COURSE PACK

FOR

Subject Title: FUNDAMENTAL OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: 106

COURSE: BBA

SEMESTER: I

YEAR: 2024-25

Course Leader: Ms. Preeti Taneja

Subject Faculty: Ms. Preeti Taneja, Ms. Ankita Gulati, Ms. Gargi Mukherjee,

Dr. Mansi Agnihotri ,Ms. Apurva Gupta

Checked by: Forwarded by: Approved by:

Ms. Swati Rohatgi,

Dr. Minakshi Sati Dr. Bhawna Duggal Dr. Yamini Agarwal
Program coordinator HoD Director

Bharati Vidyapeeth University Institute of Management & Research, New Delhi

An ISO 9001:2015 &14001:2015 Certified Institute

A-4, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi-110064 (Ph. 01125284396,

25285808) (For internal use only)

 ABOUT BVIMR
Established in 1992, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) Institute of
Management and Research (BVIMR), New Delhi focuses on imbibing the said values across
various stakeholders through adequate creation, inclusion and dissemination of knowledge in
management education.

The institute has over the past few years emerged in the lead with a vision of Leadership in
professional education through innovation and excellence. This excellence is sustained by
consistent value enhancement and initiation of value-added academic processes in institute’s
academic systems. Based on the fabulous architecture and layout on the lines of Nalanda
Vishwa Vidyalaya, the institute is a scenic marvel of lush green landscape with modern
interiors. The Institute which is ISO 9001:2015 certified is under the ambit of Bharati
Vidyapeeth University (BVU), Pune as approved by Govt. of India on the recommendation of
UGC under Section 3 of UGC Act vide its letter notification No. F. 9 – 16 / 2004 – U3 dated
25th February, 2005.

Strategically located in West Delhi on the main Rohtak Road, BVIMR, New Delhi has a
splendid layout on sprawling four acres of plot with 'state-of-art' facilities with all class rooms,
Library Labs, Auditorium etc., that are fully air-conditioned. The Institute has an adjacent Metro
station, “Paschim Vihar (East)”, connecting the entire Delhi and NCR.

We nurture our learners to be job providers rather than job seekers. This is resorted to by
fostering the skill and enhancement of knowledge base of our students through various
extracurricular, co-curricular and curricular activities by our faculty, who keep themselves
abreast by various research and FDPs and attending Seminars/Conferences. The Alumni has a
key role here by inception of SAARTHI Mentorship program who update and create
professional environment for learners centric academic ambiance and bridging industry-
academia gap.

Our faculty make distinctive contribution not only to students but to Academia through
publications, seminars, conferences apart from quality education. We also believe in enhancing
corporate-level interaction including industrial projects, undertaken by our students under the
continuous guidance of our faculty. These form the core of our efforts which has resulted in
being one of the premier institutes of management.
At BVIMR, we are imparting quality education in management at Doctorate, Post Graduate and
Under Graduate levels

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Course outline VI

2 Course Overview VII

3 Learning outcomes VII

4 Evaluation Criteria VIII

5 Recommended/ Reference Textbooks and Resources IX-X

6 Session Plan XI

7 Study Notes XI

7.1 UNIT- 1 6-24

 Introduction, Definition
 Evolution and generation of computers
 Characteristics, Generations of computers
 Classification of computers
 Applications of computers and Advantages of computers
 Block diagram of computer
7.2 UNIT- 2 25-61
 Hardware: Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Data storage &
retrieval methods. Primary Storage: RAM ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM. Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes,
Magnetic Disks. Cartridge tape, hard disks, Floppy disks
Optical Disks, Compact Disks, Zip Drive, Flash Drives.
 Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Software:
Operating System, Utility Programs Programming Language:
Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level Language
their advantages & disadvantages.
 Operating System: Functions, Measuring System Performance,
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters. Batch Processing,
Multiprogramming,
Multi-Tasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing, DOS,
Windows, Unix/Linux.
7.3 UNIT 3 62-100
 Communication Process and data Transmission speed
 Communication Types (modes), Data Transmission Medias
 Modem and its working, characteristics
 Types of Networks and LAN Topologies
 Computer Network Protocols
 Concepts relating to networking.
7.4 UNIT 4 101-115
 Brief history of e-commerce, definitions of e-commerce
 Technical components and their functions
 E-commerce versus traditional business
 Requirements of e-commerce.
 Advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce
 Value chain in e-commerce, current status of e-commerce in
India.
 Types of business models (B2B, B2C, C2B, C2C) with
Examples.
7.5 UNIT 5 116-145
 MS-Word
 MS-Excel
 MS-PowerPoint
8 Practical Questions

9 Previous Year
 DESCRIPTION OF COURSE

1. OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES OF THE BBA PROGRAM:

Objectives of the BBA (General) Program: At Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University),

Pune, the objective of the BBA Program is to provide world-class Business Education and
develop dynamic managers, entrepreneurs, and business leaders. The Program aims to enhance
the decision-making capabilities of upcoming managers by imparting critical thinking and
analytical abilities.

