CE 401 – SOIL MECHANICS IMPORTANCE OF SOIL MECHANICS

ENGR. LOREN MARGARET LAPAD

 Dams
MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS  Embankments
 Tunnels
SOIL
 Canals
 The term ‘Soil’ has different meanings in  Bridge
different scientific fields.  Sanitary Landfills
 In agriculture, it means ‘‘the loose material on
HISTORY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
the earth’s crust consisting of disintegrated rock
with an admixture of organic matter, which 1. PRIOR TO THE 18TH CENTURY
supports plant life’’.  Soil has been used as a construction
 In geology, it means the disintegrated rock material since the start of human civilization.
material which has not been transported from  The art of geotechnical engineering was
the place of origin. based on only past experiences through a
 In engineering, soil is defined as the succession of experimentation without any
uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and real scientific character.
decayed organic matter (solid particles) with  Through trial-and-error methodology, many
liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the structures were built-some of which have
solid particles. crumbled, while others are still standing.
SOIL AS ENGINEERING MATERIAL RIVERBANKS
1. CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL NILE (Egypt)
 used as a construction material in various
civil engineering projects, and it supports
structural foundations
2. SOIL PROPERTIES
 Civil engineers must study its origin, grain-
size distribution, ability to drain water,
compressibility, shear strength, load bearing
capacity, and so on.
SOIL MECHANICS
Huang He (Yellow River, China)
 Soil mechanics is the branch of science
that deals with the study of the physical
properties of soil and the behavior of soil
masses subjected to various types of forces.
SOILS ENGINEERING
 Soils engineering is the application of the
principles of soil mechanics to practical
problems
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
 Ancient Greek civilization used isolated pad
 Geotechnical engineering is the
footings and strip-and-raft foundations for
subdiscipline of civil engineering that
building structures.
involves natural materials found close to the
 Beginning around 2700 B.C., several pyramids
surface of the earth
were built in Egypt, most of which were built as
 It is a subdiscipline of civil engineering that
tombs for the country's Pharaohs and their
involves natural materials found close to the
consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom
surface of the earth.
periods.
 It includes the application of the principles of
 During the Eastern Han dynasty in 68 A.D.,
soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the
thousands of pagodas were built.
design of foundations, retaining structures,
 Many of these structures were constructed on
and earth structures.
silt and soft clay layers. In some cases, the
foundation pressure exceeded the load-bearing
 capacity of the soil and thereby caused
extensive structural damage.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING PROBLEM
 Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy.
 The structure weighs about 15,700 metric tons
and is supported by a circular base having a
diameter of 20 m.
 The tower has tilted in the past to the east, CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS – PHASE II
north, west, and, finally, to the south.
 Recent investigations showed that a weak
clay layer existed at a depth of about 11 m
below the ground surface compression of
which caused the tower to tilt.
 It became more than 5 m out of plumb with
the 54 m height (about a 5.5°).
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING SOLUTION
 It recently has been stabilized by excavating MODERN SOIL MECHANICS
soil from under the north side of the tower.
 About 70 metric tons of earth were removed
in 41 separate extractions that spanned the
width of the tower.
 As the ground gradually settled to fill the
resulting space, the tilt of the tower eased. The
tower now leans 5 degrees.
 The half-degree change is not noticeable, but it
makes the structure considerably more stable.
EARLY 18TH CENTURY GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING IN 1927
 The time span extending from 1700 to 1927 can  Karl Terzaghi is known as the
be divided into four major periods (Skempton, father of modern soil
1985): mechanics.
1. Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)  The first conference of the
2. Classical soil mechanics-Phase I (1776 International Society of Soil
to 1856 A.D.) Mechanics and Foundation
3. Classical soil mechanics-Phase II (1856 Engineering (ISSMFE) was
to 1910 A.D.) held at Harvard University in
4. Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927 1936 with Karl Terzaghi presiding.
A.D.)  Terzaghi was the guiding spirit in the
development of soil mechanics and geotechnical
PRECLASSICAL (1700 TO 1776 A.D.)
engineering throughout the world.
 The early 1970s saw the use of
geosynthetics in various civil
engineering construction projects.
 Geosynthetic products that are
non-biodegradable are made from
polymers such as polypropylene,
polyester, polyethylene, and polyamide.
 Major geo-synthetic products that are available
commercially are classified under categories
such as geotextile, geogrid, geomembrane,
geonet, and geosynthetic clay liner
CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS – PHASE I
MODULE 2 – SOIL STRUCTURES AND  The course-grained particles form the
SUBSURFACE skeleton with particle to particle contact and
