CE 426 | Transportation Engineering Lecture 2

Human, Vehicle and Travelway Characteristics

 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Objectives
1. Determine human, vehicle, and road characteristics
that are significant in transportation engineering
practice
2. Define perception-reaction time
3. Derive the equation for estimating braking distance
4. Differentiate between stopping sight distance,
decision sight distance and passing sight distance
5. Apply the principle of stopping sight distance in
determining the size and location of signs
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Driver Characteristics
• Visual acuity (ability of an observer to resolve fine details of an object
*
Visual angle of a given object subtending at the eye, ! = 2×%&'() +,

D
H L

• Peripheral vision (ability to see objects beyond the cone of clearest vision)
§ Conical angle of 3-5 deg – clear
§ Conical angle of 10-12 deg – fairly clear
§ Outside 12 deg – blurred
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Driver Characteristics
• Visual acuity is usually measured with a Snellen chart. The Snellen chart displays letters of
progressively smaller size.

• "Normal" vision is 20/20. (This means that the test subject sees the same line of letters at 20
feet that a normal person sees at 20 feet. 20/40 vision means that the test subject sees at 20
feet what a normal person sees at 40 feet)

20/40 - Able to pass Driver's License Test in all 50 States.

Most printed material is at this level

• Normal vision – 20/20 (can read 1/3” letter at distance 20 ft)

• Glare Vision
Recovery = 3 sec from dark to light
• Depth perception – ability to estimate speed and distance
3 seconds rule (When the vehicle ahead of you passes a certain point, such as a sign, count
1001, 1002, 1003 = time takes 3 seconds) If you pass that certain point before you finish
counting, you are following too closely.
• Pedestrian – 4 ft/sec walking speed
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Readability (R)

• R (in feet) = Letter Height (in inch) x Readable Distance (in feet per inch)

• Example:
• Determine the readability of signs with 8” letters for a driver with 20/40
vision. Assume that a 20/20 person can read 1” letter at a distance of
50 ft.
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Perception-Reaction Process
• P= Perception (driver sees an object such as a warning sign, control
device, animal, etc.)
• I = Intellection (driver identifies the object and understands the situation)
• E = Emotion (driver decides what action to take such as to brake, pass,
swerve, etc)
• V = Volition or reaction (driver actually executes the action)

American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHTO) recommends a PIEV time of
2.5 sec for stopping sight distance
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Vehicle Characteristics - Static

Based on the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1982, maximum sizes and
weights of trucks on interstates were established:

• Static
• 80,000 lb gross weight, with axle loads up to 20,000 lb for single axles
and 34,000 for double axles
• 102” width for all trucks
• 48’ length for semi-trailers and trailers
• 28’ for each twin trailer
• NO LIMIT ON TRUCK LENGTH
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Design Vehicles
• Parking lots – passenger cars
• Intersections (residential and park) – single unit
trucks
• Intersections (highways) – city bus
• Other intersections with large trucks – semitrailer
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Design Vehicles
Characteristics that influence design:
• Centerline radius (CTR)
• Track width
• Wheel base
• Path of inner rear tire
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Design Vehicles
• Airplane • Railroad
• Table 3.3 • Based on type of power
• Based on Maximum Take-off used
weight • Electric
• 1600 lb – 870,00 lb • Diesel-electric
• Wingspan • Steam
• 43.7’-213’ • Magnetic levitation (maglev)
• Length
• 23.8’-231.8’
• Approach Speed
• 55 knots – 154 knots
• (1 knot = 1 nautical mile =1.151
mi/hr)
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Vehicle Characteristics – Kinematic and Dynamic

• Kinematic - Acceleration/Deceleration
• Two cases:
• Acceleration assumed constant
• Acceleration is a function of velocity
• Dynamic p. 103-109
• Forces acting on vehicle in motion:
• Air resistance – f (air density, drag, frontal cross section, speed)
• Grade resistance – f (weight)
• Rolling resistance – f (pavement surface, speed, weight)
• Curve resistance – f (speed, weight, radius of curvature)
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Forces Acting on a Moving Vehicle ?