Programme: BBA CBCS–Revised Syllabus w.e.f.-Year 2022–2023

Semester: I Course Code: 106 Course Title: Fundamental of Information Technology
Type of Course Credits: 03 Evaluation: IA (100)
Marks 100
Course Objectives:
 To impart the IT skills and Knowledge required for managers.
 To help the students develop the use of Tools like Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel
and Power point
 To orient the students about the E-Commerce technology and its applications in
Business world.
 To help the students understand various Information Systems implemented in
organizations
 To acquaint the students with various current trends and concepts of computer
Technology.
 To recognize and describes functions of basic computer hardware components.
 To explain the role of technology in today’s business environment
 To familiarize the emerging trends in computer field

Expected Outcomes:
 Gain the basic knowledge of Computer Technology
 Know the basics of computer technology and Networking
 Practically use the tools like Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel and Power point
 Understand the E-commerce technology and its applications
 Understand the implementation of Information Systems in organizations
 Get familiarity with new terms and trends of computer technology

3. Course contents
 Unit Contents

Introduction, Definition, Evolution and generation of computers, characteristics,

1 Generations of computers, classification of computers, applications of computers,
Advantages of computers. Block diagram of computer.
Hardware: Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Data storage & retrieval methods. Primary
Storage: RAM ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM. Secondary Storage: Magnetic
Tapes, Magnetic Disks. Cartridge tape, hard disks, Floppy disks Optical Disks,
Compact Disks, Zip Drive, Flash Drives. Software and its needs, Types of S/W.
2 System Software: Operating System, Utility Programs Programming Language:
Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level Language their advantages &
disadvantages. Operating System: Functions, Measuring System Performance,
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters. Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-
Tasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing, DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux.
Communication Process, Data Transmission speed, Communication Types (modes),
Data Transmission Medias, Modem and its working, characteristics, Types of
3
Networks, LAN Topologies, Computer Network Protocols,
Concepts relating to networking
Brief history of e-commerce, definitions of e-commerce, technical components and
their functions, e-commerce versus traditional business, requirements of e-commerce.
4 Advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce, Value chain in e-commerce, current
status of e-commerce in India. Types of business models (B2B, B2C, C2B,C2C) with
examples
MS-Word, MS-Excel, MS-PowerPoint
5

Recommended/ Reference Textbooks and Resources:

Reference Books:

Sr.No. Name of the Title of the Book Publisher Year of

Author Edition
1 Ramesh Bahel Information Technology for Tata Macgraw Hill
Managers
2 Pradeep K. Sinha Computer BPB Publications
Fundamentals
3 A. K. Saini, Pradeep Computer Application Anmol Publications
Kumar in Management
4 Henry C. Lucas Information McGraw-Hill/Irwin 2009
Technology for
Management

5 David T. Bourgeois Information Systems for Saylor Foundation 2014

Business and Beyond

6 C.S.V. Murthy E-Commerce Himalaya Publishing

House

Online Resources:

Resource No. Website Address

1 https://www.webopedia.com/
2 http://intronetworks.cs.luc.edu/current/
ComputerNetworks.pdf

MOOCs:

Sr. No. Details

1 https://www.coursera.org/browse/information-technology
2 https://www.udemy.com
3 https://alison.com

CO-PO mapping
Course Outcomes:
At the successful completion of the course the learner
will be able to
CO1: Understand the fundamental of computer and hardware components that make up a
computer’s hardware and the role of each of these components

CO2: Understand the difference between an operating system and an application program, and
what each is used for in a computer.

CO3: Describe some examples of computers and state the effect that the use of computer
technology has had on some common products

CO4: Student will learn how to use Ms-Office

applications and explore

Possible Outcomes
 On the successful completion of this Program, a student shall be able to:
1. The student will understand the basic working of computers and about hardware and
software.
2. They will be capable of recognizing and deploying the software and differentiate between
operating system and application program, and what each is used for in a computer.
3. They will come to know working with Microsoft Office, MS excel and MS office.
4. They will understand communications system, types of network, internet, WWW, emails.
5. Ability to lead themselves and others in the achievement of organizational goals,
contributing effectively to a team environment to work well with underlying systems.
6. Students will understand the E-commerce model and role of IT in it.

Course COs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6

BBA I : CO1 1 1
Fundamentals CO2 2 2
of information CO3 3 3
technology CO4 4 4 4 4

4. Evaluation Criteria:
Component Description Weight Objective
First Internal First internal question paper will be based on 10 To evaluate student’s
first 3 unit of syllabus. markscognitive skills (Think,
read, learn, remember,
reason, and pay
attention).
Second internal Second internal question paper will be based 10 To evaluate student’s
on last 2 unit of syllabus. marks cognitive skills (Think,
read, learn, remember,
reason, and pay
attention).
CES 1- Moodle Quiz will be conducted based on the different 5 marks To recall their subject
Based Quiz aspects of Computer Basic. learning.

CES 2- Group Presentation will be taken in group of 5 5 marks To evaluate their

Presentation based on the different Application of knowledge application
computer in real world. presentation skills and
give suggestions to
improve the same.
CES 3- Class Test Students need to complete different 5 marks To evaluate their
assignments after learning the features of MS knowledge application
office tools presentation skills and
give suggestions to
improve the same.
Class participation Class notes and involvement of students will Marks To encourage and
be checked by faculty during the semester. enhance class
& 85% attendance 10
participation

Note: All CES activities are mandatory.

5. Session Plan:
Session Topic Requirements: Learning outcomes
No Readings/ Cases
Module I: Introduction to Computers

1 Handouts and notes Disciplinary

Introduction to computer and computer system knowledge & digital
Literacy
2 Evolution and generation of computers, Handouts and notes
Advantages of computers.
3 characteristics, Generations of computers, Handouts and notes
4 classification of computers ,applications of Handouts and notes
computers,
5 Block diagram of computer. Handouts and notes
6 REVISION
7 CES I
MODULE II: Hardware and software (computer Organization)
8 Hardware: Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Handouts and notes Understands the
significance of
9 Data storage & retrieval methods. Primary Handouts and notes hardware & software.
Storage: RAM ROM, PROM, EPROM, Understands the use
EEPROM. of various hardware
devices in real time.
10 Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Handouts and notes
Disks. Cartridge tape, hard disks, Floppy disks
 Optical Disks, Compact Disks, Zip Drive, Flash
Drives.

11 Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Handouts and notes
Software: Operating System, Utility Programs
Programming Language: Machine Language,
Assembly Language, High Level Language their
advantages & disadvantages.

