Page 1 of 45

Table of Contents
Denoising Using Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering (MFIF)
Concept of MFIF
Key Steps in MFIF
Algorithm for MFIF
Algorithm 1: Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering

Advantages of MFIF
1. Multivariate Capability
2. Adaptive Filtering
3. Efficiency in Processing
4. Improved Signal Characterization
5. Robustness Against Non-linearities
6. Energy Efficiency
7. Anomaly Detection Enhancements
Other Noise Removal Algorithms
Data Outlier Detection Using Deep Isolation Forest (DIF)
Overview of Deep Isolation Forest (DIF)
Advantages of DIF
Potential Questions Related to DIF
Causes of Outliers in IIoT Sensor Data
Implications of Outliers
Example
Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network-Based Data Fusion and Fault Classification
 Page 2 of 45

Key Components of the Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network (DMSFNN)

How It Works
Benefits of DMSFNN
Conclusion
Single Scale Feature Learning
Summary
Multi-Scale Feature Fusion Learning
Summary
Hyperparameter Optimization Using the Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) Algorithm
How the MAO Algorithm Works
Step-by-Step Process of MAO
Step 1: Initialization

Step 2: Random Generation

Step 3: Fitness Evaluation

Step 4: Transition Phase

Step 5: Injury and Restoration Phase

Why This Algorithm is Useful for Fault Diagnosis

How the MAO Algorithm is Used in Fault Diagnosis
Steps for Using MAO in Fault Diagnosis
1. Data Collection from Sensors

2. Feature Extraction

3. Training a Fault Diagnosis Model

4. Optimizing the Model with MAO

5. Fault Prediction and Classification

Why MAO is Effective for Fault Diagnosis?

How MAO is Used in Fault Diagnosis – A Simple Example
 Page 3 of 45

Step-by-Step Example of Fault Diagnosis Using MAO

Step 1: Collect Sensor Data

Step 2: Train a Fault Diagnosis Model

Step 3: Optimize the Model with MAO

Step 4: Fault Prediction with the Optimized Model

Why is MAO Useful?

Definition of Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) in Fault Diagnosis
Difference Between DMSFNN and MAO in the Paper
How They Work Together in the Paper
Example in IoT Fault Diagnosis
Faults in the Paper
Types of Faults Identified in the Paper:
Simplified Explanation of Fault Diagnosis and Performance Evaluation in IoT
1. How Fault Diagnosis Works in IoT?
2. How Performance is Measured?
3. How the Proposed Method is Compared with Existing Methods?
Key Takeaways:
Summary of Conclusion
Presentation Points on Data Acquisition
Introduction to Data Acquisition

Overview of the CWRU Dataset

Technical Details of Data Acquisition

Visual Aids

Conclusion
Why Deep Isolation Forest (DIF) is Used?
How DIF is Different from Other Outlier Detection Algorithms?
 Page 4 of 45

Why DIF Was Chosen?

Conclusion
Related Work and Their Limitations
1. Y. Chang et al. (2022) – Deep Dual Reinforcement Learning (FD-IoT-DRL)
2. T. Ch. Anil Kumar et al. (2022) – FD-IoT-LSTM for Industrial Faults
3. Y. Li et al. (2022) – Federated Learning for Fault Diagnosis (FL-PMSM)
Why FD-IoT-DMSFNN is Better?
Final Takeaway
Why Deep Learning (DL) Instead of Machine Learning (ML) for Fault Diagnosis in IIoT?
1. DL Handles Complex, High-Dimensional Data Better than ML
2. DL Can Learn Hierarchical Features from Raw Sensor Data
3. DL Works Better for Multi-Sensor Data Fusion
4. DL is More Robust to Noisy and Unlabeled Data
5. DL Achieves Higher Accuracy than ML in Fault Diagnosis
6. DL Eliminates the Need for Manual Feature Engineering
7. DL Can Handle Real-Time Fault Diagnosis More Efficiently
Conclusion: Why DL is the Better Choice?

3.2. Denoising using Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering

IIoT networks produce a lot of sensor data; this data must be
evaluated and utilised for
in-the-moment decision-making. Large volumes, diverse dynamic
and type values, and fast
speeds are just a few of the numerous characteristics present in
sensor data. As sensor data
are gathered and processed in real-time, they contaminate and
make decision-making more
difficult. Noisy signals result from uncorrelated signal
components that alter the original
vectors of the signal in an unwanted way. Due to the noise
characteristic, resources are wasted
 Page 5 of 45
processing and using useless data. Techniques for multivariate
fast iterative filtering (MFIF)
[29] make it possible to precisely characterise the signal and solve
the signal estimate
problem. The idea behind the MFIF approach is to take a 𝑁 -
dimensional signal that is
changing over time 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅𝑁 ×𝑅 and first compute a unique
filter length 𝑙 in some way. This is
equal to half of the filter function's 𝑥 support length. Next,
extract the first IMF separately via
FIF from each of the 𝑜 channels using this particular filter length
of 𝑙. By treating 𝑡 as a series
of column vectors, 𝑤(𝑢) = [𝑤𝑗(𝑢)] 𝑗=1, .,𝑁
revolving in 𝑅𝑁 while 𝑢 varies in 𝑅, It is possible to
compute the filter length using 𝜃(𝑢). The angle at which these
vectors rotate over time is
defined by equation (1).
�
�(𝑢) = 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠( 𝑤(𝑢)
‖𝑤(𝑢)‖
⋅ 𝑤(𝑢−1)
‖𝑤(𝑢−1)‖
)
(1)
In particular, utilise the following two extrema's double average
separation in 𝜃(𝑢) as
the 𝑙 filter length. This method makes perfect sense if we assume
that a multivariate IMF is a
vector in 𝑅𝑁 that rotates around the time axis. This approach
improves energy usage,
accuracy, and efficiency, wmaking it perfect for IoTapplications
like smart cities, industrial
automation, and environmental monitoring. The system can
precisely identify anomalies
without being overloaded by nregulardata traffic by employing an
event bus architecture and
sophisticated detection algorithms, ensuring rapid detection and
enhancing the dependability
and performance of IoT systems [30]. The average scale of the
highest frequency rotations
encoded in the provided signal can be estimated using the double
average distance between
the succeeding extrema in 𝜃(𝑢). Using the notation 𝑆 =
[𝑤1,𝑤2,...𝑤𝑀], where each 𝑤𝑘 is a
column vector in 𝑅𝑁 and 𝑆 is a matrix in 𝑅𝑁×𝑀, and assuming
that the signal 𝑆 is sampled at 𝑛
points in time, utilize the equation (2).
�
� =[
𝑣1
𝑣2
⋯
𝑣𝑁
]
(2)
 Page 6 of 45
where every 𝑣1 in 𝑅𝑀 is a row vector. Then, the denoised input
sensor data are provided
for the outlier identification process.
Algorithm 1 Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering Intrinsic
Mode Functions (IMF) = MFIF
IMF= {}
Compute 𝜃(𝑢) using (1)
while the number of extremes in 𝜃 ≥ 2 do
calculate the filter function 𝑤's filter length 𝑙
set 𝐾 = 0
while the requirement for stopping is not met, do
for 𝑗 = 1to 𝑛 do
(𝑣𝑗
(𝑘))𝑇 = (1 − 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝐷𝐹𝑇(𝑥)))𝑘
�
�𝐹𝑇(𝑣𝑗
𝑇)
end for
�
� =𝐾+1
end while
�
�𝑀𝐹 =𝐼𝑀𝐹∪{[𝑖𝐷𝐹𝑇(𝑣𝑗
(𝑘))]𝑗
}
�
� =𝑆−[𝑖𝐷𝐹𝑇(𝑣𝑗
(𝑘))] 𝑖

Compute𝜃(𝑢) using (1)

end while
�
�𝑀𝐹 =𝐼𝑀𝐹∪{𝑆}
IMF=IMF
explain it

Denoising Using Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering (MFIF)

In Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) networks, sensor data is collected in real-time, which introduces
noise due to various environmental factors and sensor inaccuracies. This noise makes decision-making
harder and wastes computational resources. Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering (MFIF) is a signal
processing technique designed to remove noise efficiently while preserving useful information.

Concept of MFIF
MFIF is used to process multivariate time-series signals, where:

The signal consists ofN-dimensional vectors that change over time.

The method finds a unique filter length (𝑙), which helps in extracting useful signal components.

By applying Fast Iterative Filtering (FIF) to each channel, noise is separated from useful data.
 Page 7 of 45

Key Steps in MFIF

1. Calculate the filter length (𝑙)
It is derived from the double average separation between extrema (peaks and troughs) in the
signal's rotation angle 𝜃(𝑢).

This filter length helps in determining which parts of the signal contain useful information
versus noise.

2. Apply Fast Iterative Filtering (FIF)

The Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs) are extracted from the signal iteratively.

Each channel of the multivariate signal is processed separately.

3. Compute the rotation angle 𝜃(𝑢)

Defined as:
w(u − 1)
𝜃(u) = arccos ( )
w(u)
⋅
∥w(u)∥ ∥w(u − 1)∥
​ ​

This measures how the signal vectors rotate over time.

4. Extract Denoised Data

The final denoised signal is obtained by removing unwanted frequency components through
iterative filtering.

Algorithm for MFIF

Algorithm 1: Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering
1. Initialize Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMF) = {}

2. Compute 𝜃(𝑢) using equation (1).

3. While the number of extrema in 𝜃(𝑢) ≥ 2:

Compute the filter length (𝑙).

Set iteration counter 𝐾 = 0.

While stopping condition is not met:

For each channel 𝑗 in 𝑛:

Apply Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and filtering.

Compute Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) to reconstruct signal.

Update IMF with the filtered component.