Assume rolling friction between the tires and the slope surface
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Dynamic Characteristics
• Grade Resistance, Fg, (lb)
• Air Resistance, Fa, (lb)
Fg = (weight x grade in decimal)
Max grades:
⎛ 2.15 pC D Au 2 ⎞
Fa = 0.5 × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ airport = 2%,
⎝ g ⎠ rail tracks = 4%,
highway = 9%
p = air density = 0.0766 lb/ft3
CD =aerodynamics drag coefficient
(Car = 0.4, trucks = 0.5 - 0.8)
• Rolling Resistance, Fr ,(lb)
A = frontal cross sectional area, ft2
Fr = (Crs + 2.15Crvu 2 )W
u = speed
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft /sec2
Crs = constant (0.012 = passenger cars)
Crv = constant (0.65x10-6 sec2/ft2 passenger cars)
W = gross vehicular weight
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Dynamic Characteristics
• Trains Rolling Resistance, FrT , (lb/ton) • Curve Resistance, Fc, (lb)

⎛ 2.15u 2 ⎞
20 k 2 Fc = 0.5 × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟W
FrT = 0.6 + + 0.01u + u
m mn ⎝ gR ⎠

m = average load per axle in tons

R = radius of curvature, ft
u = speed, mph
u = speed, mph
n = number of axles per car
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft /sec2
mn = mean weight of locomotive or car
(in tons) Recommended: 0.8 lb/ton/degree of curve for 3-piece
k = air resistance coefficient trucks without wheel/rail lubrication on standard gage
0.07 conventional equipment; (4’8.5”)
0.16 - piggyback;
0.0935 - containers Train: Curve Resistance (lb/ton) per degree of
curvature, Fc,
Fc = 0.17 x (gage of track in feet)
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Vehicle Power Requirement (p. 103)

1.47 × Ru
P= Where:
550 P = horsepower delivered (hp)
R = sum of resistance to motion (lb)
u = speed of vehicle (mph).
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Forces Acting on a Vehicle Braking on a Downgrade

?
u
Db

Object
Use,
Weight of the vehicle (W) γ
Coefficient of friction (f)
Acceleration of gravity (g)
Vehicle deceleration (a)
Speed when brakes applied (u)
Angle of incline (γ)
Distance traveled by the vehicle along the road during braking (x)
To Find,
Horizontal component of distance traveled during braking (Db)
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Braking Distance
• Read topic on braking distance

2 2 where:
u1 − u2 u1 = initial speed
Db =
2 g ( f ± G) u2 = final speed
g = gravitational acceleration
f = coefficient of friction = a/g (a= 11.2ft/sec^2)
G = grade in decimal (% grade/100)
Db = braking distance
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Braking Distance Calculation

• English Unit
• Db in feet
• u in mph

• Example
• A vehicle is traveling 45 mph upgrade of 3% when the driver observed an
accident involving a train that is completely blocking the road. The driver
managed to stop in time before hitting the train. Determine the braking
distance.
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Sight Distance Requirements at Railroad Crossings

• Sight distance required, dH, is sum of

• SSD,
• distance between stop line and tracks, 15 ft
• distance between drivers eyes and front of vehicle’s wheels, 8 ft.
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Sight Distance Requirements at Railroad Crossings (p. 126)

 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Minimum Radius of Circular Curve (p.123)

• On circular curve,
there is an inward force acting on the vehicle = Centrifugal force
• This needs to be balanced by an outward radial force = Centripetal force

where:
Fc = centrifugal force
Wac
Fc = ac = acceleration = (u2/R)
g W = vehicle weight
g = gravitational acceleration
R = radius of curve
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Forces Acting on Vehicle Traveling on Horizontal Cross Section of a Road