EXPLORATION the voids between these particles will be
occupied by the fine-grained particles known
SOIL STRUCTURE
as binders
 It is a geometrical  If it is undisturbed, it will give good results
arrangement of soil against heavy loads. If disturbed, the strength
particles in a soil mass. extensively reduced.
 The behavior of soil 2. STRUCTURES FOR COHESIVE SOIL
depends on the soil  Flocculated
structure.  It occurs in clays
 More prominent
TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE surface forces
1. STRUCTURES FOR COHESIONLESS SOIL  Formed when there is a
 Single-grained net attractive force
 Present in cohesion-less between particles
soil such as gravel and  These soils are quite
sand. strong and can resist
 Gravitational forces external forces because
predominate the surface of a strong bind due to attraction between
forces. particles.
 Dense soils (less void space) have higher  Has high shear strength, low compressibility
shear strength and low compressibility which and high permeability.
makes them more preferable for engineering  Dispersed
purposes.  It occurs in remolded
 Loose soil structure has large volume of or reworked clay
voids; hence they have high void ratio and  Clay soil deposits
high permeability but they are unstable. with a flocculent
 Honey-comb structure when
 It is present in fine transported to other
sands and silts. places get remolded.
 When this type of soils is  Has low shear strength, high compressibility
allowed to settle on the and low permeability.
ground, the particles will  Remolding causes a loss of strength in
attract each other and cohesive soil
joins one with another  Thixotropy - This phenomenon of regaining
and forms a bridge of particles structures of lost strength with passage of
 A large void is also formed between those time, with no change in water content
bridges which makes the soil very loose in  Composite Structure: Clay-Matrix Structures
nature.  The cohesive matrix
 The attraction of particles is due to structure can be found
cohesion between them, but this cohesion in composite soils in
is just because of their size but however, which the fine-grained
these soils are not plastic in nature fraction is more in
 Under vibrations and shocks, the structure proportion compared to coarse grained
collapsed and large deformation takes fraction.
place.  In this case the coarse-grained particles are
 Composite Structure: Coarse- embedded in fine grained fraction and are
grained Skeleton prevented from having particle to particle
 The course-grained skeleton contact.
structure can be found in the  This type of structure is relatively more
case of composite soils in which compressible compared to the more stable
the course-grained fraction is coarse grained skeleton structure.
greater in proportion compared
to fine-grained fraction.
  The bonding between these layers in very weak,
so large quantities of water can easily enter and
separate them, thus causing the clay to swell.
 Montmorillonite is often called a swelling or
expansive clay.
CLAY MINERALS
DISADVANTAGES
INTRODUCTION
 Exhibits large swelling and large shrinkage, thus
 Minerals are crystalline materials and may seriously endanger the stability of overlying
make up the solid’s constituent of a structure, highways and civil engineering
soil. projects.
 Most minerals of interest to
geotechnical engineers are ADVANTAGES
composed of oxygen and silicon  This expansive behavior and the low
which are two of the most abundant permeability of montmorillonite can be useful for
elements on earth sealing borings or providing groundwater
CLAY MINERALS barriers.
 Highest percentage is present in Bentonite
 The formation of clay structure is greatly  It is common in residual soils derived from
affected by surface bonding force. volcanic ash.
 The bonds between layers play a very important
role in the mechanical behavior of clays. ILLITE
 Important Clay Minerals  Has layers similar to those in montmorillonite,
1. Kaolinite but contains potassium ions between each layer
2. Illite  The chemical bonds in this structure are
3. Montmorillonite stronger than those in montmorillonite but
weaker than those in kaolinite, so illite expands
slightly when wetted.
 Exhibits medium swelling and shrinkage
CLAY-WATER RELATIONSHIP
 Normally clayey soils are associated with water
and its properties are significantly influence with
the presence of water.
 Because of the net electrical charge present on
the clay particles, water gets attracted and form
a bond
 A third mechanism by which water is attracted to
clay particles is hydrogen bonding, where
hydrogen atoms in the water molecules are
shared with oxygen atoms on the surface of the
clay
 Diffuse Double Layer – the layer on the clay
surface up to the limit of attraction due to
KAOLONITE electrical forces.
 Adsorbed Water – the water held in the zone of
 As the hydrogen bond is sufficiently strong, the diffuse double layer
kaolinite mineral is stable and water cannot  Adsorbed water imparts plasticity to the clay.
easily enter between the structural units and  This layer significantly influences the physical
cause expansion. and mechanical characteristics
 Causes no swelling and no shrinkage, so it is of fine-grained soils
used to make pottery
 kaolinite is the least active of all clay minerals. SUBSOIL EXPLORATION:
INTRODUCTION
MONTMORILLONITE
Provides uniform approach in the conduct of geological
and geotechnical investigations as design input,
monitoring and damage assessment of infrastructure
projects.