4. Repeat until all noise is removed and final denoised signal (S) is obtained.

Advantages of MFIF
 Page 8 of 45
Removes noise effectively: Filters out uncorrelated signal components.
Improves efficiency: Reduces unnecessary processing of noisy data.
Enhances anomaly detection: Helps identify outliers in smart cities, industrial automation, and
environmental monitoring.
Energy-efficient: Reduces computational overhead in IIoT systems.
By using MFIF, IoT networks can process cleaner data, make faster decisions, and improve reliability in
real-time applications. 🚀

why only mfif not other algorithm for to remove noise

Using Multivariate Fast Iterative Filtering (MFIF) for noise removal in sensor data offers several
advantages over other algorithms, making it particularly suitable for IIoT applications. Here are some
reasons why MFIF might be preferred:

1. Multivariate Capability
Handling Multiple Channels: MFIF is designed to process multivariate signals, which is common in
IIoT systems where data is collected from multiple sensors simultaneously. This ability to handle
multiple correlated signals allows for better noise reduction across the entire dataset.

2. Adaptive Filtering
Dynamic Filter Length: MFIF computes a unique filter length that adapts to the characteristics of
the signal. This adaptability allows it to respond more effectively to changing noise conditions,
unlike static filtering methods that may not perform well under varying noise levels.

3. Efficiency in Processing
Fast Iterative Approach: The iterative nature of MFIF allows it to quickly converge to a denoised
solution. This is especially important in real-time applications where timely decision-making is
crucial. Many traditional algorithms may require more computational resources or time to achieve
similar results.

4. Improved Signal Characterization

Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs): MFIF extracts IMFs that represent different frequency components
of the signal, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of the data. Other methods, like simple
low-pass filtering, may not provide this level of detail and could lead to loss of important
information.

5. Robustness Against Non-linearities

Effective for Non-linear Signals: Many real-world signals are non-linear and non-stationary. MFIF's
design makes it more robust to these characteristics compared to linear filtering methods, which
might struggle with complex signal behaviors.

6. Energy Efficiency
 Page 9 of 45
Resource Optimization: By effectively reducing noise, MFIF minimizes the processing of irrelevant
data, leading to lower energy consumption. This is particularly valuable in IIoT scenarios where
sensor power efficiency is crucial.

7. Anomaly Detection Enhancements

Improved Detection Algorithms: By cleaning the data effectively, MFIF enhances the performance
of subsequent anomaly detection algorithms, making it easier to identify and respond to outliers
in real-time.

Other Noise Removal Algorithms

While there are other noise removal algorithms available (like Kalman filters, wavelet transforms, and
moving average filters), each has its pros and cons. Here are some comparisons:

Kalman Filters: Best for linear systems and may require accurate modeling of the system. They can
be computationally intensive and may not handle non-linearities well.

Wavelet Transforms: Excellent for localized frequency analysis and can handle non-stationary
signals, but the implementation can be complex, and choosing the right wavelet is critical.

Moving Average Filters: Simple and easy to implement, but they can introduce lag and may not
effectively deal with sharp spikes or rapid changes in the signal.

In summary, MFIF stands out for its adaptability, efficiency, and ability to handle complex, multivariate
signals, making it a strong choice for real-time applications in IIoT systems where noise removal is
crucial.

3.3. Data Outlier Detection Using Deep Isolation Forest (DIF)

The IIoT sensor network has a wide variety and dispersion of
sensor nodes. Be aware
that such a design increases the risk of substantial sensor node
failure and hazard in a real
world physical situation due to various external forces. Because of
this, the initial IIoT sensor
network data are subject to change, which may lead to data
outliers. Data outliers must be
located before doing data analysis or making decisions. The Deep
Isolation Forest (DIF) [30]
approach is utilised for data outlier detection. Equation (3)
describes how DIF initially builds
the random representation ensemble.
ℎ(𝐷) = {𝑌𝑣 ⊂ 𝑅𝑒|𝑌𝑣 = 𝜙𝑣(𝐷;𝜃𝑣)}𝑣=1
𝑠
(3)
whereas 𝜙𝑣:𝐷 → 𝑅𝐷 is the network that creates new d-
dimensional spaces from the
original data, 𝑠 is the ensemble size and 𝜃𝑣 is the random
initialisation of the network weights.
A forest 𝑈 = {𝑈𝑗} 𝑗=1
𝑈 with 𝑈 = 𝑠×𝑢 iTrees is built, iTrees represents the isolation
trees and
each representation is given 𝑢 iTree. A root node initialises iTree
𝑈𝑗 of 𝑌 with a collection of
 Page 10 of 45
anticipated data 𝑄1 ⊂ 𝑌. The node 𝑙 that contains the data
pool 𝑄𝑙 branches into two leaf nodes
that have distinct subsets. The split value 𝜂𝑙 is within the range
of {𝑦(𝑘 )|𝑦 ∈ 𝑄𝑙|}, and each of
the dimensions {1,...,𝑒} of the newly formed data space is
uniformly and randomly selected
to become dimension 𝑘𝑙. The projected data object's dimension
𝑦(𝑘𝑙) is the 𝑘𝑙 dimensions.
After 𝑈, the peculiarity of a piece of data 𝑝 is assessed according
to the degree of isolation in
every forest iTree 𝑈. Equation (4) provides a formulation of the
scoring function.
�
�(𝑛/𝑈) = 𝛺𝑈𝑗≈𝑈
𝐽(𝑛|𝑈𝑗)
(4)
where 𝛺 indicates an integration function and shows a function
to measure iTree's
isolation challenge. 𝑈𝑗. If the estimated variation of this
integrated data is more significant
than a predefined threshold, it is deemed an outlier. This
method's ease of use and simplicity
mainly depend on how close the sensor nodes are to one another.
explain it and what are the questions can be asked in this?

Data Outlier Detection Using Deep Isolation Forest (DIF)

In Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) networks, the variety and dispersion of sensor nodes increase the
risk of failures due to external forces, leading to data outliers. Detecting these outliers is crucial before
performing data analysis or making decisions. The Deep Isolation Forest (DIF) is a machine learning
approach used to identify these outliers effectively.

Overview of Deep Isolation Forest (DIF)

1. Random Representation Ensemble
The first step in DIF is to create a random representation ensemble from the original data set, as
described in Equation (3):

h(D) = {Yv ⊂ Re ∣Yv = ϕv (D; θv )}v=1

​ ​
s
​ ​ ​

ϕv : A neural network that transforms the data D into a new d-dimensional space.
​

s: Ensemble size, which determines how many isolation trees (iTrees) will be created.
θv : Random initialization of the weights of the neural network.
​

2. Building the Isolation Forest

A forest U = {Uj }Uj=1 is constructed with U being the total number of iTrees, where U =
​ ​

s × u.

Each iTree is initialized with a subset of data Q1 ​ ⊂ Y.

 Page 11 of 45
The nodes in the tree divide the data into two subsets based on a randomly selected
dimension kl and a split value ηl , which is chosen from the data values within the current
​ ​

node.

3. Isolation Scoring Function

After building the forest, the isolation of each data point p is assessed using the degree of isolation
across all iTrees. The scoring function is given by Equation (4):

I(n/U) = ΩU j ≈U J (n∣Uj )
​
​ ​

Ω: An integration function that measures how well the iTree isolates the data point.
J (n∣Uj ): Represents the isolation challenge for the data point n with respect to the iTree Uj .
​ ​

4. Identifying Outliers
If the calculated isolation score exceeds a predefined threshold, the data point is classified as an
outlier. The method's effectiveness largely depends on the proximity of sensor nodes to each
other.

Advantages of DIF
Adaptability: The method can adjust to the spatial relationships between sensor nodes, enhancing
its accuracy in detecting outliers.

Simplicity: The algorithm is relatively easy to implement and does not require complex parameter
tuning.

Potential Questions Related to DIF

1. What is the significance of the ensemble size s in the context of DIF?
Explore how the number of iTrees impacts the detection of outliers.

2. How does the random initialization of weights θv affect the performance of the DIF?
​

Discuss the importance of randomness in preventing overfitting and improving generalization.

3. What criteria can be used to select the threshold for identifying outliers?
Investigate different methods for determining a suitable threshold and its influence on the
detection rate.

4. How does the spatial distribution of sensor nodes influence the effectiveness of the DIF?
Analyze the relationship between node proximity and outlier detection accuracy.

5. In what scenarios might the DIF outperform traditional outlier detection methods?
Compare DIF with other algorithms (e.g., statistical methods, clustering-based approaches)
and identify specific use cases where DIF is advantageous.

6. What are the computational requirements for implementing the DIF in a real-time IIoT system?
Discuss the efficiency of the algorithm in terms of processing speed and resource consumption.

7. How does DIF handle dynamic changes in sensor data over time?
Consider the algorithm's ability to adapt to changes in the data distribution.

8. What limitations might the Deep Isolation Forest approach have in certain applications?
 Page 12 of 45
Identify potential challenges or drawbacks when using DIF in specific IIoT scenarios.

By addressing these questions, one can gain a deeper understanding of the Deep Isolation Forest
method and its applicability to outlier detection in IIoT networks.

what is the outlier in this context

In the context of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) sensor networks, an outlier refers to a data point
or observation that significantly deviates from the expected pattern or distribution of the data.
Outliers can arise from various factors, including:

Causes of Outliers in IIoT Sensor Data

1. Sensor Malfunctions: Faulty or malfunctioning sensors can produce erroneous readings that do
not reflect the actual conditions they are measuring.

2. Environmental Factors: Sudden changes in environmental conditions (e.g., temperature spikes,

mechanical vibrations) can lead to unexpected sensor readings.

3. Communication Errors: Data transmission issues, such as packet loss or corruption during the
communication between sensors and the central system, can result in inaccurate data.

4. Human Errors: Mistakes during data collection, calibration, or maintenance of the sensors can lead
to outlier readings.

5. Rare Events: Genuine but infrequent events (e.g., equipment failures, accidents) that occur within
the monitored environment can manifest as outliers.

Implications of Outliers
Data Integrity: Outliers can compromise the integrity of the dataset, leading to incorrect analyses
and decisions.

Decision Making: When outliers are not identified and handled appropriately, they can skew results
and lead to faulty conclusions or inappropriate actions.