12 Operating System: Functions, Measuring System Handouts and notes

Performance, Assemblers, Compilers and
Interpreters. Batch Processing,
Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking,
Multiprocessing, Time Sharing, DOS,
Windows, Unix/Linux

13 Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters. Batch Handouts and notes

Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking,
Multiprocessing,

14 Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Handouts and notes

MultiTasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing,

15 DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux Handouts and notes

16 REVISION
Module III: Data communication
17 Communication Process, Data Communication Handouts and notes Understands the
Networking &
communication
concepts
18 Data Transmission speed, Communication Types Handouts and notes
(modes)
19 Data Transmission Medias, Modem and its Handouts and notes
working, characteristics,
20 Types of Networks(LAN,MAN Handouts and notes
,WAN,PAN,CAN)
21 Types of topologies, LAN Topologies Handouts and notes

22 Computer Protocols, Concepts relating to Handouts and notes

networking.
23 Modem, networking hardwares. Handouts and notes

24 REVISION
25 CES II: class test

MODULE IV: Introduction to E-commerce

26 e-commerce, Advantages and disadvantages of e- Handouts and notes Understands the
commerce concept of E-
commerce and how to
apply the e-
commerce concepts in
real time.
27 technical components and their functions, e- Handouts and notes
commerce versus traditional
28 Business requirements of E- Handouts and notes
commerce.

29 Value chain in e-commerce current Handouts and notes

status of e-commerce in India.

30 Types of business models (B2B, B2C, Handouts and notes

C2B,C2C)
31 CES III : CLASS TEST
MODULE V: MS- (Microsoft ) Office
32 MS-word Introduction , Formatting Handouts and notes Disciplinary
Text, Formatting Paragraphs knowledge & digital
Literacy, Life Long
Learning,
Communication
skills, Problem
solving using MS-
Excel.
33 Formatting Document Pages using Handouts and notes
formatting tools.
34 Insert options, tables and to apply Handouts and notes
formulas to the data.
35 MS word-table of contents, footnotes. Handouts and notes
36 Notes and Tables of Figures, Handouts and notes
Authorities, Indexes, Tables of
Contents
37 Mail merge Handouts and notes
38 Getting Started with PowerPoint, Handouts and notes
Creating Presentations, Modifying
Presentations
39 Using Proofing Tools, Creating and Handouts and notes
Inserting, Tables, Multimedia
 Elements, Inserting
40 Creating and Inserting Charts, Handouts and notes
Formatting Presentations, Animation
41 Tables and Multimedia Elements Handouts and notes
42 Excel- Working with Formulas and Handouts and notes
Referencing Techniques
43 Pivot tables and Pivot charts Handouts and notes
44 Data Management, Data Analysis, Handouts and notes
Charts and Graphics
45 Setting Validations and Criteria’s, Handouts and notes
What If Analysis
 FACULTY PROFILE
1. Ms. PREETI TANEJA
Mobile: 9999255738
E-Mail: [email protected]
SKILL SET
She is Pursing PHD from North Cap University and has done M. Tech. (computer Science) USICT, IP
University and B. Tech (I.T), BVCOE, IP University. She holds an experience of 8+ years in Teaching.
Her teaching expertise is in Operating Systems: Windows, Linux, Unix, Programming Languages: C, C with
Data structure, C++, C++ with Data structure, Java, Python, IP, System Concepts: Management information
system, Software Engineering ,OOAD, etc, Knowledge of: Machine Learning and Deep Learning. She has
worked at BVCOE and IITM, affiliated with G.G.S Indraprastha University, Delhi as a Visiting Faculty and
works at Bharati Vidyapeeth(Deemed to be University) Institute of Management and Research ,PaschimVihar
,Delhi, as a visiting faculty

2. Ms. Ankita Gulati

Mobile: 9555538440
E-Mail: [email protected]
Experience and Accomplishments
In her career of 10+ years, she has 1+ Years of experience a designer and 9+ Years of experience in Teaching.
Her Skill Sets are Operating Systems: Windows, Databases: Oracle8i & 9i, MS Access, SQL Server.
Programming Languages: C, C with Data structure, C++, C++ with Data structure, Java,.Net and System
Concepts: Management information system, Software Engineering, OOAD, Software testing, fundamentals of
internet, Information Security etc,

3. Ms. Gargi Mukherjee

Mobile M-91-9868053081
E-Mail [email protected] and Accomplishments
Skill Sets
She holds a Masters degree in Computer Science and MTech in Information Technology with 15 years’
experience in Education .She also has experience of Online teaching with organizations like Unacademy,
Talent edge in varied subjects of Computer Science. She has conducted Workshop conducted on ICT for
creating Blogs, Forum and peer networking using Social Networking in Gitarattan Institute of Advanced

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Studies ,Rohini Delhi and Training. Has hosted many quizzes,judged many events of singing and dancing for
inter college competitions . Member of Research group of ISTE.

4. Dr. Mansi Agnihotri

Mobile M-91-9953871988
E-Mail [email protected]

Dr. Mansi Agnihotri earned her Ph.D. in March 2024 from the University School of Information,
Communication and Technology (USICT), Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University (GGSIPU). Her
thesis, titled "A New Metric to Identify Critically Affected Classes and Improving Their Quality Through
Refactoring," presents a novel approach to software quality. She worked as a full-time research scholar at
USICT, GGSIPU. She qualified UGC NET-JRF (DEC 2018) and availed UGC JRF and SRF during her
Ph.D. She holds a Master’s degree in Computer Applications. She has a good experience of research and has
published 6 research papers with SCIE, ESCI, Scopus indexing and has presented her work at 2 international
conferences. She has 4 years of experience of teaching as a research scholar. She has been a part of
organizing team for different Faculty Development Programme (FDP’s) conducted at USIC&T, GGSIPU.
She has taught Algorithm Analysis and Design (ADA), Data Structures (DS), C/C++, Object-Oriented
Software Engineering (OOSE), Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD), Software Testing (Lab),
Advance HTML with JavaScript and CSS.

