UNIT 3

Meaning of sample

A Finite subset of population, selected from it, with the objective of investigating its properties is called
‘sample’. The number of units in the sample is known as sample size. Sample helps in drawing conclusion
about the characteristics of the population. After inspecting the sample we draw the conclusion to accept it
or reject it. For example by examining a handful of pulses we decide whether to buy it or not. So buy the
whole quantity only on the basis of a sample.

Population vs. sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a

sample, and identify the target population of your research.

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw

conclusions about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will
collect data from.

Characteristics of a Good Sample

(1) Goal-oriented: A sample design should be goal oriented. It is means and should be oriented to the
research objectives and fitted to the survey conditions.
(2) Accurate representative of the universe: A sample should be an accurate representative of the universe
from which it is taken. There are different methods for selecting a sample. It will be truly representative
only when it represents all types of units or groups in the total population in fair proportions. In brief
sample should be selected carefully as improper sampling is a source of error in the survey.
(3) Proportional: A sample should be proportional. It should be large enough to represent the universe
properly. The sample size should be sufficiently large to provide statistical stability or reliability. The sample
size should give accuracy required for the purpose of particular study.
(4) Random selection: A sample should be selected at random. This means that any item in the group has a
full and equal chance of being selected and included in the sample. This makes the selected sample truly
representative in character.
(5) Economical: A sample should be economical. The objectives of the survey should be achieved with
minimum cost and effort.

(6) Practical: A sample design should be practical. The sample design should be simple i.e. it should be
capable of being understood and followed in the fieldwork.

(7) Actual information provider: A sample should be designed so as to provide actual information required
for the study and also provide an adequate basis for the measurement of its own reliability.

Principles of Sampling

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There are two important principles of sampling on which the sampling theory depends on:

1. Principle of ‘Statistical Regularity’: The principle of statistical regularity is derived from the theory of
probability in mathematics. According to this principle, when a large number of items is selected at
random from the universe, then it is likely to possess the same characteristics as that of the entire
population.
This principle asserts that the sample selection is random, i.e. every item has an equal and likely
chance of being selected. It is believed that sample selected randomly and not deliberately acts as a
true representative of the population. Thus, this principle is characterized by the large sample size and
the random selection of a representative sample.
Examples:

If a researcher wants to do a survey on the annual family income of workers in an industry, he cannot
collect information on every employee in every firm. Rather, he will select, say, 2000 workers from a
total of 50000. If these 2000 workers are chosen randomly and their average annual income is
calculated, it will be almost the same as the average income of the entire population.

This law holds good if the following conditions are met:

(a) The sample, that is, the selection of items from the parent population, is selected randomly.

(b) The sample size, that is, the number of items in the sample is large enough to avoid sampling
fluctuation.
(c) Over a long period of time, sampling results will be true on average.

2. Principle of ‘Inertia of Large Numbers’: The principle of Inertia of large numbers states that the larger
the size of the sample the more accurate the conclusion is likely to be. This principle is based on the
notion, that large numbers are more stable in their characteristics than the small numbers, and the
variation in the aggregate of large numbers is insignificant. It does not mean that there is no variation in
the large numbers, there is, but is less than in the smaller numbers.

Examples:

If a coin is tossed 10 times, we should expect 5 heads and 5 tails. But this experiment has only been
tried a few times, it is possible that we will not get exactly 5 heads and 5 tails. The end result could be 9
heads and 1 tail, or 8 heads and 2 tails, or 7 heads and 3 tails, etc. If the same experiment is repeated
10000 times, the chance of getting 5000 heads and 5000 tails is very high, that is, the results will be
very close to 50% heads and 50% tails.

SAMPLING PROCESS

Stages involved in the selection of sample from a target population is described below:

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PROCESS IN DETAIL:

1. Identify the Target population (Population of interest)

Target population refers to the group of individuals or objects to which researchers are interested in
generalizing their findings. The target population is the group of individuals or objects, from which the
sample might be taken. A well - defined population reduces the probability of including the participants
who all are not suitable for the research objective.

For example, researcher wants to study the behaviour of toddlers in playgroup. He has to select a particular
area (e.g., all playgroups in his city) for his study because it is impossible to study the whole world toddlers.