Anomaly Detection: Identifying outliers is crucial for detecting anomalies that may indicate system
failures, safety hazards, or security breaches.

Example
For instance, in a temperature monitoring system for industrial equipment:

A temperature reading of 200°C when the normal operational range is between 50°C to 100°C
would be considered an outlier. This could indicate a malfunctioning temperature sensor, a
sudden spike in temperature due to a fire, or an incorrect data transmission.

In summary, in the IIoT context, an outlier is a data point that significantly differs from the expected
behavior of the system, warranting investigation to determine its cause and whether it should be
included in further analyses.
 Page 13 of 45

what is anomaly in simpler words

An anomaly is something that is unusual or unexpected. In simpler terms, it's a situation or occurrence
that doesn't fit the normal pattern or behavior. For example:

If most days it rains for an hour but one day it rains for the entire day, that day is an anomaly.

In a classroom, if all students score between 70 and 90 on a test but one student scores 30, that
score is an anomaly.

Anomalies can indicate something important, like a problem or a change that needs attention.

3.4. Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network-Based Data Fusion

and Fault Classification
To improve the accuracy of different applications, it is necessary to
fuse or combine data
from many sensors. The act of merging data from multiple sensors
to produce an accurate,
consistent, and dependable representation of the dynamic
system's state is known as sensor
fusion. This estimate is more accurate than using each sensor
separately. Sensor fusion aims
to increase the system's sensing confidence and precision while
lowering its cost, complexity,
and component count. It is a comprehensive strategy. Integrating
sensors can improve
reliability, measure unmeasured states, extend coverage area, and
improve data quality. Every
sensor is linked together and utilised to categorise additional
sensors in this way. There are
three primary parts to the suggested Deep Multi-Scale Fusion
Neural Network (DMSFNN)
[31]: Over a backbone network, the shared low-level features are
learned. Different scale
convolution kernels are used in multiple sub-networks to learn
high-level scale-specific signal
features simultaneously. Ultimately, multi-scale feature fusion,
which also emphasises
identifying related complementary information from different
scales, is used to merge
features from sub-networks. For shared learning, utilise the first
seven convolution layers,
yielding the feature maps𝐹𝑐. The characteristics 𝐹𝑐 are then
divided into two sub-branches,
each of which has six convolution layers, to extract the feature
maps 𝐹𝑐1
and 𝐹𝑐2
Which are
scale-specific. Combining multiple feature maps 𝐹𝑐1
, 𝐹𝑐2
, and focus yields the fusion cross-scale
properties 𝑓. All learning components, including the fusion and
 Page 14 of 45
single-branch features, are
ultimately used in multi-loss optimisation.
explain it

Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network-Based Data Fusion and Fault Classification
In complex systems, especially in Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) applications, combining data from
multiple sensors is crucial for accurate monitoring and decision-making. This process is known as
sensor fusion. The goal of sensor fusion is to create a reliable and comprehensive representation of
the system's state, which improves accuracy, reliability, and data quality.

Key Components of the Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network (DMSFNN)

The Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network (DMSFNN) is designed to enhance sensor fusion and
fault classification. It consists of three primary components:

1. Shared Low-Level Feature Learning

The first part of the network uses a backbone architecture to learn shared low-level features
from the sensor data. This means the network identifies common patterns that can be useful
across different types of sensor inputs.

2. High-Level Scale-Specific Feature Learning

The DMSFNN employs multiple sub-networks, each using different scale convolution kernels.
This allows the network to learn high-level features that are specific to different scales of the
data simultaneously. Each sub-network focuses on different aspects of the data, enabling a
more nuanced understanding of the sensor inputs.

3. Multi-Scale Feature Fusion

After extracting features from the shared and scale-specific layers, the DMSFNN merges these
features to create a comprehensive representation of the data. This fusion process emphasizes
identifying complementary information from different scales, ensuring that important details
are not lost.

How It Works
Convolution Layers: The first seven convolution layers of the network extract shared features,
resulting in feature maps denoted as Fc .​

Sub-Branches: These feature maps are then split into two sub-branches, each containing six
additional convolution layers. The outputs from these branches are the scale-specific feature
maps Fc1 and Fc2 .
​ ​

Fusion Process: The various feature maps Fc1 , Fc2 , and other relevant features are combined to
​ ​

produce cross-scale properties f . This combination helps capture a richer representation of the
sensor data.

Multi-Loss Optimization: All learning components, including the fused features and those from the
individual branches, are optimized through a multi-loss approach. This means that the network
learns not only to classify faults but also to effectively fuse the data from multiple sources.
Benefits of DMSFNN
Page 15 of 45

Improved Accuracy: By fusing data from multiple sensors, the DMSFNN can provide a more
accurate and consistent assessment of the system's state than relying on individual sensors.

Enhanced Reliability: The network can better handle uncertainties and missing data, as it
leverages information from multiple sources.

Cost and Complexity Reduction: Integrating sensor data helps simplify the overall system design
by reducing the number of required components while maintaining performance.

Conclusion
The Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network is a powerful tool for data fusion and fault classification
in IIoT applications. Its architecture enables it to effectively combine information from multiple
sensors, leading to improved accuracy and reliability in monitoring dynamic systems. This approach is
particularly beneficial in environments where sensor data is variable and prone to noise or other
distortions.

3.4.1.
Single Scale Feature Learning
The backbone provides the various scale branches with shared
feature maps. Use the six
layer CNN architecture to build the single-scale branch. To be
more precise, the first three
convolution layers efficiently extract the signal features by using
an equal number of
convolution kernels. Additionally, there are progressively fewer
convolution kernels in the
final three layers. It is still quite good at reducing the dimension of
features and extracting
high-level information. Equation (5) defines the branch outputs
𝐹𝑐𝑖
and 𝑖 ∈ {1,2} for the inputs
�
�𝑗 and 𝑗 ∈ {1,2,...,𝑛}.
�
�𝑐𝑖
= 𝑛𝑐𝑖
(𝑛𝑐(𝑦𝑗;𝜃𝑐);𝜃𝑐𝑖
)
(5)
where 𝐹𝑐𝑖
represents the raw input's branch feature. 𝑦𝑗, 𝑛𝑐, 𝑛𝑐𝑖
, and 𝑘 ∈ {1,2} represent
the scale-specific subnetwork and the backbone network. The
network parameters are 𝜃𝑐 and
�
�𝑐𝑖
, respectively. To give a reduced dimension feature embedding for
each sample, the feature
dimension is first compressed using global max-pooling, as shown
by the top output feature
map 𝐹𝑐𝑖
 Page 16 of 45
of the 𝑐𝑗 branches. Equation (6) is then used to find the
posterior probability of each
class.
�
�𝑐𝑖
= ℎ𝑛(𝐹𝑐𝑖
)
�
�(𝑧𝑐𝑖
)=
𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥𝑥𝑗
𝐷
𝑙=1
∑ 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥𝑙
𝑈𝑧𝑐𝑖 )
(6)
�
� 𝑧𝑐𝑖 )
(7)
When ℎ𝑛 indicates the global max-pooling operation, 𝑞(𝑐𝑖) is
the likelihood that the model
would give input 𝑥𝑗 the label 𝑦𝑗, and 𝑥𝑙 is the class 𝑙
parameter. Equation (8) defines the
objective loss function for every observable instance in the
training set.
�
�𝑐𝑖
= −1
𝑛
𝑛
𝑗=1
�
�
𝑙=1
∑ ∑ 𝐽{𝑥𝑗=𝑙}𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑞(𝑧𝑐𝑖
)
(8)
where the indicator function is 𝐽(⋅) in order for 𝐽(𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒) = 1
to occur, and otherwise is 0.
explain it in simpler words

Single Scale Feature Learning

In the Single Scale Feature Learning section of the Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network
(DMSFNN), the goal is to efficiently learn features from sensor data using a specific structure of neural
network layers. Here's a breakdown of the concepts in simpler terms:

1. Backbone Network: This part of the network provides shared information that is useful for all the
branches that follow. Think of it as a common foundation for the branches to build upon.

2. Single-Scale Branch: Each branch uses a six-layer convolutional neural network (CNN) to learn
specific features from the data. Here's how it works:

First Three Layers: These layers use an equal number of filters (or convolution kernels) to
capture essential details from the input data. They are good at extracting the initial, important
 Page 17 of 45
features.

Last Three Layers: These layers use progressively fewer filters, which helps to reduce the
number of features while still keeping the most relevant high-level information.

3. Outputs of the Branches: Each branch produces outputs (features) denoted as Fc , where i can be
i ​
​

1 or 2 (representing two different branches). The equation (5) describes how these outputs are
calculated based on the input data yj . ​

nci represents the function for the scale-specific subnetwork and backbone.
​
​

The parameters θc and θci are used to train the network.

​

​
​

4. Feature Reduction: To simplify the features and reduce their dimensions, a global max-pooling
operation is applied. This operation takes the most important feature from each area of the
feature map, resulting in a smaller set of key features.

5. Class Probability Calculation: The model then predicts the likelihood of each class (category) using
equation (6). This tells us how confident the model is that the input data belongs to a particular
class.

6. Likelihood of Labels: The notation q(ci ) indicates the probability that the model assigns the label
​

yj to the input xj . This is calculated based on the output of the branch.

​ ​

7. Loss Function: To train the model, we need a way to measure how well it's doing. The objective
loss function in equation (8) helps calculate the difference between the predicted labels and the
actual labels in the training data.

The function uses an indicator J (⋅) that is 1 if the condition is true (meaning the predicted
label matches the actual label) and 0 otherwise. The goal is to minimize this loss during
training, which helps the model learn better.

Summary
In simpler terms, this section describes how the network learns features from sensor data using a
specific structure of layers. It involves:

Extracting important details from the data.

Reducing the amount of information while keeping what's essential.

Predicting the likelihood of different categories for the data.

Using a loss function to improve the model's accuracy during training.