5. Ms. Apurva Gupta

Mob: 9717822635
E-mail: [email protected]
She is an Assistant Professor (Visiting Faculty) at Bharti Vidyapeeth Institute of Management and Research.
She has completed her B. Tech in EEE & M. Tech in ECE from GGSIPU University and DCRUST, Murthal
respectively. She also completed her PGDBF from SCDL, Pune. She is GATE qualified and has 4 years of
teaching experience. She also worked as a data analyst. She has 03 research papers and 01 book chapter in her
credits.

Contact information
2 | Page
 Course Title FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Course Code 106
No of credits 03 as per syllabus-(Expected no. of hours-20)
Department Management
Course Leader Ms. Preeti Taneja
Faculty Ms. Preeti Taneja Ms. Ankita Gulati, Ms. Gargi
Mukherjee, Dr. Mansi Agnihotri ,Ms. Apurva Gupta

Email [email protected],
[email protected]., [email protected] ,
[email protected] , [email protected]
Phone no 9999255738
Course Type Departmental
Offer in Academic Year 2024 -25 , BBA I sem

CES-1

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 Class test to be conducted as per schedule covering complete UNIT 1

CES-2

Group Presentation Topics

Note:To be presented in a group of 4-5 members. (based on class strength)

1. Technology replacing real classroom teaching

2. I.C.T : a useful tool for criminals

3. Impact of Social networking on daily life

4. Effect of technology on entertainment

5. Changing face of festival celebrations due to Internet

6. Impact of Online transactions on shopping

7. E-book Vs Notebook study

8. Modern Banking : better or worse?

9. New face of travel & tourism with I.T

10. Difficulties faced by various businesses due to use of Technology

11. Innovative career opportunities due to high technology penetration in daily life

CES-3

Class Test to be conducted as per schedule covering complete Syllabus

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 STUDY NOTES

5 | Page
 UNIT – I
Introduction, Definition, Characteristics of computer, Evolution, Generations of computer,
Classification of computers, Applications of computer, Advantages of computers, Block diagram
of computer

1.1 INTRODUCTION

 A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output as results.

Computer components are divided into two major categories namely hardware and software.
Hardware is the machine itself and its connected devices such as monitor, keyboard, mouse etc.
Software are the set of programs that make use of hardware for performing various functions. 1.2
OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson you would be able to:

• familiarize yourself with characteristics of computers

• identify the basic components of a computer
• explain the importance of various units of a computer
• differentiate between system software and application software
• explain the importance of operating system
• get acquainted with open source
• appreciate the need of computer security

What is Data Processing

The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing

 Data : is a collection of independent and unorganized facts.

 Information is the processed and organized data presented in a meaningful form.

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed,
accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly.

Speed

Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3-4
million simple instructions per second.

Accuracy

6
In addition to being fast, computers are also accurate. Errors that may occur can almost always be
attributed to human error (inaccurate data, poorly designed system or faulty instructions/programs
written by the programmer)

Diligence

Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human traits of
boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are better than
human beings in performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.

Versatility

Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it can be
broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost every
sphere – Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.

Storage Capacity

Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once recorded (or stored)
in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously.

1.4 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

A computer system consists of mainly four basic units; namely input unit, storage unit, central
processing unit and output unit. Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit and
control unit.

A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make. These are

• it accepts data or instructions as input,

• it stores data and instruction
• it processes data as per the instructions, ❖ it controls all operations inside a computer, and ❖ it
gives results in the form of output.

Computer Organization

a. Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after
processing.
b. Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer
after processing.
c. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and Computer’s memory can be classified
into two types; primary memory and secondary memory

7
 Basic computer organization/Computer Architecture/Design

Computer Architecture/Design

A typical computer system has an Input Unit, a Central Processing Unit, Memory Unit and Output Unit. This
is also known as Von Neumann Architecture of the computer. Over the years the technology has changed but
basic design/architecture is not changed. The important

Input Unit:

The input unit links the external environment with the computer system. Data and instructions inputted to
the computer system through this unit. The data can be inputted to the computer by various means, it can
be entered through a keyboard, through a card reader, through a mouse etc. All the data supplied to the
computer is transformed into the binary codes. Unit called input interface accomplishes this
transformation. Input interface is designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of
input devices with the requirements of the computer system for example Keyboard, Mouse, Joy stick,
Light Pen, Punched Cards, Optical Mark Reader, Magnetic Tape, Optical Character Reader etc.

Output Unit:

It links the computer with the external environment. The job of an output unit is just opposite of an input
unit. It supplies information and results of computation to the outside world. As computers work with
binary code, the results produced are also in the binary form. Hence, before supplying the results to the
outside world, it must be converted to human readable form. Unit called output interface accomplishes this
task. Output interface is
designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (e.g. Monitor, Printer,
Plotter) with the requirement of the external environment.

8
Central Processing Unit:

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). As
in a human body, the brain takes all major decisions and controls all body parts, similarly, in a computer
system, all major computations are made by the CPU and is also responsible for activating and controlling
the operations of other units. The CPU performs the following functions:

• It performs all calculations.

• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.

1. Control Unit:

The control unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. By selecting,
interpreting, and decoding, it executes the program instructions. This unit acts as a central nervous system
for the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It directs the flow of data
through the CPU, and to and from other devices. Control unit controls the input and output devices and the
passing of data to the Arithmetic/Logical Unit for computation. The control unit stores the CPU's
microcode, which contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can perform.

2.Arithmetic Logic Unit:

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual execution of the
instructions takes place during the processing operation. The data and instructions, stored in the primary
storage (RAM or Cache) prior to processing, are transferred as and when needed to the ALU. ALU uses
various CPU registers to store intermediate results of computations. The Final result of computations is
transferred back to the primary storage. After the completion of processing, the final results that are stored
in the primary storage unit are released to an output device or to a secondary storage device.