2. Select a sampling frame

While selecting sample units from the population, it is sometimes desirable to choose a list of the
population from which the researcher select units. Sampling frame is the group of individuals or objects
(e.g., list of all playgroups in researcher’s city) from which researcher will draw his/her sample. It is the list
of all units in a study population from which the sample is taken.
For example, researcher takes 3 playgroups near to his house in his sampling frame to conduct his study.

3. Specify the sampling technique

Sampling can be done through probability (random selection) or non-probability (non-random) technique.
Now, if the sampling frame is approximately the same as the target population, random selection may be
used to select sample. On the other hand, if the sampling frame does not really represent the target
population, the researcher may choose non-random selection which can give at least an idea about the
population in his nearby area.

4. Determine the sample size

The sample size is simply the number of units in the sample. Sample size determination depends on many
factors such as time, cost, facility. In general, larger samples are better, but they also require more
resources.

5. Execute the sampling plan

Once population, sampling frame, sampling technique and sample size are identified, researcher can use all
that information to choose his/her sample.

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Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is
mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of the whole
population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

This method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The
benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the representative of
the population.

Types
1. Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and likely chance of being
selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance, this method is known as
“Method of chance Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is known as
“Representative Sampling”.

Example:

Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can assign a
number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number generator to
select a sample of 200 numbers.

2. Systematic Sampling

In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by selecting the
random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by
dividing the total population size by the desired population size.

Example:
Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To select a
sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by randomly selecting a
starting number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th person from the sorted list. Finally,
we can end up with a sample of some students.

3. Stratified Sampling

In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to complete the
sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the population. After
separating the population into a smaller group, the statisticians randomly select the sample.

For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, bag B has 100
balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5

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balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.

4. Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the population set. The
group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of being a part of the
sample. This method uses simple random sampling for the cluster of population.
Example:

An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the number of students. If we
want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the
required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four branches as clusters.

All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure given below. The
figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the population using different
techniques.

Advantages of cluster sampling:

 It is more efficient than other forms of sampling, as it allows researchers to collect data from a large
population in a shorter amount of time and with fewer resources.
 It is more cost-effective than other forms of sampling, as it can reduce travel costs and the cost of
data collection.
 It can be used to study populations that are geographically dispersed, as it allows researchers to
focus on smaller, more manageable clusters.

Some disadvantages:

 It can be less accurate than other forms of sampling, as it is more likely to introduce bias into the
results.

 It can be more difficult to ensure that the clusters are representative of the target population.
 It can be more difficult to analyze the data, as it is often collected from multiple clusters.

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Non-Probability Sampling
The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample based on
subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the members of the
population have a chance to participate in the study.
Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as convenience sampling,
consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball sampling. Here, let us discuss all
these types of non-probability sampling in detail.

1. Convenience Sampling

In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly because they are
conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the researcher did not choose
the sample that outlines the entire population.

Example:
In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few customers to complete a
survey on the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data. Still, as we only
surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same time, the sample is not representative of all the
customers in that area.

2. Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The researcher picks a
single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a period of time to
analyze the result and move to another group if needed.

3. Quota Sampling

In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to represent
the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring
the useful collection of data that generalizes the entire population.

Learn more about quota sampling here.

4. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As their
knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly accurate
answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling.

5. Snowball Sampling
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Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the samples have
traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is asked to find the other
sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted population.

Probability sampling vs Non-probability Sampling Methods

The below table shows a few differences between probability sampling methods and non-probability
sampling methods.

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which Non-probability sampling method is a technique in

samples taken from a larger population are chosen which the researcher chooses samples based on
based on probability theory. subjective judgment, preferably random selection.

These are also known as Random sampling methods. These are also called non-random sampling methods.

These are used for research which is conclusive. These are used for research which is exploratory.

These involve a long time to get the data. These are easy ways to collect the data quickly.

There is an underlying hypothesis in probability The hypothesis is derived later by conducting the
sampling before the study starts. Also, the objective research study in the case of non-probability
of this method is to validate the defined hypothesis. sampling.

Data Collection
Data collection is a process of gathering information from all the relevant sources to find a solution to the
research problem. It helps to evaluate the outcome of the problem. The data collection methods allow a
person to conclude an answer to the relevant question. Most of the organizations use data collection
methods to make assumptions about future probabilities and trends.
Methods of Data collection

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Primary data

Primary data is what is generated from the first-hand experience of the researcher themselves rather than
data they’ve sourced from the past. The data gathered under primary data collection methods is also very
specific to the researcher’s motive and what they’re trying to achieve.