3.4.2.
Multi-Scale Feature Fusion Learning
To get robust features for fault diagnosis and cross-scale
information complementation,
First concatenate the numerous scale-specific features 𝐹𝑐𝑖
to create the fusion feature maps 𝑓
with 𝑑 channels.
�
� =𝐶𝑎𝑡(𝐹𝑐1
,𝐹𝑐2
)
(9)
the concatenation operation is represented by 𝐶𝑎𝑡. After that, a
 Page 18 of 45
spatial attention module
is used to mine the discriminative features further and boost
efficiency. In this framework, at
each spatial location 𝑣 of 𝑓, a global average pooling operation
yields a global feature map 𝑠.
�
�𝑣 = 1
𝑑
𝑑
∑ 𝑓𝑣,𝑙
𝑙=1
(10)
Next, create the spatial attention map 𝐹𝑎 by using a sigmoid
function and a 1 × 1
convolution to 𝑠. As a result, adding up the weighted features
yields the new fusion features
�
�𝑐𝐹
. The information can be stated as follows in equation (11) and
(12),
�
�𝑎 = 𝜎(𝑋∗𝑠+𝑐)
�
� =𝑓+𝐹𝑎⊕𝑓
(11)
(12)
where the channel-wise product operation is shown by ⊕ and the
sigmoid function is
represented by 𝜎(⋅). Finally, a global pooling layer is
implemented to squeeze the feature's
dimensions and integrate features from several convolutional
channels. For the fusion feature
maps 𝑓, This framework uses both the global max-pooling and
average-pooling processes.
Max-pooling is a technique that effectively extracts specific and
discriminative information
from signals by determining the most outstanding value in each
zone. Furthermore, by
applying equation (13), average pooling facilitates the retrieval of
the signal's global
information using average procedures.
�
�𝑐𝐹
= ℎ𝑛(𝑓) +ℎ𝑏(𝑓)
(13)
where the global average pooling procedure is denoted by ℎ𝑏.
Next, features 𝑧𝑐𝐹
are used
to make predictions. The task's objective function is the softmax
classification loss. The data
in equation (14) can be expressed as follows.
�
�𝑐𝐹
= −1
𝑛
 Page 19 of 45
𝑛
𝑗=1
𝐷
∑ ∑ 𝐽{𝑥𝑗=𝑙}
𝑙=1
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑞(𝑧𝑐𝐹
)
(14)
At last, the proposed DMSFNN network classifies the sensor data
as faulty or normal. To
enhance the fault diagnosis, the weight parameter 𝑧𝑐𝐹
are optimized using the MAO algorithm,
and the stepwise procedure of MAO is detailed below. An analysis
was carried out to calculate
the effect of network disruptions on fault diagnosis. Less than 2%
more errors were made
during short outages (up to one minute), and up to 15% more
were made during prolonged
outages (more than five minutes). This emphasises the
importance of an effective network
architecture and efficient data recovery plans.
explain it in simper terms

Multi-Scale Feature Fusion Learning

In the Multi-Scale Feature Fusion Learning section, the focus is on combining different features
learned from sensor data to improve fault diagnosis and enhance the understanding of information
across different scales. Here's a simplified breakdown:

1. Combining Features: The first step is to merge (concatenate) the features obtained from different
scales (denoted as Fc1 and Fc2 ). This creates a new set of feature maps f that contain more
​ ​

comprehensive information.

The equation f = Cat(Fc1 , Fc2 ) shows how the features from the two branches are
​ ​

combined.

2. Enhancing Important Features: To make sure the most important features stand out, a spatial
attention module is used. This module helps the network focus on the parts of the feature maps
that are most relevant for identifying faults.

A global average pooling operation is performed at each spatial location v of the feature map
f . This operation calculates an average value for each feature, resulting in a global feature
map s.

3. Creating Attention Maps: A spatial attention map Fa is then created using a sigmoid function and a
1x1 convolution on the global feature map s. This attention map helps to highlight important
​

features while reducing the influence of less important ones.

The equations (11) and (12) describe how the attention map is calculated and how it is used to
adjust the original features, resulting in new fusion features.

4. Pooling for Feature Reduction: To reduce the dimensions of the features further and integrate the
information from different channels, a global pooling layer is applied. This involves:
 Page 20 of 45
Max-pooling: This technique extracts the highest values from each section of the feature maps,
emphasizing the most significant features.

Average pooling: This method computes the average of the features, providing a general
overview of the data.

The combined result from these pooling operations is represented in equation (13).

5. Making Predictions: The resulting features zcF are then used to classify the sensor data as either
faulty or normal. The classification is done using a softmax classification loss function, which helps
​

measure how well the model is predicting the correct labels.

Equation (14) describes the process for calculating this loss, which helps the model improve its
predictions during training.

6. Improving Fault Diagnosis: To enhance the accuracy of the fault diagnosis, the model's weight
parameters zcF are optimized using a specific algorithm called the MAO algorithm.
​

7. Network Disruptions Impact: An analysis was done to see how network disruptions affect the
model's fault diagnosis ability. It was found that short disruptions (less than one minute) led to a
small increase in errors (less than 2%), while longer disruptions (more than five minutes) caused a
more significant increase in errors (up to 15%). This highlights the importance of having a robust
network architecture and effective recovery strategies.

Summary
In simpler terms, this section describes how to combine and enhance features from different sensor
data sources to improve the identification of faults. Key steps include:

Merging features from multiple scales to get a richer dataset.

Using attention mechanisms to focus on important information.

Reducing dimensions through pooling techniques to simplify the data.

Making predictions about the status of the sensors and optimizing the model to enhance accuracy.

Understanding the impact of network issues on performance to ensure reliable fault detection.

3.5. Hyperparameter Optimization Using Mexican Axolotl

Optimization Algorithm
The Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) [32] method enhances
the fault diagnosis in
sensor data with higher accuracy and lower computational time.
Ambystoma mexicanum,
often known as the Mexican axolotl, inhabits lakes and tiny
streams home to various aquatic
plants. The Mexican Valley is where it originated. Science is well
aware of its fantastic ability
to amputate body parts and regenerate organs. The axolotl's
lifestyle and behaviour inspired
the MAO algorithm. The algorithm considered all facets of the
biology of the axolotl, including
reproduction, tissue regeneration, and aquatic existence. Because
axolotls are unique in their
gender, the algorithm additionally separated the population into
male and female individuals.
 Page 21 of 45
The four iterative steps of the MAO algorithm are called Transition
from Larval to Adult State,
Injury and Restoration, Reproduction, and Assortment, or TIRA for
short. This strategy
identifies global solutions in comparison to existing optimisation
techniques.
Considers a numerical optimisation issue here, where each
dimension 𝑞𝑖 is bound by
[𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖 ], and the function 𝑧𝑐𝐹
specifies the fault prediction parameter of dimension 𝑄 as
parameters. Every solution (axolotl) 𝑇𝑗 ∈ 𝐼,1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑜𝑞 is
displayed as a type vector 𝑇𝑗 =
[𝑇𝑗1, . . . , 𝑇𝑗𝑞], with 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 ≤𝑇𝑗𝑖 ≤ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖 such that
𝐺(𝑇𝑗). A population of substantial solutions
(axolotls) 𝑜𝑞 is represented as a collection of 𝐼 = {𝑇1,..,𝑇𝑜𝑞}.
To ascertain the function 𝑧𝑐𝐹

maximum value, the following is assumed. The detailed

procedure for the Mexican Axolotl
Optimization algorithm is as follows:
Step 1: Initialization
The initialisation of the parameter 𝑧𝑐𝐹
is the first stage in the MAO process, where the
input parameters are used for higher fault prediction accuracy.
Step 2: Random Generation
The input vectors are generated at random after startup.
Step 3: Fitness Evaluation
The aim function serves as its cornerstone and enhances the fault
diagnosis function.
�
�𝑖𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛[𝑧𝑐𝐹
]
(15)
Step 4: Transition Phase
Given that the goal function's maximum value is 𝐺, and the male
axolotl is represented
by the number 𝑛𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡, a transition parameter called 𝜆 which
ranges from 0𝑡𝑜1 was introduced.
This parameter allows the male axolotl's 𝑛𝑗 body parts to have
a hue that matches that of body
part 𝑛𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡, as shown in equation (16).
�
�𝑗𝑖 ← 𝑛𝑗𝑖 +(𝑛𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡,𝑖 − 𝑛𝑗𝑖) ∗ 𝜆
(16)
Female axolotls change hue as they grow from larvae to adults to
mimic the female who
has acclimated herself the best. The Equation (17) governs this
adaption, where the values of
�
�𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 and 𝑔𝑗 represent the most adapted and the currently
changing-color female axolotl,
respectively.
�
�𝑗𝑖 ← 𝑔𝑗𝑖 +(𝑔𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡,𝑖 − 𝑔𝑗𝑖) ∗ 𝜆
 Page 22 of 45
(17)
Thanks to the inverse likelihood of transition, the finest
adaptability is not entirely
matched by any individual.
To select dummy individuals of different colours, a random
number generator is used
�
� ∈[0,1] and contrasting it with the likelihood of the inverse
transition. If the inverse
probability of 𝑁 is smaller than it, the appropriate candidate is
selected. Equation (18) can be
used to determine the inverse probability of transition for the
male axolotl 𝑛𝑗 in a
minimisation problem. Where the male axolotl's optimisation
value is represented by 𝑛𝑜𝑗. In
a similar vein, Equation (18) calculates the female axolotl's inverse
probability of transition
�
�𝑗, where 𝑔𝑜𝑗 denotes the female axolotl's optimisation
value. In this process, there is a greater
likelihood of a random transition for the worst individuals.
�
�𝑛𝑗 = 𝑛𝑜𝑗
∑𝑛𝑜𝑗
𝑞𝑔𝑗 = 𝑔𝑜𝑗
∑𝑔𝑜𝑗
(18)
(19)
Equations (20) and (21) with 𝑁𝑖 ∈ [0,1] give the person with their
𝑖𝑡ℎ body part
transitioning randomly while considering each bodily portion's
function. The value of the
optimisation function determines which people have random
transitions.
�
�𝑗𝑖 ← 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 +(𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖 −𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 )∗𝑁𝑖
�
�𝑗𝑖 ← 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖+(𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖 −𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 )∗𝑁𝑖
(20)
(21)
Step 5: Injury and Restoration Phase
When axolotls travel in water, mishaps and injuries might occur. If
the risk of injury 𝑄𝑑
is met, every axolotl 𝑇𝑖 in the population, may experience the
total or partial loss of one or
more bodily parts, regardless of gender. Equation (22) shows that
the axolotl subsequently
uses the regeneration chance of 𝑄𝑟 per bit to restore the missing
body part and replace it with
a new section that is a function of 𝑄𝑖𝑗.
�
�𝑖𝑗 ← 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 +(𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖−𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖 )∗𝑁𝑖,0 ≤ 𝑁𝑖 ≤
1𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
explain it in simler words and terms
 Page 23 of 45