The ALU is designed to perform all the basic Arithmetic Operations – add, subtract, multiply, divide,
Relational Operations such as comparisons using < , <=, > , >=, == etc and Logical Operations such as AND,
OR, NOT.

Storage Unit (Memory):

The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input unit, before
they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output
devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a computer system are
divided into two categories.

1. Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the program
being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the intermediate and
final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature. The data is lost, when the

9
 computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the data has to be transferred to the
secondary memory.
The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary storage. Therefore most computers have
limited primary storage capacity.

2. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs,
documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to the primary
memory before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in the secondary
memory. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of the commonly
used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,

Memory Organization

Computers Memory: It is used to store data and instructions.

a. Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.

RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a computer
where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are kept temporarily
so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its
contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are no more
available once the computer is turned off.

ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of
which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains manufacturer’s
instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’
whose function is to start the operation of computer system once the power is turned on.

b. Secondary Memory

RAM is volatile memory having a limited storage capacity. Secondary/auxiliary memory is storage
other than the RAM. These include devices that are peripheral and are connected and controlled by
the computer to enable permanent storage of programs and data.

Secondary storage devices are of two types; magnetic and optical. Magnetic devices include hard disks
and optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.

• Hard Disk

10
Fig. 1.3: Hard Disk

Hard disks are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks sealed in a box. The
hard disk and the hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part of the computer where
data and programs are saved. These disks have storage capacities ranging from 1GB to 80 GB and
more. Hard disks are rewritable.

Compact Disk

Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700 MB. It can
hold large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc. CDs can be
either read only or read write type.

• Digital Video Disk

Digital Video Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and enormous clarity.
Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data. DVDs are primarily used to
store music or movies and can be played back on your television or the computer too. These are
not rewritable.

1.4.3 Input / Output Devices:

These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or
processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. Input/output devices are required for users
to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information INTO the
computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer system. These input/output
devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory of a computer
system.

a) Input Devices

An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input devices, but
the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on the keyboard and
every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the computer.

• Keyboard: The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few
additional keys. The basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy to use the

11
system. The additional keys are included to perform certain special functions. These are known as
function keys that vary in number from keyboard to keyboard. (see fig. 1.4)
• Mouse: A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A
mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface (Fig. 1.5). Its name is derived
from its shape, which looks a bit like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display
screen moves in the same direction.

Fig. 1.5: Mouse

• Trackball: A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other
electronic devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a moveable ball on
the top, which can be rolled in any direction.
• Touchpad: A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a
computer display screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in laptop
computers, touch pads are also being made for use with desktop computers. A touch pad works by
sensing the user’s finger movement and downward pressure.
• Touch Screen: It allows the user to operate/make selections by simply touching the display
screen. A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on ATM
machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and industrial
control panels.
• Light Pen: Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select
objects on a display screen. (Fig. 1.6)

Fig. 1.6 Light Pen

• Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): MICR can identify character printed with a
special ink that contains particles of magnetic material. This device particularly finds applications
in banking industry.
• Optical mark recognition (OMR): Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader
is a technology where an OMR device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil
mark. OMR is widely used in tests such as aptitude test.
• Bar code reader: Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or
vertical zebra strips marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally used in
super markets, bookshops etc.

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• Scanner: Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and
translates the information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing an
image. (Fig. 1.7)

Fig. 1.7 Scanner

b. Output Devices:

Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired from.
The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit, which then
converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually produced in one of
the two ways – on the display device, or on paper (hard copy).

• Monitor: is often used synonymously with “computer screen” or “display.” Monitor is an

output device that resembles the television screen (fig. 1.8). It may use a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input
of characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or
application output. Like the television, monitors are also available in different sizes.

Fig. 1.8: Monitor

Monitors come in two major types — LCD or CRT, but others exist, too, like OLED. CRT
monitors look much like old-fashioned televisions and are very deep in size. LCD monitors are
much thinner, use less energy, and provide a greater graphics quality. OLED is an improvement on
LCD that provides even better color and and viewing angles but also requires more power.

Today, all monitors are created using flat panel display technology, usually backlit with LEDs. The
image to the right shows an ASUS LCD monitor.

• Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based
on the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper through
a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this

13
category.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or electrical
signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this
category of printers.

•
• Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer
commands and makes line drawings on paper using multicoloured automated pens. It is
capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc. (Fig. 1.9)

Fig. 1.9 Plotter

• Facsimile (FAX): Facsimile machine, a device that can send or receive pictures and text
over a telephone line.

Fax machines work by digitizing an image.

• Sound cards and Speaker(s): An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate
and output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become
commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output
sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone
connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.

Basic Concepts of Computer

1.5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

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Computer software is the set of programs that makes the hardware perform a set of tasks in
particular order. Hardware and software are complimentary to each other. Both have to work
together to produce meaningful results. Computer software is classified into two broad categories;
system software and application software.

1.5.1 System Software :

System software consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a computer
equipment including functions like managing memory, managing peripherals, loading, storing, and
is an interface between the application programs and the computer. MS DOS (Microsoft’s Disk
Operating System), UNIX are examples of system software.

1.5.2 Application software :

Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as word processing, accounting,
budgeting or payroll, fall under the category of application software. Word processors,
spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of general purpose application
software.

Types of application software are:

• Word processing software: The main purpose of this software is to produce documents.
MS-Word, Word Pad, Notepad and some other text editors are some of the examples of
word processing software.
• Database software: Database is a collection of related data. The purpose of this software is
to organize and manage data. The advantage of this software is that you can change the
way data is stored and displayed. MS access, dBase, FoxPro, Paradox, and Oracle are some
of the examples of database software.
• Spread sheet software: The spread sheet software is used to maintain budget, financial
statements, grade sheets, and sales records. The purpose of this software is organizing
numbers. It also allows the users to perform simple or complex calculations on the numbers
entered in rows and columns. MS-Excel is one of the example of spreadsheet software.
• Presentation software: This software is used to display the information in the form of
slide show. The three main functions of presentation software is editing that allows
insertion and formatting of text, including graphics in the text and executing the slide
shows. The best example for this type of application software is Microsoft PowerPoint.
• Multimedia software: Media players and real players are the examples of multimedia
software. This software will allow the user to create audio and videos. The different forms
of multimedia software are audio converters, players, burners, video encoders and
decoders.