1. OBSERVATION METHOD
The observation method is a data collection technique used in primary research to gather information by
directly observing and recording behaviors, actions, or events in a systematic and objective manner. This
method involves the researcher actively observing the subjects or phenomena of interest and documenting
their observations for analysis.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION METHOD

1. Structured Observation: In structured observation, the researcher follows a predetermined set of

criteria or a checklist to record specific behaviors or events. This approach ensures consistency and
comparability in data collection. The observer focuses on predetermined categories or variables of
interest and systematically records the presence or absence of those behaviors or events.

2. Unstructured Observation: Unstructured observation allows the researcher to record a wide range
of behaviors and events without predefined categories. This approach provides more flexibility to
capture unexpected or novel aspects of the observed subjects. The observer pays attention to all
relevant behaviors or events and records them without imposing any predetermined framework.

3. Participant Observation: In participant observation, the researcher actively engages with the
subjects being observed, participating in their activities while making observations. The researcher

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 becomes part of the social setting and gains an insider's perspective. This method is particularly
useful in studying complex social interactions, cultural practices, and contexts where direct
involvement is necessary to understand the phenomenon.

4. Non-participant Observation: In non-participant observation, the researcher remains outside of the

observed situation and records behaviors without direct involvement. The observer maintains a
more detached and objective stance. This method is useful when the researcher needs to observe
behaviors that may be affected by their presence or when it is not feasible or ethical to participate
directly.

2. INTERVIEW METHOD
The method of collecting data in terms of verbal responses. It is achieved in two ways, such as

1. Personal Interview – Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the
interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the
interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.) This sort of interview may be in the
form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation.

2. Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting res pondents on
telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.

The chief merits of such a system are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response is
generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily. 8. At times, access can be gained to
respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other

3. Focussed interview : Focussed interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and
sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to explore reasons and
motives. The main task of the interviewer in case of a focussed interview is to confine the
respondent to a discussion of issues with which he seeks conversance. Such interviews are used
generally in the development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured interviews.

4. Clinical interview: Clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or
with the course of individual’s life experience. The method of eliciting information under it is
generally left to the interviewer’s discretion.

3. QUESTIONNARIES
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A questionnaire is a list of questions or items used to gather data from respondents about their attitudes,
experiences, or opinions. Questionnaires can be used to collect quantitative and/or qualitative information.

Questionnaires are commonly used in market research as well as in the social and health sciences. For
example, a company may ask for feedback about a recent customer service experience, or psychology

5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omiss ion of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Three main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form – It can be structured or unstructured. Structured questionnaires are those in which there
are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The form of questions may be closed, open or
multiple choice questions. In an unstructured questionnaire all these characteristics are missing, the
interviewer is given a guide on the type of info to be obtained and the formulation of questions is done by
his own experience and the replies are taken down in respondents own words.

2. Question sequence – A proper sequence of questions reduces the chance of individual questions being
misunderstood. To make the questionnaire effective the question – sequence must be clean and smoothly
moving (the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent). The opening question should
be such as to erose human interest. Questions relating to personal wealth or character, or questions putting
strain on the memory of the respondent should be avoided at first. The question sequence must conform
to the respondents’ way of thinking. It should go from general to more specific or from easy to answer to
the toughest.

3. Question formulation and working – All questions should meet the following standards –
-Should be easily understood
-Should be simple
-Should be concrete
-Should be impartial
-Should conform to the respondents way of thinking

Points to be Considered While Organizing a Questionnaire

Point 1# Importance of the Problem Under Study or the Formulation of the Problem:

The formulation of problem forms the starting point for developing the questionnaire. If the problem under
study is an important one, a higher response is expected, but if it is an ordinary one, and which does not
have any social relevance for the respondent’s life, the response is likely to be low. The problem formulated
for study should be relevant for the respondents. A researcher can expect higher response, if the problem
under investigation directly focuses on the respondent’s problem.

Point 2# The Type of Information Required:

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Very extensive bodies of data cannot often be secured through the use of the questionnaire. The
researcher should first find out the extent to which the desired data are already available in published
reports and decide whether all or parts of the needed data can be obtained through a formal
questionnaire. In brief, the investigator must decide what aspects of the problem are to lie dealt with in a
particular study through a formal questionnaire.