ABBREVIATIONS

METHODOLOGY
RECONNAISSANCE
 Office reconnaissance (desk study)

PHASES OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

The phases of first components of subsurface
exploration are:
Phase 1: Office Reconnaissance (or Desk Study)
Phase 2: Field Reconnaissance
Phase 3: Detailed Site Investigation
Phase 4: Laboratory testing
 Field reconnaissance (site reconnaissance)
Phase 5: Report Preparation
GENERAL PROCEDURES (FLOWCHART)

PHASE 1: OFFICE RECONNAISSANCE/DESK

STUDY
1. Review of the Preliminary
GeoHazard Assessment Report and
attachments (see DGCS Volume 2A
GeoHazard Assessment)
2. Study of Existing Structures Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
 review of plans of other (PHIVOLCS)
existing structures in the area, c. Soil and
along with a review of the Agricultural Maps
construction records of these can identify the
existing structures will presence of near
generally provide very surface limestone
valuable information at minimum expense. bedrock, the
3. Study of Project Description presence of recent soft clays which may be
and Concept Development further identified as deep from topographic
Plans: data, and the presence of a water table near
 Preliminary sketches and the surface.
plans depend upon available d. Aerial photographs
data, the engineer-in charge can provide an
of the site investigation should become completely overall view of the
familiar with the proposed structure by studying site. Aerial photos
these plans and designs. can reveal general
4. Consultation with Others: information on topography, vegetation,
 Many organizations, public access, etc. of an area; they also allow
agencies, etc. have a identification of landslides and other
backlog of information geohazards as described in Volume 2A
already compiled on GeoHazard Assessment.
certain areas. This
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
information should be consulted first. Experience
gained by other engineers as well as contracting  It is an integration of
firms who may have completed work on similar software, hardware, and
structures in the same general area shall also be digital data to capture,
determined and utilized. manage, analyze and
5. Review of other information: display spatial
a. Topographic information—can be
map is valuable used to view, share,
in the design and understand, question,
construction of interpret, and visualize
most structures. data in ways that reveal
The locations relationships, patterns,
and elevations of and trends
exploratory holes, outcrops, and erosional  GIS data consist of
features can be placed on the map. The land discrete objects such as roads and continuous
forms portrayed by the contours indicate to fields such as elevation.
some degree the type of geological
conditions.
b. Geological Maps. On
these maps, rock and
soil masses are
identified by name and 6. Well-drilling Logs:
geologic age. The most  When available data from local drilling contractors
important detail to be or other sources, well-drilling logs can be useful
obtained from a indicators as to the nature of the materials on site;
geologic map is the also, well records will provide robust information
particular formation on on ground water levels and their seasonal
which a structure is to variation. This is particularly critical information in
be located. Geological regions of expansive soils
maps are available at Mines and 7. Formulation of Subsurface/Soil Exploration
Geosciences Bureau (MGB) and Philippine Plan:
  During the latter part of office reconnaissance, an notes are also of importance to the
exploratory hole plan shall be made for review drill crew's preparation for the site.
during the field reconnaissance. They can be advised as to where
the use of truck-mounted drills is
PHASE 2: FIELD RECONNAISSANCE/SITE VISIT possible and where portable or
winched equipment will be
FIELD RECONNAISSANCE CHECKLIST
necessary.
ITEM ACTION Vegetation To some extent, vegetation is
Location of The designer's proposed location indicative of subsurface soil and
Bents and of the bents and piers should be water conditions. However, the
Piers observed. Later troubles may be proper consideration of vegetation
prevented by recommending a shift in the prediction of subsurface
of the substructure units at this conditions requires considerable
early date. Examples of this are experience on the part of the
bents whose proposed locations observer, which can be gained by
are on river banks of questionable viewing many sites and comparing
stability or bents which may be them with the boring results, and
moved slightly and placed upon also by understanding types of
rock. vegetation and their required
Surface Surface soils are easily revealed ecosystem.
