optional Services (continued)
□ Voiceprint Analysis Unit:
□ Involved in cases of telephone threats or
tape-recorded messages
□ Investigators may be able to connect a
voice to a particular suspect
□ Evidence-Collection Unit:
□ Incorporates evidence collection into a
total forensic science service
 The Functions of the
Forensic Scientist
□ Analysis of Physical Evidence
□ The forensic scientist must be skilled in
applying the principles and techniques of the
physical and natural sciences in order to
identify the many types of evidence that
may be recovered during crime
investigations.
□ Expert witness
□ An expert witness possesses a particular skill
or has knowledge in a profession that will aid
the court in determining the truth.
 The Functions of the
Forensic Scientist
□ Specially trained evidence collection
technicians

 Training in Proper Recognition,

Collection, and Preservation of
Evidence is required so that the forensic
pathologist, as the medical examiner or
coroner, can determine the cause of
death via an autopsy.
 Role of Forensic Scientists
□ Most forensic scientists analyze
evidence in a crime laboratory and
spend little time at the crime scene.
□ The duties of forensic scientists are not
exactly as they are portrayed on many
popular television shows, where the
crime scene, investigator plays the role
of Sherlock Holmes and does
everything from collecting the
evidence to solving the crime.
□ The forensic scientists do not directly
solve crimes; they simply analyze the
physical evidence. Physical evidence
includes all objects collected and
packaged at a crime scene that will
be subsequently analyzed in a crime
laboratory. This evidence is typically
collected by police officers or specially
trained crime scene investigators.
□ However, the evidence of a crime is
not limited to those items sent to the
crime laboratory. Other evidence may
include interrogations, eye witness,
stories, police reports, crime scene
notes and sketches, and anything else
determined to aid in the investigation.
□ Subsequently, the detective assigned
to the case pieces together all the
evidence in an attempt to solve the
crime.
 Forensic Analysis
□ Can include organic and inorganic
analytical techniques.
□ Organic analysis of unknown substances:
□Includes analytical techniques such as
Chromatography, UV- visible & infrared
Spectrophotometry.
□ Inorganic analysis:
□Includes techniques such as the
emission spectrum of elements, Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometry,
Neutron Activation Analysis and X-Ray
Diffraction Analysis.
 Theory of Forensic analysis
□ After a police officer or investigator
has collected evidence at a crime
scene, some evidence may be
brought to the crime lab for a
forensic chemist to analyze. The
chemist follows a specific process,
based on the scientific method, for
analyzing evidence.
□ Samples collected from a crime
scene and brought to the lab for
analysis are called questioned
samples because the identities and
origins of those samples are
unknown.
□ In order to draw conclusions about
the identity or origins of questioned
samples, the forensic chemist will
need known samples as a reference.
□ A known sample might be collected
as part of the evidence for example
a hair sample collected from a
suspect.
 Examination Process

□ The controlled substances section of

forensic chemistry can be in any
physical state (solid, liquid or gas).

□ Controlled substance examinations

can be simply divided into two basic
forms (botanical and chemical).
1) Botanical examinations
Identify physical characteristics of
plants that are considered controlled
substances.

2) Chemical examinations
Use chemical or instrumental
examination techniques to identify
specific substances that are
controlled by statute.
 Method of examination:

1) Physical & chemical properties:

A. Physical properties:
 It is the properties of a substance
that can be described or displayed
without a chemical reaction
change. ex, sulfur is yellow, iron is
malleable, cocaine is a white solid.
B. Chemical properties:
 It is the properties of a substance
that can be described through a
chemical change only.