Point 3# Securing Help from the People who Possess the Experience in the Related Field:

The researcher should secure all the help he can, in planning and constructing his questionnaire. He should
study other questionnaires and submit his questionnaire for a critical analysis to other members of his
research organisation or his colleagues and especially to those who possess the experience of
questionnaire construction.

Point 4# Thorough Knowledge about his Hypothesis:

He should thoroughly explore his hypothesis, experiences, the literature available in the concerned topic
and other related field to frame his own questionnaire. It will help him to probe the crucial issues of his
research problem in depth.
Point 5# Clear Understanding of the Objective of the Study:

He should attain a thorough knowledge of the field and a clear understanding of the objective of the
investigation and of the nature of the data required for the investigation.

Point 6# A Proper Scrutiny:

The questionnaire should be properly scrutinized for technical defect, quite apart from biases and blind
spots arising out of personal values.
Point 7# Numerous Revisions or Pre-Testing:

Constructing a questionnaire calls for numerous revisions, in which variations of the same question should
be given for an experimental trial. The same question posed in different ways very frequently may bring out
different responses. This trial can be done through a pre-testing or a pilot study. A pre-testing is necessary
to find out how the questionnaire works and whether changes are necessary before applying the actual
questionnaire.
The pre-testing of elements provides a means for solving unforeseen problems in its administration in the
field. It may also indicate the need for addition or deletion of questions. Sometimes a series of revisions
and pre testing is needed. After a pre-testing the final editing has to be done to ensure that every element
has been scrutinized. Editing is required to make the questionnaire as clear and as easy to use as possible.

Point 8# Willingness of the Respondent:

The questionnaire is effective only when the respondent is able or willing to express his reactions clearly.
The respondents must be chosen carefully. The questionnaire should be sent only to those who possess the
desired information and those who are likely to be sufficiently interested to respond. Goode and Hatt say,
“The respondent will not ordinarily answer a questionnaire dealing with a subject with which he is
unfamiliar, such as air travel, impending legislation or experience with a particular branch of the
government or an occupation”.

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Advantages of Questionnaire:

(1) Economical:
It is an economical way of accumulating information. It is economical both for the sender and for the
respondent in time, effort and cost. The cost of conducting the study with the help of questionnaire
method is very low. In questionnaire the researcher has to spend for paper printing and postage only. There
is no need to visit each and every respondent personally. So it does not require high cost for conduct of the
research.
(2) Wide Coverage:

It is probably the best method to collect information, compared to the other methods like interview or
observation, when the sample population is spread over a large territory. It permits a nationwide or even
international coverage.

Questionnaire makes it possible to contact with many people who could not otherwise be reached. It can
cover a large group at the same time. Goode and Hatt say that when the researcher has to cover the group
of respondents who are widely scattered, lie can use the questionnaire in order to minimize the cost.

For example, if the researcher wishes to poll the membership of the American Sociological Society,
transportation costs for interviewing would be excessive, both in terms of money and time. There may not
be enough time to make the necessary interview.

However, questionnaires could be distributed to all those members and information could be collected
from them. This can be done by a single researcher without the large funds otherwise required to hire an
interviewing staff to carry out the interview.

(3) Rapidity:

Replies may be received very quickly in questionnaire method. In this case there is no need to visit the
respondent personally or continue the study over a long period. Thor “fore in comparison with other
methods, the mailed questionnaire is the quickest method.
(4) Suitable in Special Type of Response:

The information about certain personal, secret matters can be best obtained through questionnaire
method. For example, information about sexual relationship, marital relationship, secret desires etc. can
.be easily obtained by ‘keeping the names of the respondents anonymous.

(5) Repetitive Information:

Compared to other methods like schedule, interview or observation, questionnaire method is regarded as
more useful and cheap, where the repetitive information has to be collected at regular interval.

(6) An Easier Method:

Questionnaire is comparatively an easier method to plan, construct and administer. It does not require
much technical skill or knowledge.