Soils through the use of a shovel or post
hole diggers, or in exposure. These LIST OF INFORMATION REQUIRED BY DRILL CREW
soils may sometimes be identified
as belonging to some particular ITEM ACTION
formation, and usually they indicate VerificatioThe proposed locations of borings
the underlying material. Rock n of Boringshould be checked for accessibility.
exposures near the project site Plan Desirable deletions, additions, and
should be studied. Extending a relocations should be made as are
rock outcrop in accordance with its necessary to better suit the crew's
strike and dip may tell whether or capabilities and to add
not a bent is to be founded on rock. completeness to the subsurface
Gullies, Any cut or hole in the ground near information.
Excavation, the project site is a subsurface Type of Notes should be made as to which
Slopes, or window, and for its depth, it will Equipment type of exploration is suited to the
Stream provide more information than a Needed site (rotary, auger boring, cone
Banks borehole since it may be examined penetration test, etc.). All sites
in detail. Soil type and distribution should be explored by the method
as well as rock existence and type most applicable to the field
are often quickly and easily conditions, and accessibility of the
available from these sources. site is an important consideration in
Gullies, All surface flows should be noted, determining the type of equipment
Excavation, and all opportunities should be needed.
Slopes, or taken to observe the groundwater Reference The reconnaissance should
Stream level. Wells and deep holes or Points and determine if reference points and
Banks excavations are good sources for Bench bench marks are in place adjacent
locating the groundwater table. Marks to the site and properly referenced
Study of A very close examination of on the plans. The boring locations
Existing existing structures with regard to may be laid out by the
Structures type of support, apparent reconnaissance party, by the drill
settlement, load, location, and age crew, or by others. The exploratory
will yield a wealth of data. The hole locations shall be surveyed in
foundation plan and boring logs for to the local grid and bench marks.
these structures may be available. If this is not feasible then the
Topography Topography to some extent is borehole locations shall be located
indicative of subsurface conditions. and recorded using a portable
For example, in a narrow, steep GPS, and the elevation of the
stream bed, rocks are likely to be borehole estimated from the
near the surface with little overlying topographic map.
stream-deposited soil. Topography Permission If the drilling is to be done on
of Property property belonging to others or if 3. Where such floor is located below the
Owners access is through property finished ground level adjacent to the
belonging to others, permission to foundation,
do the work or to get to the work 4. In cases where the use of pile
should be obtained in advance by foundations, and/or ground improvement
the reconnaissance party, if are anticipated
possible or by others, if necessary. 5. In areas underlain by rock strata where
Utilities Underground or overhead utilities
the rock is suspected to be of
located at the site should be
questionable characteristics or indicate
accurately shown on the plans or
their locations should be staked on variations in the structure of the rock or
the ground. Otherwise, the names where the solution cavities or voids are
of agencies or people to call before expected to be presented in the rock;
work starts should be shown on the and
drill foreman's work plans. 6. Other cases deemed necessary by the
General General notes should be made Geotechnical Engineer
Notes concerning the best route to the  The Building Official may require that the
site and any other information interpretation and evaluation of the results of the
which could be of value to the drill foundation investigation be made by a geotechnical
crew. If exploration methods other engineer.
than drilling are applicable to the
site, the locations and types of LIQUEFACTION STUDY (NSCP 2015 SECTION 303.4)
tests should be decided upon
during the reconnaissance.  A liquefaction susceptibility assessment in
accordance with accepted practice is warranted if
both conditions below are discovered during the
SITE INSPECTION course of the geotechnical investigation:
 The site inspection is ideally conducted before or  Shallow ground water, 2 m or less
during the conduct of soil exploration of a project  Unconsolidated saturated sandy
(road, bridge, slope protection and structure alluvium
projects). The output of this activity is the
inspection report signed by the inspection team