Hyperparameter Optimization Using the Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO)

Algorithm
The Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) Algorithm is inspired by the unique abilities of the Mexican
axolotl, a type of salamander known for regenerating lost body parts. This optimization technique
helps improve fault diagnosis in sensor data by adjusting key parameters efficiently, leading to higher
accuracy and faster processing.
How the MAO Algorithm Works
The algorithm mimics the life cycle and behavior of axolotls, particularly in growth, healing,
reproduction, and selection. The population of solutions is divided into male and female axolotls, and
their interactions guide the optimization process. The MAO algorithm follows four main steps,
abbreviated as TIRA:
1. Transition from Larval to Adult

2. Injury and Restoration

3. Reproduction

4. Assortment (Selection)

Each axolotl represents a potential solution to the optimization problem, where fault diagnosis
parameters are fine-tuned for better results.

Step-by-Step Process of MAO

Step 1: Initialization
The algorithm begins by setting initial values for the parameters used in fault prediction.
These values help guide the search for the best configuration.

Step 2: Random Generation

The algorithm generates random starting points for the solutions, representing different axolotls.
This ensures that the search covers a wide range of possibilities.

Step 3: Fitness Evaluation

Each axolotl is evaluated based on how well it performs in fault prediction.

The best solutions are selected and improved further.

Step 4: Transition Phase

Male axolotls change their body color to match the best-performing male axolotl.
The transition is controlled by a factor λ (between 0 and 1), which adjusts how much the
weaker axolotls adapt to the best ones.

Equation (16) describes this process mathematically.

Female axolotls change color to resemble the most adaptable female.
Equation (17) explains this adaptation.
 Page 24 of 45
This step helps solutions move closer to the optimal values.
Step 5: Injury and Restoration Phase
In nature, axolotls may get injured while swimming.

Similarly, in the MAO algorithm, some solutions "lose" parts of their values (i.e., they are reset).

If an axolotl "loses" a part, it has a chance to regenerate a new one, helping the algorithm explore
different possibilities.

Equation (22) represents this regeneration process.

Why This Algorithm is Useful for Fault Diagnosis

It explores multiple solutions at once, just like a group of axolotls adapting to their environment.
It balances learning from the best solutions while maintaining diversity, preventing the algorithm
from getting stuck in poor solutions.

It mimics nature's way of improving and adapting, leading to more accurate fault detection in
sensor data.

In simple terms, the MAO algorithm is like a group of axolotls learning to survive: they change color to
match the best performers, heal injuries, and reproduce better versions of themselves. This process
helps fine-tune the fault diagnosis system to work as accurately and efficiently as possible.

how it is used in fault diagnosis explain

How the MAO Algorithm is Used in Fault Diagnosis

Fault diagnosis in IoT systems involves identifying whether sensor data indicates normal or faulty
conditions. Since sensors can generate large and complex data, an efficient method is needed to
analyze and classify this data accurately. The Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) algorithm helps by
fine-tuning the parameters of a fault detection model, improving its accuracy and reducing errors.

Steps for Using MAO in Fault Diagnosis

1. Data Collection from Sensors
The system gathers data from various IoT sensors (e.g., DHT11, LDR, MQ6) that monitor
environmental conditions.

This data may include temperature, humidity, light intensity, and gas levels.

2. Feature Extraction
Important characteristics (features) are extracted from the raw sensor data.

These features help distinguish between normal and faulty conditions.

 Page 25 of 45
3. Training a Fault Diagnosis Model
A machine learning or deep learning model is used to classify sensor data into different categories
normal, minor fault, severe fault).
(e.g.,

The model needs hyperparameters (e.g., learning rate, number of layers, weight values) to be
optimized for better accuracy.

4. Optimizing the Model with MAO

The MAO algorithm fine-tunes the hyperparameters of the fault diagnosis model.

It adjusts the model's parameters by simulating axolotl behaviors:

Transition Phase: The algorithm makes weaker solutions (poor fault classifiers) learn from the
best-performing ones.

Injury and Restoration: Some parts of the model are randomly modified (reset and
regenerated) to explore new solutions.

Reproduction & Selection: The best-performing solutions are used to create improved versions,
refining the model over multiple iterations.

5. Fault Prediction and Classification

After optimization, the final trained model analyzes new sensor data and classifies it as normal or
faulty with higher accuracy.
The optimized model can quickly detect faults, helping to prevent equipment failures and
improve system reliability.

Why MAO is Effective for Fault Diagnosis?

✅ Improves Accuracy – Fine-tunes the model for better fault classification.
✅ Faster Processing – Optimizes the model efficiently, reducing computational time.
✅ Avoids Getting Stuck – Unlike traditional methods, MAO explores different possibilities using
axolotl-inspired adaptation.
✅ Handles Uncertainty – Can adjust dynamically to different sensor data variations.
In simple terms, MAO acts like a group of axolotls learning the best survival strategies, helping the
fault detection model adapt and improve for more precise and efficient fault diagnosis.

i have not understood explain it with exampple

How MAO is Used in Fault Diagnosis – A Simple Example

Imagine you have a smart factory with several IoT sensors monitoring machines. These sensors
measure temperature, humidity, gas levels, and light intensity. Your goal is to detect whether a
machine is working normally or has a fault before it breaks down.
Step-by-Step Example of Fault Diagnosis Using MAO
Page 26 of 45

Step 1: Collect Sensor Data

You install sensors on machines to collect data. Here's an example of sensor readings:

Temperature (°C) Humidity (%) Gas Level (PPM) Light Intensity (Lux) Machine Condition

30 60 200 500 Normal

45 80 600 200 Faulty

50 85 700 100 Faulty

28 55 150 600 Normal

You need an AI model to classify new data as normal or faulty.

Step 2: Train a Fault Diagnosis Model

You use a neural network to classify sensor data. However, the model has many parameters
(hyperparameters) like:
Number of layers

Learning rate

Weight values

Activation functions

If these parameters are not chosen correctly, the model may not predict faults accurately.

Step 3: Optimize the Model with MAO

Instead of randomly selecting parameters, you use the Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) algorithm
to find the best ones. Here's how it works:

1. Axolotls Represent Possible Solutions

Each axolotl is like a different set of model parameters (e.g., different learning rates, layer
numbers).

The algorithm createsmany axolotls (solutions) and evaluates which ones perform best.
2. Axolotls Adapt to Improve the Model

Best axolotl guides others: Poor solutions adjust based on the best-performing ones (like
learning from the strongest axolotl).

Regeneration (Mutation): Some parameters are randomly reset and replaced (like an axolotl
regenerating a lost limb).

Selection: The best solutions survive and are used to create even better ones.
 Page 27 of 45

Step 4: Fault Prediction with the Optimized Model

After optimization, the best-trained model is used to analyze new data and classify it.

📌 Example Prediction:

New Input: Temp = 48°C, Humidity = 78%, Gas = 620 PPM, Light = 150 Lux
Optimized Model Output: 🚨 Fault Detected!
Now, you can take action before the machine fails, preventing costly damage.

Why is MAO Useful?

✅ Finds the Best Model Settings – Instead of trial and error, it automatically finds the best
parameters.
✅ Fast and Accurate – It quickly improves the model, reducing errors in fault detection.
✅ Mimics Natural Adaptation – Just like axolotls adapt and regenerate, the model adjusts and
improves over time.
In short, MAO helps your AI model "learn" like an axolotl, adjusting and optimizing itself for the best
fault diagnosis results! 🚀

give me an proper definition

Definition of Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) in Fault Diagnosis

The Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) algorithm is a bio-inspired metaheuristic optimization
technique designed to improve the accuracy and efficiency of machine learning models. It is based on
the unique biological characteristics of the Mexican axolotl, including transition from larval to adult
state, injury and regeneration, reproduction, and assortment (TIRA).
In fault diagnosis, MAO is used to optimize hyperparameters of deep learning models by iteratively
refining solutions to find the best parameter settings. This enhances the model's ability to classify
sensor data accurately as normal or faulty, leading to improved fault detection in IoT-based
monitoring systems.

what is dmsfnn and mao difference between them int he above

paper and context

Difference Between DMSFNN and MAO in the Paper

 Page 28 of 45

Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network

Feature (DMSFNN) Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO)
Purpose A deep learning model designed for sensor A metaheuristic optimization algorithm used
data fusion and fault classification. for hyperparameter tuning.
Function Extracts and fuses multi-scale sensor Optimizes the hyperparameters of DMSFNN to
features to classify faults. improve its accuracy and efficiency.

Process Uses convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to Mimics axolotl behaviors (growth, regeneration,
learn and combine multi-scale features from reproduction) to find the best parameter
sensors. settings.

Outcome Provides a fault diagnosis model that Enhances fault classification accuracy by fine-
classifies data as normal or faulty. tuning DMSFNN parameters.

How They Work Together in the Paper

DMSFNN is the core fault diagnosis model, analyzing sensor data to detect faults.
MAO is applied to optimize DMSFNN's hyperparameters, improving its accuracy and computational
efficiency.

