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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.2 Stress-Strain Characteristics of Concrete

Immersive Reader

To review the stress strain relation as discussed in Mechanics of Deformable

Bodies, let's watch this video:

Now let us take a look at the Stress - Strain Curves for concrete in tension
and in compression shown below. As we have already learned, concrete is
relatively much stronger -around 10 times stronger- in compression than in
tension.

In Tension:
The relationship between stress and strain is almost linear, regardless of
the strength of concrete.(The 3 lines represent 3 different strengths of
concrete.)

In tension the concrete is assumed to have a linear stress–strain

relationship up to the concrete modulus of rupture or fr.

In Compression:

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The 3 curves shown are for various ultimate strengths of concrete,

particularly the peak stress and the ultimate strain. The following are
observed:
all curves consist of initially relatively elastic portion, in which stress
and strain are closely proportional
after the seemingly limit of close proportionality, the curves begin to
curve to the horizontal, reaching the maximum compressive stress, fc', at
a strain of 0.002.
the curves then descend
the concrete of lower strengths (the darker lines are of lower strengths),
fail at higher strains, which means they are more ductile.
Note: Ductility is the ability of a material to be drawn or plastically deformed without
fracture. It is therefore an indication of how 'soft' or malleable the material is.

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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.3 Mechanical Properties of Concrete

Immersive Reader

Below are some of the most important CONCRETE PROPERTIES :

1. Density
2. Compressive Strength
3. Tensile Strength
4. Modulus of Elasticity
5. Poisson's Ratio
6. shear Strength
7. Permeability

ULTIMATE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE, fc'

- load carrying capacity of the uncracked portions of concrete
Commercially Available fc’ of Concrete
17 MPa - Lowest value according to NSCP 2015
21 MPa
28 MPa
34 MPa

ELASTIC MODULUS OF CONCRETE, Ec - is a function of the

compressive strength

in MPa ; for Normal Weight Concrete, NWC

; 2300 kg/m3

in MPa; for other weights

where:

mass density of concrete in kg/m3

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factor considered for the type of concrete ;

1.0 for NWC;
0.75 for lightweight concrete

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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.4 Reinforcing Steel

Immersive Reader

PROPERTIES OF REINFORCING STEEL:

Below are some of the most important STEEL PROPERTIES :

1. Density
2. Tensile Strength
3. Poisson's Ratio
4. Modulus of Elasticity
5. Ultimate Shear Strength

Stress-Strain Curve for Steel

Steel is linearly elastic up to a certain stress (called the

proportional limit, fp) after which it reaches yield point
(fy) where the stress remains almost constant despite changes
in strain. Beyond fy, the stress increases again with strain
(strain hardening) up to the maximum stress (ultimate
strength, fult or fu) when it decreases until failure at a
stress (fbrk) quite close to fy. The typical stress-strain
curves for structural steel are shown below, which also
demonstrate the decreasing ductility of higher-strength steel
due to the vanishing yield region. However, the modulus of
elasticity (Es) remains almost constant (Es = 200GPa)
irrespective of strength.

STEEL REINFORCEMENTS:
A.) STEEL BARS/REBARS/LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENTS

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- Plain Bars
- Deformed Bars
Nominal Sizes:
(diameter in mm)
10
12
16
20
25
28
32
36
Nominal Lengths:
(in m)
6
7.5
9
10.5
12

Yield Points:

ASTM (ksi) PNS (Regular) (MPa) NSCP (MPa)

33 230 230

40 275 280

60 415 420

B.) PRESTRESSING WIRES - as used in Prestressed concrete only

ex. High Tensile cable strands

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C.) STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES - in the case of composite steel

and concrete members

TYPICAL REINFORCEMENT IN A CONCRETE BEAM

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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.5 Reference Code of Practice

Immersive Reader

DESIGN CODES

Design codes provide detailed technical standards and are used to

establish the requirements for the actual structural
design. These codes, however, provide only a general guide for design.

Our Main Reference Code: National Structural Code of the Philippines

2015, Vol. 1 (currently the most recent version)

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Other Applicable Code :

ACI 318, “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
and Commentary,” is the document that presents the code requirements
for design and construction of structural concrete that are necessary to
ensure public safety. The ACI 318 is a must-have standard for all
professionals engaged in concrete design, construction, and inspection.
The latest version is ACI 318-19.

Analysis versus Design

Two different types of problems arise in the study of reinforced concrete:

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1. Analysis. Given a cross section, concrete strength, reinforcement size

and location, and yield strength, compute the resistance or strength. In
analysis there should be one unique answer.
2. Design. Given a factored design moment, normally designated as Mu ,
select a suitable cross section, including dimensions, concrete strength,
reinforcement, and so on. In design there are many possible solutions.

Although both types of problem are based on the same principles, the
procedure is different in each case. Analysis is easier, because all of the
decisions concerning reinforcement, beam size, and so on have been made,
and it is only necessary to apply the strengthcalculation principles to
determine the section strength. Design, on the other hand, involves the
choice of section dimensions, material strengths, and reinforcement
placement to produce a cross section that can resist the moments due to
factored load.

Design Methods:

Two Design Methods are used for concrete design:

1.) Working Stress Design (WSD) / Allowable Sress Design (ASD)/

Alternate Design Method (ADM)
The behavior of concrete is LINEAR ELASTIC.
The consideration is up to the proportionality limit
2.) Ultimate Strength Design (USD) / Strength Design Method /
LRFD
The behavior of concrete is NON-LINEAR ELASTIC.
The consideration is up to the ultimate strength.