containing among others the description of the
site, observations, expected site geology and soil EXPANSIVE SOILS (NSCP 2015 SECTION 303.5)
type, topography, vegetation, findings, comments
and recommendations.  Soils meeting all four of the following provisions
shall be considered expansive:
PHASE 3: DETAILED SITE INVESTIGATION 1. Plasticity Index (PI) of 15 or greater,
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PLANNING determined in accordance with ASTM D
4318
 Foundation investigation shall he conducted and a 2. More than 10 percent of the soil particles
professional Report by a Registered Civil Engineer are less than 5 micrometers in size,
experienced or knowledgeable in Soil Mechanics determined in accordance ASTM D-422
and Foundations shall be submitted at each 3. More than 10 % of the soil particles pass
building site (NSCP 2010 Section 303) a No 200 sieve, determined in
 An exhaustive geotechnical investigation should accordance ASTM D-422
also be conducted in cases of: (NSCP 2015 4. Expansion index greater than 20,
Section 303.1) determined in accordance with ASTM D-
1. Questionable soils, expansive soils, or 4829
problematic soils (e.g. liquefiable,
organic, compressible and sensitive, etc) DESIGN OF INVESTIGATION PROGRAM
2. To determine whether the existing SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PLANNING
ground water table is above of within 1.5
m below the elevation of the lowest floor  GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER
level  The geotechnical engineer should
develop the overall investigation plan
to enable them to obtain the data
 needed to define subsurface karst formations, or identifying underground
conditions and perform engineering utilities and/or obstructions
analyses and design  DISTRUBED SAMPLING
 GEOLOGIST  Disturbed samples
 A geologist can often provide are obtained to
valuable input regarding the type, determine the soil
age and depositional environment of type, gradation,
the geologic formations present at classification,
the site for use in planning and consistency, density,
interpreting the site conditions. presence of
contaminants,
TYPES OF INVESTIGATION
stratification, etc. Disturbed samples may be
 INTERPRETATION OF AERIAL obtained by hand excavating methods by picks
PHOTOGRAPHAS AND/OR SATELLITE and shovels, or by truck-mounted augers and
IMAGERY other rotary drilling techniques. These samples
 Aerial photographs are considered ‘disturbed’ since the sampling
and satellite images process modifies their natural structure.
can effectively be
used to identify  UNDISTURBED SAMPLING
terrain conditions,  Undisturbed
geologic formations, samples are used to
escarpments and surface reflection of faults, determine the in-
buried stream beds, site access conditions place strength,
and general soil and rock formations. compressibility (settlement), natural moisture
 IN-SITU TESTING content, unit weight, permeability,
 In-situ methods can be discontinuities, fractures and fissures of
particularly effective subsurface formations. Even though such
when they are used in samples are designated as ‘undisturbed,’ in
conjunction with reality they are disturbed to varying degrees.
conventional sampling to Routine ‘undisturbed’ sampling is carried out
reduce the cost and the using a Shelby tube.
time for field work and
improve the quality of measured
geotechnical parameters.
 Options for routine subsurface investigation
will be cone penetration testing, preferably
with pore pressure measurement, and in-situ BORING METHODS
vane testing.
 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS SHALLOW SOIL EXPLORATION
 Geophysical tests
 TEST PITS
are surface
 To obtain large-size undisturbed and disturbed
resistivity (SR),
samples of the materials encountered for
ground
laboratory testing
penetrating radar
 AUGER HOLES
(GPR), and
 Auger use is not well suited to sites having
electromagnetic
granular soils and high groundwater tables
conductivity that
are effective in FIELD INVESTIGATION
establishing ground
stratigraphy,  Rotary Drilling
detecting sudden  Diamond Drilling
changes in  Percussion Drilling
subsurface  Wash Boring
formations, locating underground cavities in STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
 NUMBER OF DEPTHS OF BOREHOLDS
 Unless specified by the consulting Geotechnical
Engineer, all boreholes should be drilled to a
depth of at least 5 meters into hard strata or until
BORING TYPES a suitable bearing layer is reached. (NSCP 2015
Section 303.1)
 For building with basements, depth of boring
should extend to twice the least dimension of the
structure footprint (2B) added to the depth of the
basement. (NSCP 2015 Section 303.1)