Example in IoT Fault Diagnosis

DMSFNN takes sensor data from IoT devices and detects faults in a machine.
MAO fine-tunes the model (e.g., learning rate, number of layers) to increase the detection accuracy
and reduce errors.

what are the faults in the paper

Faults in the Paper

The paper focuses on fault diagnosis in IoT sensor data using the DMSFNN model optimized by the
MAO algorithm. The faults in the paper primarily relate to sensor failures, data inconsistencies, and
network disruptions.
Types of Faults Identified in the Paper:
1. Sensor Malfunction
Examples:
DHT11 (temperature/humidity) giving incorrect readings.

LDR (light sensor) not responding to light changes.

MQ6 (gas sensor) failing to detect gas levels.

Cause: Hardware issues, aging sensors, or environmental conditions.

Effect: Incorrect or missing sensor data, leading to false fault detection.
2. Data Anomalies (Noisy or Missing Data)
 Page 29 of 45
Examples:
Sudden spikes or drops in sensor values.

Missing sensor readings due to temporary failures.

Cause: Communication errors, power fluctuations, or sensor degradation.

fault diagnosis in an IoT environment by optimising the weight

parameter 𝑧𝑐𝐹
more efficiently.
4. Result and Discussion
This section presents the simulation of an Enhanced Fault
Diagnosis in IoT: Uniting Data
Fusion with Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network (FD-IoT-
DMSFNN). The environment
for the Simulation test PC was equipped with an Intel i7-8700K
CPU type, 32 GB of RAM, and
Ubuntu 18.04. The following performance metrics are measured
while implementing the
suggested method on a Python platform: Accuracy, Precision,
Sensitivity, Specificity, F
measure, MCC, False Alarm Rate, and Computational Time. Here,
the recommended FD-IoT
DMSFNN methodology is evaluated against established
techniques Towards deep domain
adaptability training methods for industrial IoT edge device soft
real-time fault diagnosis (FD
IoT-LSTM), Intelligent Fault Quantitative Identification for the
Industrial Internet of Things
(IIoT) utilising a particular deep dual reinforcement learning
model with insufficient samples
(FD-IoT-DRL) [22] and IIoT-based fault identification model for
industrial use (FD-IoT-ML
LSTM) [23] respectively. There are numerous methods for
assessing the effectiveness of a
recommended fault diagnostics approach. All evaluation criteria
are based on the Confusion
Matrix, a two-dimensional matrix that details the actual and
expected classes. The diagonal
members of the confusion matrix indicate the accurate guesses,
and the nondiagonal
members indicate the incorrect guesses. Table 1 shows the
confusion matrix.
Table 1. Confusion matrix.
S.No Actual
Class
Predicted Class
Fault
Normal
1
Fault
False Positive
 Page 30 of 45
True Negative
2
Normal
True Positive
4.1. Performance Measures
False Negative
In this case, the efficacy of the recommended approach is
assessed using performance
measures like Accuracy, Precision, Sensitivity, Specificity, F-
measure, MCC, False Alarm Rate,
and Computational Time. Here, employ the metrics of true
positives. (𝑇𝑃), true negatives
(𝑇𝑁), false positives (𝐹𝑃), and false negatives (𝐹𝑁)to better
understand the proposed
approach.
True positives (𝑇𝑃): Regular operation is categorised as normal
operation.
True negatives (𝑇𝑁): Faulty operation is categorised as faulty
operation.
False positives (𝐹𝑃): Faulty operation is unclearly categorised as
regular operation.
False negatives (𝐹𝑁): Regular operation is unclearly categorised
as faulty operation.
4.1.1.
Accuracy
It determines the model's overall predicted accuracy, accounting
for positives and
negatives. It is calculated as using equation (23),
�
�𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = ( 𝑇𝑃+𝑇𝑁
)
�
�𝑃+𝑇𝑁+𝐹𝑃+𝐹𝑁
4.1.2.
Precision
(23)
The percentage of all accurate positive forecasts is the suggested
model's accuracy. It is
computed using equation (24),
�
�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ( 𝑇𝑃
)
�
�𝑃+𝐹𝑃
4.1.3.
Sensitivity/Recall
(24)
Sensitivity measures the percentage of positive outcomes that
were accurately predicted
the model has successfully captured. The calculation is performed
using equation (25),
�
�𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦/𝑅𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (𝑇𝑃+𝑇𝑁
)
�
 Page 31 of 45
�𝑁
4.1.4.
Specificity
(25)
Specificity measures the performance of the proposed approach,
can identify negative
instances, and is assessed by equation (26),
�
�𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ( 𝑇𝑁
)
�
�𝑁+𝐹𝑃
4.1.5.
F-Measure
(26)
The F-Measure displays the harmonic mean of recall and
precision. It is computed using
equation (27),
�
� −𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 2∗(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛∗𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
)
�
�𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛+𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
4.1.6.
False Alarm Rate
(27)
The false alarm rate is the ratio of false alarms to the total
number of regular occurrences.
It is computed using equation (28),
�
�𝐴𝑅 = 𝐹𝑃
𝐹𝑃+𝑇𝑁
4.2. Simulation Results Comparing the Suggested Method with
Current Methods
(28)
Figure 3-10 displays the outcomes of the recommended
approach's simulation. Here, the
effectiveness of the proposed strategy is contrasted with that of
alternative techniques like
FD-IoT-LSTM, FD-IoT-DRL, and FD-IoT-ML-LSTM, respectively.
explain it in simpler terms

Simplified Explanation of Fault Diagnosis and Performance Evaluation in IoT

The paper presents a method for detecting faults in IoT sensor data using DMSFNN (Deep Multi-Scale
Fusion Neural Network), which is optimized using the MAO algorithm. The goal is to improve fault
detection accuracy and reduce computational time by optimizing the weight parameter zc F . ​

1. How Fault Diagnosis Works in IoT?

IoT devices (like sensors) collect data continuously.
 Page 32 of 45
Sometimes, faults occur, such as sensor malfunctions, missing values, or incorrect readings.
The system analyzes the sensor data using machine learning models to identify whether the data
is normal or faulty.
A confusion matrix is used to evaluate how well the model classifies normal and faulty data.

2. How Performance is Measured?

The paper uses different metrics to evaluate fault detection accuracy, based on the confusion matrix:
Term Meaning
True Positive (TP) Correctly detecting normal operation as normal.

True Negative (TN) Correctly detecting faulty operation as faulty.

False Positive (FP) Mistakenly classifying faulty operation as normal (false alarm).

False Negative (FN) Mistakenly classifying normal operation as faulty.

Performance Metrics:
1. Accuracy: Measures how many predictions are correct.

TP + TN
Accuracy =
TP + TN + FP + FN
​

2. Precision: Measures how many of the predicted normal operations are actually normal.
TP
P recision =
TP + FP
​

3. Sensitivity (Recall): Measures how well the model detects faulty conditions.
TP
Sensitivity =
TP + FN
​

4. Specificity: Measures how well the model detects normal conditions.

TN
Specificity =
TN + FP
​

5. F-Measure: A balance between Precision and Sensitivity.

2 × (P recision × Recall)
F − Measure =
P recision + Recall
​

6. False Alarm Rate: Measures how often the model wrongly classifies normal operations as faulty.
FP
F AR =
FP + TN
​

3. How the Proposed Method is Compared with Existing Methods?

 Page 33 of 45
The proposed DMSFNN model with MAO optimization is tested and compared with other fault
detection models:

FD-IoT-LSTM (Uses Long Short-Term Memory neural networks).

FD-IoT-DRL (Uses Deep Reinforcement Learning).
FD-IoT-ML-LSTM (Uses Machine Learning with LSTM).
The comparison is based on the above performance metrics.

Simulation results (Figures 3-10 in the paper) show that the proposed method performs better in
terms of accuracy, precision, and computational time than other techniques.

Key Takeaways:
DMSFNN + MAO helps in more efficient fault detection in IoT sensor networks.
The method is tested using a simulation on a powerful computer.

The performance is compared using standard metrics like accuracy, precision, and false alarm rate.

The proposed method performs better than existing fault detection models.

Would you like an example of how this works in a real-world IoT system? 😊

5. Conclusion
This manuscript effectively implements Enhanced Fault Diagnosis
in IoT, Uniting Data
Fusion with Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network (FD-IoT-
DMSFNN). Python is used to
implement the recommended strategy. Performance metrics like
Accuracy, Precision,
Sensitivity, Specificity, F-measure, MCC, False Alarm Rate, and
Computational Time are
examined here. The proposed method achieves 14.41%, 15.98%,
and 19.76% higher precision
than existing techniques like FD-IoT-LSTM, FD-IoT-DRL, and FD-
IoT-ML-LSTM, respectively.
Based on the present stage of fusion model development, the
following challenges and
barriers are encountered while fusing sensory data. No one-size-
fits-all fusion model is
available to identify and predict mechanical defects in the field.
Many of the fusion models
available today are built around a particular gadget. Providing a
uniform framework for
recognising mechanical equipment failures in the future would be
beneficial. Environmental
factors are uncontrollable; there is a lot of noise in the data
collected throughout the process.
Data fusion and feature extraction are typically wrong if the
unique data are used directly.
When raw data are provided, using an appropriate data
 Page 34 of 45
pretreatment strategy rather than the
methods used in this work is crucial. In future development, a set
of preprocessing techniques
for various sensors utilised in mechanical gear defect analysis and
prediction would be
helpful. When employing fusion approaches based on deep
learning, finding the correct
hyperparameters takes a long time. Moreover, overfitting may
happen. Fusion methods
usually need manual feature extraction, which increases
computation time. Most fusion
algorithms are centred on research into feature and decision-level
fused algorithms. There
aren't many algorithms for combining data. In light of this,
developing data fusion techniques
will be essential.
Declaration of interests: The authors declare that they have no
known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the
work reported in this paper
sumamrise it in simpler terms

Summary of Conclusion
This paper successfully introduces a method for Enhanced Fault Diagnosis in IoT using a Deep Multi-
Scale Fusion Neural Network (FD-IoT-DMSFNN), implemented in Python. The performance of this
method is evaluated using various metrics like Accuracy, Precision, Sensitivity, Specificity, F-measure,
and False Alarm Rate.
Key Findings:

The proposed method shows significant improvement in precision:

14.41% higher than FD-IoT-LSTM
15.98% higher than FD-IoT-DRL
19.76% higher than FD-IoT-ML-LSTM
Challenges Identified:

1. Lack of Universal Models: There isn't a one-size-fits-all model for detecting mechanical defects in
different types of equipment. Most existing models are designed for specific devices.