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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.6.1 Floor and Roof Systems

Immersive Reader

Standardized floor and roof systems are available that provide cost-effective solutions in
typical situations.
The most common types are classified as

One-Way Systems
A one-way reinforced concrete floor or roof system consists of members that have the main
flexural reinforcement running in one direction. In other words, reactions from supported loads
are transferred primarily in one direction. Because they are primarily subjected to the effects
from bending (and the accompanying shear), members in one- way systems are commonly
referred to as flexural members.
Members in a one-way system are usually horizontal but can be provided at a slope if needed.
Sloped members are commonly used at the roof level to accommodate drainage requirements.
Illustrated in the figure below is a one-way slab system.

The load that is supported by the slabs is transferred to the beams that span perpendicular
to the slabs. The beams, in turn, transfer the loads to the girders, and the girders transfer
the loads to the columns. Individual spread footings may carry the column loads to the soil
below. It is evident that load transfer between the members of this system occurs in one
direction.

Main flexural reinforcement for the one-way slabs is placed in the direction parallel to load
transfer, which is the short direction. Similarly, the main flexural reinforcement for the beams
and girders is placed parallel to the length of these members.

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Two-Way Systems

As the name suggests, two-way floor and roof systems transfer the supported loads in two
directions. Flexural reinforcement must be provided in both directions.

♦ A two-way beam supported slab system is illustrated below.

The slab transfers the load in two orthogonal directions to the column-line beams, which, in
turn, transfer the loads to the columns. Like a standard one-way joist system, this system is not
utilized as often as it once was because of cost.

♦ A flat plate system is shown below.

This popular system, which is frequently used in residential buildings, consists of a slab
supported by columns. The formwork that is required is the simplest of all floor and roof
systems. Because the underside of the slab is flat, it is commonly used as the ceiling of the
space below; this results in significant cost savings.

♦ Similar to the flat plate system is the flat slab system shown below.

Drop panels are provided around the columns to increase moment and shear capacity of the
slab. They also help to decrease slab deflection. Column capitals or brackets are sometimes
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provided at the top of columns.

♦The two-way system depicted in the figure below is referred to as a two-way joist system or
a waffle slab system. This system consists of rows of concrete joists at right angles to each
other, which are formed by standard metal domes. Solid concrete heads are provided at the
columns for shear strength. Such systems provide a viable solution in cases where
heavy loads need to be supported on long spans.

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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.6.2 Columns
Immersive Reader

A column is a structural member in a building that

supports axial loads from the roof and floor members and that
transfers the loads to the foundation.

Columns are usually oriented vertically in a building, but any orientation can
be provided if needed.
In addition to axial loads, columns may be subjected to bending
moments caused by gravity loads or by lateral loads.
In general, columns that are part of the structural system
that resists lateral loads (i.e., the lateral-force-resisting system)
are typically subjected to axial loads, bending moments, and
shear forces due to gravity and lateral loads. As such, columns
are also referred to as members subjected to combined axial
load and bending.

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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.6.3 Walls
Immersive Reader

In general terms, a wall is a member, usually vertical, that is used to enclose

or separate spaces in a building or structure.
Walls are usually categorized as
1. non–load-bearing and
2. load-bearing

A non–load-bearing wall supports primarily its own weight,

whereas a load-bearing wall supports loads from the floor and
roof systems. Like columns, load- bearing walls are typically
designed for the effects due to axial loads and bending
moments, and are referred to as members subjected to combined
axial load and bending.

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The figure below shows walls that are provided around elevator and stair
openings in the core of a building. In addition to supporting tributary gravity
loads, they are used alone or in combination with moment frames to resist
the effects from wind and
earthquakes. Such walls are commonly referred to as shear walls.

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Basement walls or foundation walls resist the effects from gravity loads plus
lateral earth pressure that acts perpendicular to the plane of the wall.
Illustrated in the figure below is a reinforced concrete foundation wall that
resists the axial loads from a reinforced concrete wall and lateral soil
pressure.

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T-CEET325 CEE30 1st Sem ( 2024-2025 )

MODULE 1: Concrete as a construction material

1.6.4 Foundations
Immersive Reader

Foundation systems transfer the loads from the structure above to the soil or rock below the building.
There are primarily two types of foundation systems:

A.) Shallow foundations

example:

1. Spread/Isolated footing - spreads the load from the superstructure above to the soil so that
the stress in the soil is less than its allowable bearing capacity. This carries a single column.

2. Combined Footing - constructed for two or more columns when they are close to each other
and their foundations overlap

3. MatFoundation - is a large concrete slab that supports some or all of the columns and walls
in a building. The loads from the supported members are transferred to the soil, and the mat
is designed so that the maximum soil pressure does not exceed the allowable bearing capacity
of the soil.

B.) Deep foundations

These types of foundation members extend below the strata of poor soil to a level where
the soil is adequate to support the loads from the structure above.
example:

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1. Piles - are deep foundations formed by long slender columnar

elements

2. Drilledpiers - are deep foundation system that uses a large diameter concrete cylinder
constructed by placing fresh concrete and reinforcing steel into a drilled shaft. It is also
called a caisson or drilled
shaft.

In the video discussion that follows, different types of foundation are presented.

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