MOBILIZATION

SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER

SOIL SAMPLING
 DISTURBED SAMPLING
 These types of samples are disturbed but
representative, and may be used for the
following types of laboratory soil tests:
SPT  Grain size analysis.
 Determination of liquid and
plastic limits
 Specific gravity of soil solids
 Determination of organic
content.
 Classification of soil
  UNDISTURBED SAMPLING  One of the most common in situ testing method
 These types of samples are used for the used to determine the geotechnical engineering
following types of laboratory soil tests: properties of subsurface soils
 Consolidation test.  The SPT is performed by driving a standard split
 Hydraulic Conductivity test spoon sampler into the ground by blows from a
 Shear Strength tests drop hammer of mass 63.5 kg falling 760 mm .
The sampler is driven 152 mm (6 in.) into the
SAMPLING METHOD
soil at the bottom of a borehole, and the number
1. SPLIT SPOON SAMPLING of blows (N) required to drive it an additional 304
 Split-spoon sampler mm is counted. The number of blows (N) is
shall be used in called the standard penetration number
Standard Penetration
Test. This sampler is
generally used when the
soil is cohesionless and
granular in nature and in
cohesive soils where
disturbed samples are
satisfactory for basic
evaluations
2. SHELBY TUBE
SAMPLING  It is important to point out that several factors
 The Shelby type contribute to the variation of the standard
thinwalled tube sampler is penetration number N at a given depth for
generally used in silt and similar soil profiles. Among these factors are the
clays and in other SPT hammer efficiency, borehole diameter,
cohesive soils free from sampling method, and rod length
obstructions and  The SPT hammer energy efficiency can be
containing little or no expressed as
granular material in order to obtain undisturbed
samples

3. ROCK CORE DRILLING

 When rock formation is encountered, coring shall
be performed using at least NQ core-size barrel.  In the field, the magnitude of Er can vary from
The logger shall conduct visual identification and 30 to 90%. The standard practice now is to
classification of soil or rock core samples recovered express the N-value to an average energy ratio
from sampling or diamond drilling of 60%
 Correcting for field procedures and on the basis
of field observations, it appears reasonable to
standardize the field penetration number as a
function of the input driving energy and its
dissipation around the sampler into the
surrounding soil.