2. Environmental Noise: Data collected can be noisy due to uncontrollable environmental factors,
affecting the accuracy of data fusion and feature extraction.

3. Data Preprocessing Needs: It's important to apply appropriate data preprocessing methods before
using raw data to improve the results.

4. Hyperparameter Optimization: Finding the right hyperparameters for deep learning models can be
time-consuming, and there's a risk of overfitting.

5. Manual Feature Extraction: Many fusion methods require manual feature extraction, which can
increase computation time.

6. Limited Algorithms for Data Fusion: Most current research focuses on feature and decision-level
fusion, with fewer algorithms dedicated to combining raw data effectively.
 Page 35 of 45
Future Work Suggestions:

Develop preprocessing techniques for various sensors used in mechanical defect analysis.

Create new data fusion techniques to enhance the overall performance of fault diagnosis systems.

Declaration of Interests: The authors confirm they have no financial conflicts or personal relationships
that could affect this research.

3. Proposed Methodology
This section discusses Enhanced Fault Diagnosis in IoT Uniting
Data Fusion with Deep
Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Network (FD-IoT-DMSFNN). First, the
CWRU Dataset is used to
obtain input sensor data. Then, the sensor data is normalised
using Multivariate Fast Iterative
Filtering. Then, as the normalised sensor data are widely
scattered and varied, the Deep
Isolation Forest (DIF) technique is used to detect data outliers.
The cleaned sensor data is then
combined via data fusion, and a Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural
Network (DMSFNN) can be
used to detect faults in the IIoT. In general, no optimisation
procedures are adopted by the
DMSFNN approach to scale the ideal parameters. For this reason,
a Mexican Axolotl
Optimization (MAO) is presented in this framework to adjust the
weight parameter of
DMSFNN, demonstrating an improved fault identification
procedure. The suggested
methodology's block diagram is depicted in Figure 1, and the
proposed framework's thorough
description is provided below.
Figure 1. Block diagram for the proposed FD-IoT-DMSFNN.
3.1. Data Acquisition
Initially, the CWRU dataset serves as the input data source. The
Case Western Reserve
University Laboratory's CWRU dataset [28] was produced by
placing multiple accelerometers
around the bearing motor to gather vibration data under various
operating situations. An
electric spark destroyed the bearing motor in the CWRU dataset to
simulate real bearing
failures. The rolling element, inner raceway, and outer racetrack
of the bearing drive or fan
end have specific areas of difficulty. The Case Western Reserve
University (CWRU) bearing
dataset was used. It comprises vibration signals obtained from a
test rig for bearings under
various working settings, such as standard and malfunctioning
states. High-resolution time
series data was obtained by sampling the data at a rate of 12 kHz;
the dataset is roughly 4 GB.
 Page 36 of 45
To collect vibration data, accelerometers installed on the bearing
housing are part of the
sensor network. A data-collecting system digitalises the analogue
signals from these sensors
and then wirelessly sent to a central server via the Zigbee
protocol, guaranteeing minimal
power consumption and excellent dependability.
Figure 2. Configuring a bearing motor to produce a CWRU dataset.
The four available diameters of the bearing rolling element could
indicate different types
of faults. The four load categories and four bearing motor speeds
correspond to a distinct
bearing motor problem. Real-world industrial applications are
modelled by the bearing motor
design shown in Figure 2. A torque transducer, encoder, motor,
and bearings are among the
components. Electrical discharge machining was used to create
fictional flaws in the bearings.
Figure 2 shows a Bearing Motor to Produce a CWRU Dataset. A
portion of the CWRU dataset
was used to generate the experimental data. Collecting data
under typical conditions took a
motor load of one horsepower and a speed of 1772 rpm. The
diameter was 0.007 inches, and
the frequency was 12000 samples per second. The rolling of the
driving end and the outer and
inner raceways were all damaged.
provide the important points to say for the presentation regrading
the data acqustion part introduction and data acqution part

Presentation Points on Data Acquisition

Introduction to Data Acquisition
1. Purpose: The proposed methodology uses the Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) dataset as
the primary source for input sensor data in the fault diagnosis process for Industrial Internet of
Things (IIoT) applications.

2. Significance of the Dataset: The CWRU dataset is essential for simulating real-world conditions,
particularly for identifying and diagnosing faults in bearing motors.

Overview of the CWRU Dataset

1. Data Collection Method:

Vibration data collected using accelerometers placed on the bearing motor.

Sensors gather data under various operating conditions, including normal and faulty states.

2. Dataset Characteristics:
The dataset consists of high-resolution time-series data sampled at 12 kHz.
The total dataset size is approximately 4 GB, providing comprehensive information for analysis.
3. Simulation of Faults:
 Page 37 of 45
The dataset was created by intentionally damaging the bearing motor, simulating actual
bearing failures through electrical discharge machining.

Different types of faults can be identified based on variations in the rolling elements of the
bearing, load categories, and motor speeds.

Technical Details of Data Acquisition

1. Sensor Network:

The accelerometers on the bearing housing are part of a sensor network that digitalizes analog
signals for processing.

Data is wirelessly transmitted to a central server using the Zigbee protocol, which ensures low
power consumption and high reliability.

2. Fault Indicators:
The four diameters of the bearing rolling element correspond to different fault types.

The setup reflects real-world industrial applications, as seen in the bearing motor
configuration diagram.

3. Experimental Conditions:
Data was collected under standard conditions with a motor load of one horsepower and a
speed of 1772 rpm.
Faults were introduced in the driving end and the outer and inner raceways of the bearing to
facilitate comprehensive fault analysis.

Visual Aids
Figures: Reference Figure 1 (block diagram of the proposed methodology) and Figure 2
(configuration of the bearing motor for CWRU dataset) to illustrate data acquisition and the
experimental setup.

Conclusion
Highlight the importance of the CWRU dataset in enhancing fault diagnosis accuracy and
effectiveness in IoT applications, emphasizing the relevance of using high-quality, real-world data
for developing robust diagnostic algorithms.

why deep isolation forest is used and how it is differeent from

other outlier algorithm and why it is choosen

Why Deep Isolation Forest (DIF) is Used?

Deep Isolation Forest (DIF) is used in the proposed methodology to detect and remove outliers from
sensor data before performing data fusion and fault diagnosis. Since industrial IoT data is highly
variable and often contains noise, removing anomalies ensures a more accurate and robust fault
detection process.

How DIF is Different from Other Outlier Detection Algorithms?

 Page 38 of 45

Deep Isolation Forest Traditional Isolation One-Class SVM DBSCAN (Density-

Feature (DIF) Forest (IF) (OCSVM) Based Clustering)
Detection Learns hierarchical Uses random Uses a Identifies dense
Approach feature representations partitioning to hyperplane to regions and
for anomaly detection isolate anomalies separate normal marks sparse
using deep learning and abnormal ones as
data anomalies

Scalability High (efficient on large Moderate (faster Low (high Low

datasets) than deep methods) computational (performance
cost on large drops with large
data) datasets)

Robustness to High (deep learning Moderate (sensitive Low (requires Low (depends on
Noise improves feature to fine-tuned density threshold
extraction) hyperparameters) parameters) settings)

Adaptability High (learns multi-scale Moderate (based on Moderate Low (struggles

to Complex relationships in data) simple partitioning) (requires kernel with varying
Data selection) densities)

Training Requires training on No training needed Needs training No training

Requirement labeled/unlabeled data with only normal needed
samples

Why DIF Was Chosen?

1. Handles High-Dimensional Data:
DIF can effectively learn complex patterns from multi-sensor data, making it ideal for IoT fault
detection.
2. Better Outlier Separation:

Unlike traditional Isolation Forest (IF), DIF uses deep learning techniques to extract meaningful
multi-scale features, leading to better anomaly detection.
3. Resilient to Noisy Data:

Industrial sensor data is noisy; DIF is robust to noise due to its deep feature representation.

4. Scalability:

Works efficiently on large datasets like CWRU, whereas methods like One-Class SVM and
DBSCAN struggle.
5. Adaptive to Complex IoT Fault Patterns:

DIF captures complex fault patterns better than rule-based or distance-based methods.

Conclusion
Deep Isolation Forest is chosen because itoutperforms traditional outlier detection methods in
handling large-scale, high-dimensional, and noisy IoT sensor data. By using DIF, the system improves
fault diagnosis accuracy by filtering out irrelevant anomalies before the deep learning model
processes the data.
 Page 39 of 45

In 2022, Y. Chang et al. [22] demonstrated a unique deep dual

reinforcement learning
model with insufficient samples for Intelligent Fault Quantitative
Identification in the
Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) context. This manuscript
presents an advanced method
for identifying IIOT problems using deep reinforcement learning. A
two-model that combines
an actor and a critic reduces the over-optimization of the
network. The E-greedy algorithm
teaches the actor how to identify faults, and the critic dynamically
modifies policies to ensure
the best possible training. The technique, which was
experimented on three bearing datasets,
allows independent and accurate fault quantification. An
experienced storage unit helps avoid
masked trial and error by addressing sample inadequacy. Deep
reinforcement learning
integration appears to be a promising way to improve IIOT fault
identification systems.
In 2022, T. Ch. Anil Kumar et al. [23] introduced an industrial
defect identification
approach based on IIoT. The method addresses variations in input
space by integrating IIoT
with AI. The system could do soft real-time problem diagnostics
and adapt to many domains
using a two-way cross-domain training strategy. Relying on deep
learning patterns, robust
concept formation was ensured, regardless of the complexity of
the input. A thorough dataset
used for experimental validation produced an average accuracy of
88.08%. Specifically, using
a short-term memory system improves bearing failure detection
accuracy inside an IIoT
environment.
In 2022, Y. Li et al. [24] talked about using a federated learning
verification technique
that works well to diagnose faults in industrial IoT systems. A
stacking technique was
presented to detect permanent magnet synchronous motor
(PMSM) inter-turn short circuit
(ITSC) problems and overcome the issues caused by unbalanced
fault data in industrial
settings. To improve data security and prevent dispersed data
islanding, federated learning
(FL), an improved verification method, chooses client models for
updating the FL global model
with the help of a supplementary server-side dataset for
validation. Through enhanced
particle swarm optimisation (PSO), client weight coefficients were
optimised, strengthening
the aggregation technique's robustness in joint learning systems.
Stability, reduced
 Page 40 of 45
communication costs, and increased diagnostic accuracy are
demonstrated by comparisons
with the federated average (FedAvg) model.
provide information about the related work they have done and
what are the limitations and why it is failed

Related Work and Their Limitations

The studies mentioned explore different fault diagnosis methods in Industrial IoT (IIoT) using deep
learning and AI techniques. Below is an overview of their contributions, limitations, and reasons why
they fall short compared to the proposed FD-IoT-DMSFNN model.