 Chemical change require a

chemical reaction to occur
between reactanats, generating
new products.
2) Scientific method:
 The process of investigation involving
observation and hypothesis testing.
 The scientific method begins with
observations.
 Scientists attempt to organize
observations and look for trends.
 When the scientists find what
appears to be a relationship among
the observations, they suggest a
hypothesis that tentatively explains
what is being observed.
 A plan is devised to test the
hypothesis. Ultimately, the plan is
carried out and further observations
are made.
 If the new observations contradict
the original hypothesis, a new
hypothesis is suggested and tested.
 However, if the new observations
validate the original hypothesis, the
scientists often choose to devise a
subsequent plan to further validate
the hypothesis.
 Types of forensic chemistry:
1) Fibers:
 They are a form of trace evidence
used by crime-scene investigators.
 Fiber evidence may be gathered
using tape, forceps, a vacuum, or a
sticky lint roller.
 Forensic scientists will try to determine
the type of a fiber, its color, how
many fibers of each kind were found,
where they were found, what textile
the fiber came from.
 Fibers may be analyzed using
polarized light microscopy, infrared
spectroscopy.
2) Hair:
 The most basic components of hair
are keratin (a very strong protein that
is resistant to decomposition) and
melanin (a pigment).
 The keratins form groups that interact
and interconnect to form very stable
fibrils. It is this property of hair that
makes it such a prime example of
physical evidence.
 The search for and collection of hair
evidence should begin as soon as
possible.
 Hair evidence is easily transferred to
and from the crime scene.
 Collection should be done by hand if
the location of the hair is important,
which is usually the case. Sticky tape
and lint rollers may be used to assist.
 A special filtered vacuum cleaner
may be used to collect hairs and
fibers from carpet and bedding.
 Once collected, the hair evidence
should be packaged into paper
packets.
 If the evidence is stuck to another
object, the entire object should be
packaged and labeled.
 If sticky tape or a lint roller are used,
the entire surface used should be
packed into a polethylene storage
bag-easy to see through, but with no
direct contact.
 Control samples need to be collected
from the victim, susbect and other
individuals who could have left
evidence at the scene.
3) Explosives:
 a chemical explosive is a compound
or a mixture of compounds which,
when subjected to heat, friction or
shock, undergoes very rapid, self-
propagating, heat- producing
decomposition.
 The speed at which explosives
decompose permits their classification
as high or low explosives.
 Preliminary identification of an
explosive residue using the ion
mobility spectrometer (IMS) can be
made by noting the time it takes the
explosive to move through a tube.
A confirmatory test must follow.
 All materials collected for the
examination by the laboratory must
be placed in sealed air-tight
containers and labeled with all
pertinent information.
4) Glass:
 The glass fragments should be
packaged in boxes to avoid further
breakage.
 If evidence is to be examined for
glass fragments, it should be taken
whole and each item individually
wrapped in paper and boxed. Every
effort must be made to collect all
glass fragments.
 Submit glass evidence with a
representative sample of each type
of glass from the crime scene.
Goals in examining glass evidence:
Determine the types of glass at the
crime scene.
Determine how the glass was
fractured.
Use physical characteristics to classify
it.
Individualize the glass to a source.
5) Soil:
 Soil evidence must be recognized on
questioned items and subsequently
at known proposed crime scenes.
Evidence must be well documented.
 Meticulous collection and
preservation of soil samples must be
maintained so as to ensure the
integrity of the soil evidence.
 Soil characterization is done,
especially the fine clay- and slit-size
fractions.
 Soil materials are easily located
and collected using hand lenses
or light microscopes.
 National and international
computerized databases of soil
profile data and maps can be
readily accessed by police or soil
scientists through the internet.
6) Drugs:
 A drug is a natural or synthetic
substance that is used to produce
physiological or psychological effects
in humans or other higher animals.
 Drug chemists conduct screening
tests to narrow down the possibilities
and then confirmatory tests to
identify the drug.
 Collection of drug evidence should
be done to prevent loss and
contamination. All evidence should