SOFTWARE ACQUISITION:
 Different kinds of software are made available for use to users in different ways.
The user may have to purchase the software, can download for free from the
Internet, or can get it bundled along with the hardware.

 Retail Software is off-the-shelf software sold in retail stores. It comes with printed
manuals and installation instructions. For example, Microsoft Ms Office

15
 OEM Software stands for “Original Equipment Manufacturer” software. It refers
to software which is sold, and bundled with hardware. Microsoft sells its operating
system as OEM software to hardware dealers. OEM software is sold at reduced
price, without the manuals, packaging and installation instructions. For example,
Dell computers are sold with the “Windows 7” OS pre-loaded on them.
 Demo Software is designed to demonstrate what a purchased version of the
software is capable of doing and provides a restricted set of features. To use the
software, the user must buy a fully- functional version.

 Shareware is a program that the user is allowed to try for free, for a specified
period of time, as defined in the license. It is downloadable from the Internet.
When the trial period ends, the software must be purchased or uninstalled.
 Freeware is software that is free for personal use. It is downloadable from the
Internet. The commercial use of this software may require a paid license. The
author of the freeware software is the owner of the software, though others may use
it for free.
 Open source software is software whose source code is available and can be
customized and altered within the specified guidelines laid down by the creator.
open-source software has restrictions on their use and modification, redistribution
limitations, and copyrights.
 Linux, Apache, Firefox, Open Office are some examples of open-source software.

1.6 Malware (malicious software)

Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user. Types of
malware can include computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses and spyware. These malicious
programs can perform a variety of different functions such as stealing, encrypting or deleting
sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing functions and monitoring users' computer
activity without their permission.

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• A virus is the most common type of malware which can execute itself and spread by
infecting other programs or files. The first known computer virus was developed in
1971 by Robert Thomas, an engineer at BBN Technologies. Known as the "Creeper"
virus, The "Brain" virus, which initially appeared in 1986, is considered to be the first
MS-DOS personal computer virus. Brain was a boot sector virus; he "Jerusalem" virus,
also known as the "Friday the 13th" virus, was discovered in 1987 and spread throughout
Israel via floppy disks and email attachments. Cabir" virus is the first verified example
of a mobile phone virus for the now defunct Nokia Symbian operating system..

There are some indicators that will tell you that your computer is infected:

• Your computer is running slower than normal

• Computer applications are not working right
• Disk drivers and disks have become inaccessible
• You cannot print
• You find unusual, error messages
• Dialog boxes and menus are distorted
• You find double extensions on attachments which you’ve recently opened (ex. gif, jpg,
vbs)
• Your antivirus program is suddenly disabled or cannot be restarted
• Antivirus programs cannot be installed in your computer or cannot run
• New and unusual icons suddenly appear on your desktop
• Strange music or sounds suddenly play from the speakers

• A worm can self-replicate without a host program and typically spreads without any
human interaction or directives from the malware authors.
• A Trojan horse is designed to appear as a legitimate program in order to gain access
to a system. Once activated following installation, Trojans can execute their malicious
functions.
• Spyware is made to collect information and data on the device user and observe their
activity without their knowledge.
• Ransomware is designed to infect a user's system and encrypt the data. Cybercriminals
then demand a ransom payment from the victim in exchange for decrypting the system's
data.
• Keyloggers, also called system monitors, are used to see nearly everything a user does
on their computer. This includes emails, opened web-pages, programs and keystrokes.

Antivirus - remedies to correct the virus

Antivirus software is a class of program designed to prevent, detect and remove malware infections on
individual computing devices, networks and IT systems.

Antivirus software, originally designed to detect and remove viruses from computers, can also
protect against a wide variety of threats, including other types of malicious software, such as
keyloggers, browser hijackers, Trojan horses, worms, rootkits, spyware, adware, botnets and
ransomware.

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 What Does AntiVirus Software Do?

Several different companies build antivirus software and what each offer can vary but all perform
some essential functions:

• Scan specific files or directories for any malware or known malicious patterns
• Allow you to schedule scans to automatically run for you
• Allow you to initiate a scan of a particular file or your entire computer, or of a CD or
flash drive at any time.
• Remove any malicious code detected –sometimes you will be notified of an infection
and asked if you want to clean the file, other programs will automatically do this behind
the scenes.

The best antivirus software of 2019

• Bitdefender Antivirus Plus 2019.

• Norton AntiVirus Plus.
• F-Secure Antivirus SAFE.
• Kaspersky Anti-Virus.
• Trend Micro Antivirus+ Security.
• Webroot SecureAnywhere AntiVirus.
• ESET NOD32 Antivirus.
• Quick heal Antivirus

1.7 Evolution of computers

• Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine in 1642

• Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first calculator for multiplication in 1671
• Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880
• Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards that were extensively used
as input media until late 1970s.
• Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of modern digital computers.
• He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822.
• He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in 1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions

• His efforts established a number of principles that are fundamental to the design of any digital
computer

1.8 Generations of Computers:-

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the
generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation
includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system. There are totally
five computer generations known till date.

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19
1.9 Classification of computers

Microcomputers:

Microcomputers are relatively small and low-cost. They consist of a CPU, an input unit, an output unit, a
storage unit, and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-alone machines, they can be connected
together to create a network of computers that can serve more than one user. Microcomputers include
desktop computers, notebook computers or laptops, tablet computers

Minicomputers:

Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They have high processing
speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers. Minicomputers can support up to 4 – 200 users
simultaneously. The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or terminal. They are used for
real-time applications in industries, research centers, etc. PDP 8, IBM (8000 series) are some of the widely
used minicomputers.