IN SITU OR FIELD TEST

 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

  Field vane shear tests are
moderately rapid and economical and
are used extensively in field soil-
exploration programs. The test gives
good results in soft and medium-stiff
clays and gives excellent results in
 CONE PENETRATION TEST determining the properties of
 It is a versatile method that can be used to sensitive clays
determine the soil profile (since it retrieves data
continuously with depth (with electronic cones),
the CPT is able to detect fine changes in the
stratigraphy); and estimate the engineering
properties. This is also called the static cone
penetration test
 This test method supplies data on selected
engineering properties of soil intended to help
with design and construction of earthworks and
the foundations for structures. This test method
tests the soil in place and does not obtain soil PHASE 4: LABORATORY TESTING
samples.
 CPT is quick to perform, with fewer performance LABORATORY TEST FOR SOILS
errors compared with SPT.  Laboratory testing of soils is a fundamental
 It can provide continuous records of soil element of geotechnical engineering.
conditions. CPT cannot be used in dense,  Since testing can be expensive and time
coarse-grained soils (e.g., coarse gravel, consuming, the geotechnical engineer should
boulders) and mixed soils containing boulders, recognize the project’s issues ahead of time so
cobbles, clays, and silts. as to optimize the testing program, particularly
 The cone penetrometers in use at present strength and consolidation testing
measure  Before describing the various soil test methods,
1. Cone resistance qc to penetration developed soil behavior under load will be examined and
by the cone, which is equal to the vertical common soil mechanics terms introduced. The
force applied to the cone, divided by its following discussion includes only basic
horizontally projected area; and concepts of soil behavior. However, the engineer
2. Frictional resistance fc, which is the must grasp these concepts in order to select the
resistance measured by a sleeve located appropriate tests to model the in-situ conditions
above the cone with the local soil
surrounding it. The frictional resistance is
equal to the vertical force applied to the
sleeve, divided by its surface area— actually,
the sum of friction and adhesion

 VANE SHEAR TEST

 The vane shear test may be used
during the drilling operation to
determine the in situ undrained shear
strength Cu of clay soils—particularly
soft clays
 1. A document (often a letter) authorizing the
investigation.
2. A summary of the work done and
recommendations (about one page).
3. Scope of work.
4. Description of the site.
5. Details of the types of investigation conducted,
soil and groundwater information including lab
and field test results, assumptions and
limitations of the investigation, and possible
construction difficulties. Soil boring logs are
normally used to summarize the soil data. A log
of each boring should be performed by the
geotechnical field personnel.
LABORATORY TEST FOR SOILS (NSCP 2015 TABLE 6. Analysis and interpretation of the data collected.
303-2) 7. Recommendations for design and construction,
with discussions of any special provisions.
BOREHOLE LOG
 Typically, the boring log
should contain the
following:
 Name of project and
location, including street
name.
 Location of boring—
station and offset.
 Date boring was
performed.
LABORATORY TEST FOR SOILS  Surface elevation.
 Depth and thickness of each stratum, with fill
pattern to quickly identify different soil types. A
legend of the fi ll pattern must be included in the
soils report. Depths at which samples or in situ
tests were conducted, with sample or test numbers.
 Soil classification of each stratum. Depth to water
(if encountered)

GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS
 The geotechnical analysis of any structures
depends on the type of structures that will be
constructed.
 General Analysis Requirements:
 Based on the result of
the field and
laboratory tests,
general assessment
of the soil in the area
should be defined
PHASE 5: REPORT PREPARATION using the appropriate
methods of
SOIL REPORT
investigation. If the
 A clear, concise, and accurate report of the site result of GeoHazard
investigation must be prepared. The report should Assessment reveals
contain at a minimum the following: that there is a big potential of liquefaction in the
 area, Dynamic Analysis should be done such
as but not limited to Liquefaction Analysis and
Earthquake Induced Settlement. (DPWH
Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards:
Volume 2C – Geological and Geotechnical
Investigation
A. ROADS/ HIGHWAYS PROJECTS
 Settlement analysis
should be computed
for high embankment
soils and the effect of
the load due to
embankment. Plastic and Liquid limits should
also be checked for the sensitivity of the soil.
 For cuts and excavations, stability, rippability
and grading factor should be computed.
 Culvert foundations and earth retaining
structures should also be analyzed
B. BRIDGE PROJECT
 Bearing capacity and
settlement based on
the size and type of
foundation should be
computed in the design analysis. Thus, the
analysis will include different options of
foundations at different elevations.
C. SLOPE PROTECTION WORKS
 For Retaining Walls,
bearing capacity,
settlement and lateral
earth pressure should
be computed.
 For Earth slopes and
erosion control structures, stability analysis
should be conducted.
 For revetment and dams, seepage analysis
should be computed

D. BUILDING STRUCTURES
 Bearing Capacity
and Settlement at
different depths of
different types and
sizes of foundation
should be
computed. If the building will have a
basement, analysis for lateral earth pressure
excavation stability should also be computed