(pg. 123)

Wf s cos α
Wu 2 1
gR 1.0
Use, H
T
Weight of the vehicle (W)
Coefficient of side friction (fs) W sin α
Acceleration of gravity (g) 0 W
Vehicle deceleration (a)
Speed when brakes applied (u)
Angle of incline (0)
Track width (T)
Superelevation*, e = tan 0
*The angle of inclination of the roadway toward
Height of center of gravity (H)
the center of curve is known as the superelevation (e)
Radius of curvature (R)
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Radius of Curve
2 Where:
u R = radius of curve
R=
g (e + f s ) u = speed
g = gravitational acceleration
e = superlevation rate
fs = coefficient of side friction,
Table 3.9, pp.124

2
In English:
u R is in feet (ft)
R=
15(.01e + f s ) u is in mph
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Radius of Curve
• Superelevation = inclination of the roadway towards the center
of the curve
• Superlevation rate, e
• Maximum allowable value for design = 0.12
• Recommended maximum = 0.10
• Where snow and ice is present = 0.08
• http://techalive.mtu.edu/modules/module0003/Superelevation.htm

• Example
• Determine the minimum radius of horizontal curve required for a
highway if the design speed is 70 mph and the superelevation rate is
0.08.
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Road Characteristics
• Sight Distance
• Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = minimum sight distance
required for a driver to stop the vehicle to avoid hitting an
object or the distance required to decelerate the vehicle to a
speed u.

SSD = Perception-reaction Distance + Braking Distance

 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Stopping Sight Distance

2 2
u1 − u 2
SSD = u1t +
⎛a ⎞
2 g ⎜⎜ ± G ⎟⎟
⎝g ⎠
• In English unit:

2 2
u1 − u 2
SSD = 1.47u1t + Where:
⎛a ⎞
30⎜⎜ ± G ⎟⎟ SSD is in feet (ft)
u1, u2 , u3 are in miles per hour (mph)
⎝g ⎠
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Stopping Sight Distance

• Example:
• Sign Placement
• Determine the location of a sign informing the motorists on the
freeway that they’re approaching an exit ramp with a speed limit of
30 mph. The freeway speed is 65 mph. The sign comprises of 8”
letters that can be read by a 20/20 driver at a distance of 400 ft.
(Assume, 85th percentile of motorists have 20/40 vision)
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Sign Placement

SIGN

R X

SSD
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Decision Sight Distance

• Decision Sight Distance = stopping sight distance required to
detect an unexpected or difficult to perceive information
source or hazard...”
• Depends on type of maneuver required
• Similar calculation approach as SSD (t varies)
• See Table 3.6 pp.118
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Passing Sight Distance

• Passing sight distance (PSD) = distance required to pass another
vehicle on a two-lane highway
• Components of PSD
• Distance traveled during perception-reaction time and during the
initial acceleration to the point where passing vehicle enters the
left lane (d1)
• Distance traveled while the passing vehicle is in the left lane (d2)
• Distance between the passing vehicle and opposing vehicle at the
end of passing maneuver (d3)
• Distance moved by the opposing vehicle during 2/3 time the
passing vehicle is in the left lane (d4 =(2/3)хd2)
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Passing Maneuver
Passing Sight
Distance (PSD)

PSD = d1 + d2+ d3 + d4
 CE 426 | Transportation Engineering

Passing Maneuver
Passing Sight Distance (PSD) = d1 + d2+ d3 + d4

where:
⎛ at1 ⎞
d1 = 1.47t1 ⎜ u − m1 + ⎟ t1 = time for initial maneuver, sec
⎝ 2 ⎠ a = average acceleration rate, mi/h/sec
u = average speed of passing veh
m = difference in speeds of passing and impeder vehicle
d2 = 1.47ut2 t2 =time passing vehicle is in left lane, sec

See Table 3.7, pp. 122