be marked.
7) Fingerprinting:
 Fingerprint on smooth surfaces can
often be made visible by the
application of light or dark powder,
but fingerprints on checks or other
documents are often occult (hidden).
 Occult fingerprint are sometimes
made visible by the use of ninhydrin,
which turns purple due to reaction with
amino acids present in perspiration.
 Fingerprints or other marks are also
sometimes made visible by exposure
to high-powered laser light.
 Some fingerprints can be treated with
chemical substances, resulting in a
pattern that fluorescence when
exposed to light from lasers.
 Cyanoacrylate ester fumes from glue
are used with fluorescent dyes to
make the fingerprints visible.
 There’s an older tactic that often
comes in very handy in a crime
scene. This tactics also relies on
chemistry.
 However, there are also other
methods:
 Some investigators use lasers, which
react with the oils and chemicals that
form a fingerprint.
 There are also work done to attempt
to extract enough DNA from a single
fingerprint to properly identify
someone.
 This would be extremely helpful, as
often fingerprints are very smudged
and can’t be used to properly
identify someone.
8) Serology:
 In homicide, sexual assault, motor
vehicle accident, burglary and other
investigations, the forensic chemists
routinely conduct serological
examinations on clothing, articles,
weapons, vehicles or other items in
order to locate possible bloodstains,
identify the blood by presumptive
chemical testing, determine if the
blood is of human origin and then
select suitable and relevant samples
for DNA analysis.
 When evidence is submitted in
sexual assault cases, the forensic
chemists examine the contents of
sexual assault evidence kits
(clothing, bedding or other items for
the presence of semen).
 Possible semen stains are located
visually or by alternate light source
then tested for a component of
seminal fluid by presumptive
chemical tests.
 Further testing is conducted
microscopically for sperm cells.
 In the absence of sperm cells, further
testing is carried out for an additional
semen component in order to
confirm the presence of seminal fluid.
 Suitable and relevant samples are
then selected for DNA analysis.
 In some instances, saliva analysis is
also requested. Stains are generally
located visually or by alternate light
source.
9) Fire Debris analysis:
 The fire debris analysis unit examines
evidence collected at fire scenes
and is a part of the forensic chemistry
section of the laboratory.
 The purpose of this examination is to
determine if an ignitable liquid is
present.
 Most ignitable liquids are petroleum
products. However, other non-
petroleum products can be
identified.
 Fire debris evidence is packaged in
jars, paint cans or fire debris evidence
bags and generally consists of charred
fire debris or clothing items.
 The examination procedure involves
extracting ignitable liquids from the
evidence using one of three
extraction techniques or a
combination of techniques.
 The three extraction methods used by
this laboratory are Passive Diffusion
Headspace, Simple Headspace and
solvent extraction.
 The extract is then analyzed on a
Gas Chromatograph – Mass
Spectrometer, which provides data
that the examiner will then analyze.
 Based on the pattern, or
appearance of the data, the
examiner will identify the type of
product in the extract.
10)Toxicology:
 Toxicologists examine a wide range
of materials such as blood stains,
urine and blood gases for traces of
poisons or drugs.
 Following death by unknown cause,
samples of the victim’s lungs, blood,
urine and stomach are examined
for traces of poisons or medication.
 Insects found on or near corpses are
also collected and examined; they
may actually absorb traces of drugs
or poisons from the body, and in
fact, traces of poisons sometimes
are found in the surrounding insects
long after concentrations in the
body have fallen below detectable
limits.
11)DNA Sequencer:
 Most people are familiar with the
importance of DNA testing in the
forensic science lab. However, still
some people don’t know exactly
what DNA sequencers are and
how they may be used.
 Most forensic scientists and crime
lab technicians use what’s called
DNA profiling to identify criminals
and victims using trace evidence
like hair or skin samples.
 In cases where those samples are
highly degraded. However, they
often turn to the more powerful
DNA sequencer, which allows
them to analyze old bones or teeth
to determine the specific ordering
of a person’s DNA nucleobases,
and generate a unique DNA
pattern that can help identify that
person as possible suspect or
criminal.
 DNA in Forensic science