Mainframe Computers:

Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming, and high-performance computers. They operate
at a very high speed, have a very large storage capacity, and can handle the workload of many users.

20
 Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally used in centralized databases. The user
accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may be a dumb terminal, an intelligent terminal, or a
PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do the processing of its own. It has the input and output device
only. An intelligent terminal has the input and output device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of
its own. The dumb and the intelligent terminal use the processing power and the storage facility of the
mainframe computer. Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks or companies, where
many people require frequent access to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and
IBM ES000 series.

Supercomputers:
Supercomputers are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high processing speed compared
to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (Floating Point
Operations Per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers can perform trillions of calculations per second.
Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands of processors that can work in parallel.

Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as weather forecasting, climate
research (global warming), molecular research, biological research, nuclear research, and aircraft design.
They are also used in major universities, military agencies, and scientific research laboratories. Some
examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue Gene, and Intel ASCI red. PARAM is a
series of supercomputers assembled in India by C-DAC (Center for Development of Advanced
Computing), in Pune. PARAM Padma is the latest machine in this series. The peak computing power of
PARAM Padma is 1 TeraFLOP (TFLOP).

1.10 Classification on the basis of data handling

Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable aspects of
physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
Any thing that is variable with respect to time and continuous can be claimed as analog just like an
analog clock measures time by means of the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock around the
circular dial.
Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer capable of solving problems by
processing information expressed in discrete form. from manipulation of the combinations of the binary
digits, it can perform mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other
processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.

Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a digital computer
that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes them in digital form.

MCQ for Practice

Which of the following devices can be sued to directly image printed text?

a. OCR b. OMR

c. MICR d. All of above

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The output quality of a printer is measured by

a. Dot per inch b. Dot per sq. inch

c. Dots printed per unit time d. All of above

MICR stands for

a. Magnetic Ink Character Reader b. Magnetic Ink Code Reader

c. Magnetic Ink Cases Reader d. None

What characteristic of read-only memory (ROM) makes it useful?

a. ROM information can be easily updated.

b. Data in ROM is non-volatile, that is, it remains there even without electrical power.

c. ROM provides very large amounts of inexpensive data storage.

d. ROM chips are easily swapped between different brands of computers.

Which of the following are input devices?

a. Keyboard b. Mouse
c. Card reader d. Any of these

Examples of output devices are

a. Screen b. Printer
c. Speaker d. All of these

Which of the following is also known as brain of computer

a. Control unit b. Central Processing unit
c. Arithmetic and language unit d. Monitor

IBM stands for

a. Internal Business Management b. International Business Management
c. International Business Machines d. Internal Business Machines

............ translates and executes program at run time line by line

a. Compiler b. Interpreter
c. Linker d. Loader

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VDU is also called
a. Screen b. Monitor
c. Both 1 & 2 d. printer

BIOS stands for

a. Basic Input Output system b. Binary Input output system
c. Basic Input Off system d. all the above

A modem is connected to
a. a telephone line b. a keyboard
c. a printer d. a monitor

Cathode Ray Tube is a form of.......

a. Keyboard b. Mouse
c. Monitor d. Mother board

Trackball is a...........
a. Input device b. Output device
c. Programming language d. Software

Light pen and joystick are............

a. Algorithm b. Input devices
c. Output devices d. Portals

Touch Screen is............

a. Input device b. Output device
c. Both a & b above d. None of these

.............printer is the cheapest in terms of price and operating cost

a. Inkjet b. Laser
c. Thermal d. Dot matrix

.......... printer is a non-impact printer and is quite in working

a. Inkjet b. Laser
c. Thermal d. Dot matrix

.......... are high-end printers

a. Inkjet b. Laser
c. Thermal d. Dot matrix

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 UNIT 2

❖ Hardware: Primary Vs Secondary Storage,

❖ Data storage & retrieval methods. Primary Storage: RAM ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
❖ Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks. Cartridge tape, hard disks, Floppy disks Optical
Disks, Compact Disks, Zip Drive, Flash Drives.
❖ Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Software: Operating System, Utility Programs
Programming Language: Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level Language their
advantages & disadvantages.
❖ Operating System: Functions, Measuring System Performance, Assemblers, Compilers and
Interpreters. Batch Processing, Multiprogramming, Multi-Tasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing,
DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux

Hardware vs Software

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 Data Storage

• Data storage is a common term for archiving data or information in a storage medium for use by a
computer.

• It’s one of the basic yet fundamental functions performed by a computer.

• It’s like a hierarchy of comprehensive storage solution for fast access to computer resources.

• A computer stores data or information using several methods, which leads to different levels of data
storage.

• Primary storage is the most common form of data storage which typically refers to the random access
memory (RAM).

• It refers to the main storage of the computer because it holds data and applications that are currently in
use by the computer.

• Then, there is secondary storage which refers to the external storage devices and other external media
such as hard drive and optical media.

Data Retrieval

25
• In databases, data retrieval is the process of identifying and extracting data from a database, based on
a query provided by the user or application.

• It enables the fetching of data from a database in order to display it on a monitor and/or use within an
application.

• Data retrieval typically requires writing and executing data retrieval or extraction commands or
queries on a database. Based on the query provided, the database looks for and retrieves the data
requested.

• Applications and software generally use various queries to retrieve data in different formats.

What is Primary Storage?

• Primary storage is commonly referred to as simply “primary memory” which is volatile in nature such
as the RAM which is a primary memory and tends to lose data as soon as the computer reboots or
loses power.

• It holds data or information that can be directly accessed by the central processing unit.

• RAM is stored in integrated circuits for immediate access with minimum or no delay.