(7) It Puts Less Pressure on the Respondents:

It puts less pressure on the respondents for immediate response. He can answer it at his own leisure,
whereas interview or observation demands specific fixation of time and situation,

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Disadvantages of Questionnaire:
(1) Limited Response:

One of the major limitations of the questionnaire is that it can be applicable only to those respondents who
have a considerable amount of education. It can neither be used for illiterate nor for semi -literate persons.

The questionnaire quite often fails to cover very busy and pre-occupied persons among the respondents,
lazy and indifferent type of persons, the type of respondents who need to conceal a lot about themselves,
the easy-going and shirkers among the respondents, the persons who have a unreasonable contempt for
research and reform and the persons who unnecessarily doubt the research worker’s intentions, sincerity,
devotion and commitment.

These are the people who constitute a very important segment of the respondents to be covered in the
collection of data, but they can be seldom caught. Thus questionnaires are hardly appropriate for a larger
section of this type of population.

(2) Lack of Personal Contact:

As in case of questionnaire the researcher does not go to the field, he is not able to establish a proper
personal relationship with the respondents. If the respondent fails to understand some of the technical
terms or he has any doubt, there is nobody to clarify these technical terms or doubts.

Even though the researcher tries in the best possible manner to make the questionnaire a simple, precise
and convenient one, the aim and objective of the questionnaire can be much better explained personally
than through any other means. Without the proper personal contact it is very difficult to motivate the
respondent to fill up the questionnaire.

(3) Poor Response:

In case of mailed questionnaire method, the proportion of return is usually low. The factors which are likely
to affect the returns are: the layout of the questionnaire, its size, the organisation conducting the research
work, the nature of appeal, the kind of respondents chosen for research, inducement for response etc.

(4) Unreliability:

The information collected through questionnaire cannot be said to be very much reliable or valid. If the
subject misinterprets a question or gives an incomplete or indefinite response very little can be done to
connect such response. As against this, in an interview there is always the possibility of rephrasing
questions for further clarification.

The questions can be repeated with adequate elaboration if it is so required. But in questionnaire method
there is no opportunity for repeating questions, explaining them or clarifying the doubts for a particular
response. Therefore, in it the validity of respondent’s response can hardly be examined.

The investigator here is not in a position to observe the gestures and expressions of the respondents. He
cannot cross check the inconsistencies or misrepresentation of the replies. So in questionnaire method,
reliability of responses is very low.

(5) Illegibility:

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Illegible handwriting of the respondent sometimes creates much difficulty for the researcher to understand
the responses. Sometimes the respondents erase and over write too much. These create many difficulties
in reading the answers.

(6) Incomplete Entries:

Often most of the respondents fill up the questionnaire form very poorly. They sometimes leave out many
questions altogether or fill in such a way that, it becomes very difficult on the part of the investigator to
follow those responses. Other than this, there may be the problem of language, use of abbreviations and
ambiguous terms etc. All these make a questionnaire an incomplete one.

(7) Possibility of Manipulated Entries:

In case of interview the investigator directly interacts with the respondents personal’ and intensively in a
face to face situation. He can judge a respondent, his attitude, understanding of the research topic and, if
necessary, can ask some cross questions to correct various errors.

So usually the respondent cannot manipulate his answer. But in questionnaire it is very difficult to detect
the errors of the respondents. Here the investigator does not have any facility to check the validity and
reliability of the information. In the absence of the researcher, the respondents may supply manipulated
information.

(8) Useless in Depth-Studies:

In questionnaire method, it is not possible on the part of the researcher to conduct an intensive or in-depth
study of the feelings, reactions and sentiments of the respondents . All these require a healthy interaction
of the researcher with the respondents. But in questionnaire method, the investigator is not present in the
field, so nothing can be done to establish rapport with the respondent. Due to this lack of interaction wi th
the respondent, the researcher cannot go into the details of the respondent’s life. So through
questionnaire method one cannot conduct an in-depth study

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. What issues are required to pay attention to while constructing a questionnaire? Why is it preferred
over other methods of primary data collection? (PYQ)

2. Write notes on the following: (PYQ)

a. Characteristics of a good sample.
b. Probability sampling.

3. What do you understand by cluster sampling? Is cluster sampling always better than other forms of
sampling in the context of business research? Justify. (PYQ)
4. What are the various methods of data collection? Which method according to you is more reliable and
why? (PYQ)
5. Is there any difference between probability and non-probability sampling techniques? Which technique
would you like? Justify your answer. (SECTION C)

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