 DNA is the chemical substance

which makes up our chromosomes
and controls all inheritable traits (eye,
hair and skin color).
 DNA is different for every individual
except identical twins, DNA is found
in all cells with a nucleus (WBCs, soft
tissues cells, bone cells, hair root cells
and spermatozoa).
 Half of an individual’s DNA/
chromosomes come from the father
& the other half from the mother.
 DNA is a double-stranded molecule,
the DNA strands are made of four
different building blocks.
 An individual’s DNA remains the
same throughout life, in a specific
regions on a DNA strand, each
person has a unique sequence of
DNA or genetic code.
Structure of DNA
 Hydrogen Bonds
H H
H
H C O
H N H
C N
Thymine C C
C C
H C N Adenine
H N
N C
N C
C N
O
H

H N
H
C N H
Cytosine C O
C
H C N C C
Guanine
H N
N C N C
O N
C

N
H H
 Functions of DNA

1) Storage of genetic information.

2) Storage of chemical energy eg. ATP.
3) Form part of coenzymes eg. NAD+,
NADP+, FAD and coenzyme A.
4) Act as second messengers in signal
transduction eg. cAMP.
 Uses of DNA Forensics:
Identification purposes.
Identify crime suspects.
Exonerate persons wrongly accused
of crime.
Identify crime and catastrophe
victims.
Establish paternity and other family
relationships Paternity Testing and
Proving Family Relations.
Study of evolution and ancestry.
Studying Inherited Disorders.
 DNA Fingerprint:
• Unique signature found in each
person’s genetic makeup.
Every individual carries a unique set
of genes.
• Chemical structure of DNA is same,
but the order of the base pairs differs
Every cells contains a complete set
of DNA that identifies the organism
as a whole.
Only one-tenth of a single percent
of DNA (about 3 million bases) differs
from one person to the next.
 Preparing of DNA Fingerprint:
Specimen collection could be a licked
envelop, dirty laundry, a cigarette
butt, saliva.
Special precautions in handling
specimens: gloves, disposable
instruments, avoid sneezing, touching
sample with your skin, air-dry the
evidence before packaging so mold
doesn’t grow.
Enemies of evidence: sunlight, high
temperature, bacteria and moisture.
Ideal sample: 1ml of fresh, whole
blood (WBCs) treated with EDTA.
 Analysis of DNA Forensic
Extraction:-
Isolation and purification of DNA
from evidence.
Remove stain or cells from material.
Break open cells releasing DNA.
Purify DNA from remaining cellular
debris.
Concentrate DNA.
 Analysis of DNA Forensic
Quantitation:-
Determination of how much
human DNA present in a sample.

All sources of DNA are extracted

when biological evidence from a
crime scene is processed to isolate
the DNA present.
Thus, non-human DNA such as
bacterial, fungal, plant or animal
material may also be present in the
total DNA recovered from the
sample.
Current forensic DNA quantitation
kits can detect human DNA in one
step.
New kits go a step further and can
give indications of DNA
degradation.
 PCR (Polymerase Chain
Reaction)
□Developed in 1987
□Amplify one molecule of DNA
into billions of copies in a few
hours
□Identifies an individual based
on microscopic amount of
evidence
□99% accuracy rate
Reaction requirement:-
Template DNA- total genomic DNA
isolated from an organism that
contains a target region to be
amplified.
DNA primers – short pieces of single
stranded DNA that flank the
target.
Taq DNA polymerase – Attaches
nucleotides on the growing strand
of DNA.
Reaction requirement:-
Nucleotides (GATC) – polymerase
adds complementary nucleotides
to the template.
Reactions are placed in a
machine called a thermal cycler.
The machine cycles through three
temperatures.
1. Heat samples to 95°C for a minute to
denature the double stranded template
DNA.
2. Drop temperature to around 50°C
or 70°C to allow primers to anneal.
3. Maintain temperature at 72°C for a
minute or two to allow the polymerase
to elongate the new DNA strain.
The thermal cycler repeats the
denaturing, annealing and elongating
temperatures approximately 30-40 times.

PCR amplification is logarithmic, meaning

the number of copies of the target is
doubled every cycle.
Gel electrophoresis:
electro = flow of electricity. Phoresis =
from the Greek (to carry across).
A gel is a colloid, a suspension of tiny
particles in a medium, occurring in a
solid form, like gelatin.
Gel electrophoresis refers to the
separation of charged particles
located in a gel when an electric
current is applied.
Charged particles can include DNA,
amino acids, peptides, etc.
Why do Gel electrophoresis?

When DNA is cut by restriction

enzymes, the result is a mix of
pieces of DNA of different lengths.

It is useful to be able to separate

the pieces, i.e for recovering
particular pieces of DNA, for
forensic work or for sequencing.
What is needed?
Agarose – a polysaccharide made
from seaweed. Agarose is dissolved
in buffer and heated, then cools to
a gelatinous solid with a network of
crosslinked molecules.
Some gels are made with
acrylamide if sharper bands are
required.
Buffer – in this case Tris-borate-EDTA
(TBE).
The buffer provides ions in solution to
ensure electrical conductivity.
Not only is the agarose dissolved in
buffer, but the gel slab is
submerged in buffer after
hardening.
A power supply and a gel chamber
are needed also.
Gel chambers come in a variety of
models, from commercial through
home-made and a variety of sizes.
How does it work?
DNA is an organic acid and is
negatively charged.
When DNA is exposed to an
electrical field, the particles migrate
toward the positive electrode.
Smaller pieces of DNA can travel
further in a given time than larger
pieces.
Applications:
 Forensic cases: matching suspect
with evidence.
 Paternity testing: identifying father.
 Missing person’s investigations.
 Convicted felon DNA database.
 Mass fatalities: putting pieces back
together.
 Historical investigations.
 Genetic genealogy.
 DNA as a Biometric tool.
 Forensic drug chemistry
 Is simply chemistry as it is applied to
the identification of illegal
substances within the criminal
justice system.
 That is uses a series of processes
performed in the field or laboratory
to detect the presence or absence
of controlled substances.
 Chemical analysis performed in
the laboratory on submitted
evidence detects and identifies
illegal drugs and helps law
enforcement prosecute
offenders.
 This practice uses a variety of
chemical analysis methods to
conduct both presumptive and
confirmatory tests on seized material
suspected to be or contain illegal
substances.
 Results from this analysis often serve
as the basis for criminal proceedings
and help to determine sentencing
for convicted offenders.
Drug classification:

1) Opiates/Narcotics:
 Educe sensation – sleep like statue.
 Morphine, heroin, codeine.
 Both physically and
psychologically addictive.
2) Stimulants:
 Stimulates, speed up, the central
nervous system (CNS).
 High energy, euphoria.
 Amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine.
 Psychologically addictive.
3) Hallucinogens:
 Alters perceptions, generates
illusions.
 Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD
acid), Phencyclidine (PCP- angel
dust), Mescaline , Marijuana (THC),
Hallucinagenic mushrooms.
 Most neither physical nor
psychological dependence.
4) Depressants:
 Depress CNS, drowsiness, slowed
response.
 Barbiturates (Phenobarbital),
Ethanol.
 Valium (Diazepam), Xanax
(Alprazolam).
 Physically and Psychologically
addictive.
 Some type of the drug
1) Cocaine:-
Formula:- C17H21NO4
Structure:-
2) Heroin:-
Formula:- C21H23NO5
Structure:-
3) Marijuana:-
Formula:- C21H30O2
Structure:-
Drug identification:
Selection of an analytical scheme.
Factors including amount of
substance to be analyzed and time
available of the analyzed material.
The general principles that are
followed when developing an
analytical scheme are as follows:
1. Visual examinations remain the first
method employed.
2. Examinations must move from
general to specific.
3. The schemes & processes must
adhere to accepted processes &
tests accepted in the field.
4. Whenever possible perform at least
one specific test.
5. Pay attention to the possibility that
the sample may be needed as an
exhibit in court.
6. If there isn’t enough material for a
complete battery of tests those that
don’t destroy the sample should be
performed first.
7. Use the tests that have the most
telling results.
Screening test: A test to reduce the
possibilities to a manageable
number. Provide information about
class of drugs involved.
Once the number of possibilities has
been substantially reduced, the
second phase of analysis must be
confirming the drug’s identify.
Confirmation – A single test that
specifically identifies a substance.
Drug identification tests:
1) Drug testing in the body:
Urine is most common.
Immunoassay.
• Based on Ag-Ab binding specificity.
• Antibody produced by injecting Ag
(drug) into rabbit.
• Antibodies will bind to drug in urine.
• Confirmation done.
2) On the sample:
There are two main types of tests
used to identification. The drug is
present in a substance:-
I. Presumptive tests:- such as
A. Color test: Marquis (2%
formaldehyde in sulfuric acid):
Purple- heroin, morphine & opium
derivatives. Orange brown for
amphetamines &
methamphetamines
B. Microcrystalline test: Tests to
identify specific substances by the
color & morphology of the crystals
formed when the substance is
mixed with specific reagents.
II. Confirmatory tests:- involve a
battery of instrumental tests using
techniques such as:
i. Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC):
Moving liquid phase, solid stationary
phase.
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
Questioned sample (Q) must be
developed alongside a standard or
known (K) sample. If Q & K travel the
same distance up the plate from the
origins then they can be tentatively
identified as the same.
Identification can’t be considered
definitive as other materials may
have similar migration.
Distance traveled up can be
assigned an RF value= distance
traveled by the component /
distance traveled by the liquid phase.
Rapid & sensitive down to 100 ug.
Principle application is detection &
identification of components in a
complex mixture.
• Separate drugs from diluents.
ii. Spectrophotometry- UV, IR Spec:-
Spectrophotometer:-
Instrument used to measure &
record the absorption spectrum of
a chemical substance.
UV spec – useful to establish
probable identity of drugs.
Fourier-transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR)- spedivically
identify a substance.
IR-Spectrum:-
IR spectrum provide far more
complex patterns.
Different materials always have
distinctively different IR spectra.
Each IR spectra is equivalent to a
“fingerprint” of the substance and
no other.
Fourier-transform infrared
spectroscopy (FT-IR) considered
specific itself for identification.
iii. Mass Spectrometry- coupled to
GC: GC-MS
How GC-MS work:
The sample is separated into it’s
components by the gas
chromatograph, and then the
components are ionized & identified
by characteristic fragmentation
patterns of the spectra produced by
the mass spectrometer.