1. Y. Chang et al. (2022) – Deep Dual Reinforcement Learning (FD-IoT-DRL)

Approach:
Used deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to detect faults in IIoT systems.

Combined actor-critic models to optimize fault identification.

Implemented E-greedy algorithm to train the actor and dynamically adjust policies via the
critic.

Tested on three bearing datasets.

Limitations:
Data Efficiency Problem: DRL requires a large amount of training data, but IIoT environments
often have limited fault samples.

Overfitting Risk: The actor-critic model may overfit to the training set, reducing generalization
to real-world industrial environments.

Lack of Multi-Scale Feature Extraction: Does not effectively extract multi-scale patterns, which
are crucial in complex industrial faults.

Why It Failed?
The model struggles when data is scarce, leading to unreliable fault detection in real-world
settings.

Policy adjustment using the critic does not always adapt well to dynamic industrial conditions.
The model does not consider feature fusion, leading to suboptimal fault identification.

2. T. Ch. Anil Kumar et al. (2022) – FD-IoT-LSTM for Industrial Faults

Approach:
Introduced an IIoT-based fault identification method using deep learning.
Integrated Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks to process time-series sensor data.

Used a cross-domain training strategy to improve adaptability.

 Page 41 of 45
Achieved 88.08% accuracy in bearing failure detection.
Limitations:
High Computational Cost: LSTM networks require long training times, making them unsuitable
for real-time fault detection.
Domain Adaptability Issues: While the cross-domain training approach helps generalization, it
may not perform well when faced with entirely new fault types.

Memory Constraints: LSTM models rely heavily on past data and may struggle with large-scale
IIoT datasets.
Why It Failed?
The approach cannot handle real-time fault detection efficiently due to the long training time.

Feature selection is not optimized, which reduces the model's ability to detect subtle fault
patterns.
It does not integrate data fusion techniques, limiting its performance when multiple sensors
are involved.

3. Y. Li et al. (2022) – Federated Learning for Fault Diagnosis (FL-PMSM)

Approach:
Used Federated Learning (FL) for distributed fault detection.

Applied a stacking technique to diagnose permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)

faults.
Used particle swarm optimization (PSO) to optimize client weight coefficients for federated
learning.

Aimed to reduce data islanding (i.e., isolated datasets in industrial settings).

Limitations:
Communication Overhead: FL requires continuous communication between edge devices,
increasing network costs.

Privacy Concerns: Although FL improves data security, it does not entirely eliminate privacy
risks (e.g., model inversion attacks).
Limited Generalization: FL struggles with unbalanced datasets, leading to poor fault detection
for rare fault conditions.

Why It Failed?
Computationally expensive, as FL requires multiple rounds of distributed model training.
FL-based models struggle when fault patterns are highly complex or rare.

The aggregation technique (FedAvg) does not handle sensor fusion, making it less effective for
multi-sensor data integration.
Why FD-IoT-DMSFNN is Better?
Page 42 of 45

TheFD-IoT-DMSFNN model overcomes these limitations by:

✅ Using Data Fusion: Integrates multi-sensor data for more accurate fault detection.
✅ Applying Deep Isolation Forest (DIF): Removes outliers before training, improving fault detection
accuracy.
✅ Optimizing DMSFNN with MAO: The Mexican Axolotl Optimization (MAO) algorithm tunes network
weights, ensuring better generalization.
✅ Reducing Overfitting: By applying multi-scale feature extraction, the model prevents overfitting to
specific fault types.
✅ Enhancing Real-Time Detection: Unlike LSTM or FL, the DMSFNN model processes data more
efficiently, making it suitable for real-time fault identification.
Final Takeaway
The previous methods ( DRL, LSTM, FL) struggled with data scarcity, computational cost, and
adaptability. FD-IoT-DMSFNN solves these issues by leveraging data fusion, multi-scale feature
extraction, and optimized deep learning techniques, making it the best approach for real-time,
accurate IIoT fault diagnosis.

why dl is used other than ml??

Why Deep Learning (DL) Instead of Machine Learning (ML) for Fault Diagnosis in
IIoT?
Deep Learning (DL) is preferred over traditional Machine Learning (ML) in fault diagnosis for Industrial
IoT (IIoT) because of its ability to handle complex, multi-sensor data, extract hierarchical features
automatically, and improve fault identification accuracy. Below are the key reasons for choosing DL
over ML in this research:

1. DL Handles Complex, High-Dimensional Data Better than ML

IIoT generates large-scale, multi-source sensor data (e.g., vibration, temperature, pressure).
Traditional ML models (like SVM, Decision Trees, Random Forest) struggle with high-dimensional
and unstructured data.
DL models (like CNNs, LSTMs, and DMSFNN) automatically learn patterns from raw data without
requiring manual feature extraction.

🔹 Example: In bearing fault detection, traditional ML requires manual feature extraction (e.g.,
frequency domain analysis, statistical features), while DL learns these features automatically.

2. DL Can Learn Hierarchical Features from Raw Sensor Data

 Page 43 of 45
ML models require domain experts to define the best features.
DL models extract multi-scale features without human intervention.

Multi-layer neural networks learn low-level features (e.g., noise patterns) in early layers and high-
level fault patterns in deeper layers.
🔹 Example: A CNN can detect small cracks in an industrial machine's vibration data, which may be
missed by ML models that rely on manually engineered features.

3. DL Works Better for Multi-Sensor Data Fusion

Fault diagnosis in IIoT involves multiple sensors (e.g., vibration, temperature, gas, and pressure
sensors).
DL models like Deep Multi-Scale Fusion Neural Networks (DMSFNN) can integrate data from
multiple sensors efficiently.

Traditional ML models struggle to handle heterogeneous sensor data and often require separate
preprocessing steps.
🔹 Example: In FD-IoT-DMSFNN, the model fuses data from different sensors and learns
interdependencies between them, which ML models cannot do effectively.

4. DL is More Robust to Noisy and Unlabeled Data

noisy, incomplete, or unstructured.
IIoT data is often

ML models require carefully labeled and preprocessed data, making them unsuitable for real-time
applications.

DL models, especially autoencoders and CNNs, are resistant to noise and can perform feature
learning even with raw sensor data.

🔹 Example: In IIoT fault diagnosis, if some sensors provide incomplete data, DL can still make
predictions using learned patterns, while ML models may fail or require extensive data cleaning.

5. DL Achieves Higher Accuracy than ML in Fault Diagnosis

Studies show that DL-based fault diagnosis models outperform ML-based methods in terms of
accuracy, precision, and recall.

DL can capture subtle fault patterns that ML models might miss.

ML models rely on handcrafted features, which may not generalize well to new fault types.

🔹 Example: The proposed FD-IoT-DMSFNN model achieves 14.41%–19.76% higher precision than ML-
based fault detection methods.
 Page 44 of 45

6. DL Eliminates the Need for Manual Feature Engineering

ML models require extensive feature selection and domain knowledge to perform well.
DL models learn feature representations automatically, reducing the need for manual
intervention.

🔹 Example: Instead of manually selecting frequency-domain features for vibration analysis, a DL

model (e.g., CNN or LSTM) can learn these patterns directly from the raw waveform.

7. DL Can Handle Real-Time Fault Diagnosis More Efficiently

ML models often require manual tuning and feature extraction, making them slower in real-time
applications.

DL models can perform end-to-end learning, making them more efficient for real-time fault
detection in IIoT systems.
🔹 Example: In real-time industrial fault detection, a DL model can continuously monitor sensor data
and detect anomalies without manual intervention, whereas ML models require preprocessed data
and feature extraction.

Conclusion: Why DL is the Better Choice?

Feature Machine Learning (ML) Deep Learning (DL)
Feature Extraction Requires manual feature Automatically learns multi-scale
engineering features
Performance on High- Struggles with large sensor Handles complex, multi-sensor data
Dimensional Data datasets efficiently
Real-Time Fault Detection Needs preprocessing, making it Works end-to-end, enabling real-time
slower monitoring
Handling Noisy Data Sensitive to noise More robust to noisy and incomplete
data
Adaptability to New Fault Types Needs retraining for new faults Can generalize better to unseen fault
conditions

Multi-Sensor Fusion Difficult to integrate multiple Easily combines data from different
sensor sources sensors
Accuracy in Fault Detection Moderate accuracy Higher accuracy and better
generalization
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📌 Final Takeaway:
Deep Learning is the best choice forIIoT fault diagnosis because it:
✅ Handles complex, multi-sensor data
✅ Learns hierarchical features automatically
✅ Provides higher accuracy and robustness
✅ Enables real-time fault detection
✅ Eliminates the need for manual feature selection

That's why FD-IoT-DMSFNN is designed using Deep Learning, not traditional ML techniques. 🚀