STATISTICS FOR MANAGERS

ASSIGNMENT -1

QUESTIONARE:-

1. Discuss in detail Probability & Non - Probability Sampling.

2. Illustrate with example Univariate and Bivariate frequency
distribution.
3. Demonstrate tabulation and stem & leaf Display.

Assignment Submitted by:-

Geerthana Rajendran
MBA - Working Professional
1.Discuss in detail Probability & Non - Probability Sampling.
In Statistics, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from the population. The two
different types of sampling methods are:

*Probability Sampling
*Non-probability Sampling

*Probability Sampling:

The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this method, all the eligible individuals
have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample space. This method is more time consuming and
expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees
the sample that should be the representative of the population.
Probability Sampling Types
Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us discuss the different types of probability sampling
methods along with illustrative examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and likely chance of being selected
in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance, this method is known as “Method of chance
Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative Sampling”.
Example:
Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can assign a number to
every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number generator to select a sample of 200
numbers.

Systematic Sampling
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by selecting the random
selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by dividing the total
population size by the desired population size.
Example:
Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To select a sample in a
systematic sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by randomly selecting a starting number, say
5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample
of some students.

Stratified Sampling
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to complete the sampling process.
The small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the population. After separating the population into a
smaller group, the statisticians randomly select the sample.
For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, bag B has 100 balls, and
bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A,
10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.

Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the population set. The group has
similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses
simple random sampling for the cluster of population.
Example:
An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the number of students. If we want to
collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data.
Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four branches as clusters.
All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure given below. The figure
contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the population using different techniques.

2. Non-probability Sampling:-

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample based on subjective
judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the members of the population have a chance to
participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as convenience sampling,
consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types
of non-probability sampling in detail.

Convenience Sampling
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly because they are
conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the
sample that outlines the entire population.
Example:
In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few customers to complete a survey on
the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data. Still, as we only surveyed customers taking
the same product. At the same time, the sample is not representative of all the customers in that area.

Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The researcher picks a single person
or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a period of time to analyze the result and
move to another group if needed.

Quota Sampling
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to represent
the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful
collection of data that generalizes the entire population.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As their knowledge is
instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a minimum
marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling.

Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the samples have traits that
are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is asked to find the other sampling units. Those
sampling units also belong to the same targeted population.
2.Illustrate with example Univariate and Bivariate frequency
distribution.

Univariate data:

Univariate data refers to a type of data in which each observation or data point corresponds to a single variable. In
other words, it involves the measurement or observation of a single characteristic or attribute for each individual or
item in the dataset. Analyzing univariate data is the simplest form of analysis in statistics.

Heights (in cm) 164 167.3 170 174.2 178 180 186

Suppose that the heights of seven students in a class is recorded (above table). There is only one variable, which is
height, and it is not dealing with any cause or relationship.

Key points in Univariate analysis:

No Relationships: Univariate analysis focuses solely on describing and summarizing the distribution of the single
variable. It does not explore relationships between variables or attempt to identify causes.
Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics, such as measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
and measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation), are commonly used in the analysis of univariate data.

Visualization: Histograms, box plots, and other graphical representations are often used to visually represent the
distribution of the single variable.

Bivariate data:-

Bivariate data involves two different variables, and the analysis of this type of data focuses on understanding the
relationship or association between these two variables. Example of bivariate data can be temperature and ice
cream sales in summer season.

Temperature Ice Cream Sales

20 2000

25 2500

35 5000

Suppose the temperature and ice cream sales are the two variables of a bivariate data(table 2). Here, the
relationship is visible from the table that temperature and sales are directly proportional to each other and thus
related because as the temperature increases, the sales also increase.

Key points in Bivariate analysis:

Relationship Analysis: The primary goal of analyzing bivariate data is to understand the relationship between the
two variables. This relationship could be positive (both variables increase together), negative (one variable increases
while the other decreases), or show no clear pattern.

Scatterplots: A common visualization tool for bivariate data is a scatterplot, where each data point represents a pair
of values for the two variables. Scatterplots help visualize patterns and trends in the data.
Correlation Coefficient: A quantitative measure called the correlation coefficient is often used to quantify the
strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to
1.
3. Demonstrate tabulation and stem & leaf Display.

A stem and leaf plot, also known as a stem and leaf diagram, is a way to arrange and represent data so that it is
simple to see how frequently various data values occur. It is a plot that displays ordered numerical data.
A stem and leaf plot is shown as a special table where the digits of a data value are divided into a stem (first few
digits) and a leaf (usually the last digit). The symbol ‘|’ is used to split and illustrate the stem and leaf values. For
instance, 105 is written as 10 on the stem and 5 on the leaf. This can be written as 10 | 5. Here, 10 | 5 = 105 is called
the key. The key depicts the data value a stem and leaf represent.

How do we Construct a Stem and Leaf Plot?

Step 1: Classify the data values in terms of the number of digits in each value, such as 2 digit numbers or 3 digit
numbers.

Step 2: Fix the key for the stem and leaf plot. For example, 2 | 5 = 25, 3 | 2 = 3.2 or 19 | 2 is 192.

Step 3: Consider the first digits as stems and the last digit as leaves.

Step 4: Find the range of the data, that is the lowest and the highest values among the data.

Step 5: Draw a vertical line. Place the stem on the left and the leaf on the right of the vertical line.

Step 6: List the stems in the stem column. Sort them in ascending order.

Step 7: List the leaf values in the column against the stem from lowest to the highest horizontally.

Rapid Recall

Key : 0 | 1 = 1

Solved Examples

Example 1:
The table below shows the duration of calls that Rosy makes each day. Represent the given data using a stem and
leaf plot.
Solution:
Step 1: Sort the data (number of minutes).
2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 14, 19, 23, 23, 30, 36, 56

Step 2: Choose the stems and the leaves. Just because the data values range from 2 to 56, use the tens digit for the
stem and the ones digit for the leaf. Also, include the key.

Step 3: Write down the stems on the left of the vertical line.

Step 4: Write down the leaves for each stem on the right of the vertical line.

Example 2
The stem-and-leaf plot below shows the quiz scores of students.

(a) Find the number of students who scored less than 9 points?

(b) Find the number of students who scored a minimum of 9 points?

Solution:

a) There are fourteen scores less than 9 points.

They are 6.6, 7.0, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8, 8.1, 8.1, 8.3, 8.4, 8.4, 8.6, 8.8, 8.8 and 8.9.

So, fourteen students scored less than 9 points.

b) There are two scores which are at least 9 points.

They are 9.0, 9.2, 9.9, and 10.0.

So, four students scored a minimum of 9 points.

Example 3:
Construct a stem-and-leaf plot for the data in the table.

Solution:
Step 1: Sort the data values: 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 5, 5, 7, 12, 20, 23, 27, 30, 32, 33, 38, 40, 44, 47

Step 2: Choose the stems and the leaves. As the data values range from 1 to 47, use the tens digits for the stems and
the ones digits for the leaves. Be sure to include the key.

Step 3: Write the stems to the left of the vertical line from the top to bottom.

Step 4: Write the leaf values corresponding to each stem to the right of the vertical line.

Key : 0 | 1 = 1 cm