• It’s a high-speed data storage medium which is directly connected to the processing unit via the
memory bus, allowing active programs to interact with the processor.

• Simple speaking, primary storage refers to internal storage devices that provide fast and efficient
access to data or information. However, it stores data or applications for a short period of time while
the computer is running.

• Other examples of primary storage include Read Only Memory (short for ROM), which represents
both the primary memory of the computer and a non-volatile storage because it’s able to retain data
and applications even if the device loses power.

• PROM (Programmable read-only memory) which is kind of a memory chip that is programmed after
the memory is constructed. PROM is a sophisticated version of ROM that can be programmed once
after it has been created.

• Cache memory which is also a common example of primary storage that is directly integrated with the
CPU chip to provide high-speed data access for future requests.
• It’s more of a volatile memory of the computer that is placed between the CPU and the main memory.

What is Secondary Storage?

• Secondary storage is yet another ideal storage solution in the computer’s memory hierarchy that is
used to store data or information on the long term basis, more like permanently.

26
• Unlike primary storage, they are non-volatile memory or commonly referred to as external memory
that are not directly accessed by the central processing unit.

• They are also called as auxiliary storage which can be both internal and external, plus beyond the
primary storage.

• Because they are not directly accessed by the I/O channels, they are relatively slower than primary
storage devices when it comes to data access.

• However, it’s one of the most valuable assets of data storage hierarchy that is capable of storing
applications and programs permanently.

• Unlike RAM, it’s a long-term storage solution that expands the data storage capability.

• Common example of secondary storage includes hard disk drives (HDD) which is the most common
data storage device used to store and retrieve digital information.

• It’s a high-capacity secondary storage device which also comes in internal storage mediums as internal
hard drives.

• It’s one of the most versatile mediums of data storage that uses magnetic storage to archive
applications or data permanently.

• Other examples of secondary storage include optical media such as CDs and DVDs which are capable
of storing any substantial amount of data; magnetic tapes which are conventional methods of data
storage used across corporate environments.

• However, secondary storage devices are quite slower than their primary counterparts, which make
them relatively cheaper but equally efficient.

27
 Difference between Primary and Secondary storage

Types of primary memory (RAM, ROM, Cache)

• In a computer system memory is a physical device, that is used to store, retain, acquire and retrieve
data and information.

• Primary memory used to store data only in a execution time.

• The memory device contains different cells, every cell contains a unique location.

• Data and information are stored in these unique locations.

• It stores all types of data like raw data (given input by the user), intermediate results and final results
are stored in memory.

• It may be or may not be store data permanently. There are mainly 2 types of primary memory.
However, if we considered Cache Memory, it is of 3 types.

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 RAM

• RAM (Random Access Memory), contains one or multiple memory modules that store data
temporarily.

• It is also called volatile memory because data get erased when the computer is turned off.

• It holds data and instruction frequently during processing.

• When we are launching the software, then it is loaded into RAM.

Why it is called RAM?

• It randomly select any location of memory to store and retrieve data.

What is RAM used for?

• Random Access Memory (RAM) is the most important component in the computer system, for
determining a system’s performance.

• It gives uses a place to store and retrieve data on short-term basis.

Types of Random Access Memory (RAM)

DRAM

29
• DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, It is the most important part of RAM used in computers.

• It has a better performance and is a more energy-efficient memory unit.

• It consist of a transistor and capacitor.

• There is a faster dual data rate(DDR) in DRAM. New versions of DDR are DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4.
New versions are of better performance and more energy-efficient than

SRAM

• It stands for Static RAM, It is also one common type of RAM used in a computer system.

• It bigger in size and is costly having six transistors in each cell.

• It is only used for data cache within a CPU itself or as RAM in the high-speed server system.

• It is a semiconductor memory, highly used in electronics, microprocessors, and others using

computing for general purposes. This type of memory gains its name from the fact that data is held
statically.

• While the data in the SRAM memory does not need to be refreshed dynamically, it is still volatile,
meaning that when the power is removed from the memory device, the data is not held, and will
disappear.

ROM ( Read Only Memory)

• ROM is a primary memory.

• It stores some standard processing programs to operate the PC.

• Processers only read the content of ROM but cannot change the content.

• Read-only memory, or ROM, is a type of computer storage containing non-volatile, permanent data
that, normally, can only be read, not written to.

• ROM contains the programming that allows a computer to start up or regenerate each time it is turned
on.
• ROM also performs large input/output (I/O) tasks and protects programs or software instructions.
Once data is written on a ROM chip, it cannot be removed.

• Almost every computer incorporates a small amount of ROM that contains the start-up firmware.

• This boot firmware is called the basic input/output system (BIOS).

• This software consists of code that instructs the boot-up processes for the computer -- such as loading
the operating system (OS) into the random access memory (RAM) or running hardware diagnostics.

30
• Consequently, ROM is most often used for firmware updates.

• However, ROM is also utilized in video game consoles, allowing one system to run various games.

• Additionally, ROM is used in optical storage, including different kinds of compact discs (CD) -- such
as CD-ROM and CD-RW.

• ROM is also used frequently in calculators and peripheral devices like laser printers, whose fonts are
commonly stored in ROM.

Types of ROM

• PROM

• EPROM

• EEPROM

Difference between PROM,EPROM, EEPROM

PROM

31
• PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is a computer memory chip, and it is possible
to program it once after creation.

• After programming the PROM, the information we write to it becomes permanent.

• Therefore, we cannot erase or delete that written data. The PROM chip was commonly used in earlier
computers’ BIOS systems.

• After creating PROM, all the bits are ‘1’. If a certain bit should be 0, we can make that 0 by burning.

• One major drawback of PROM is that it is not possible to update it. In other words, we cannot
reprogram it.

• Instead, we have to discard that and replace it with a new chip.

EPROM

• EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.

• We can erase and reprogram an EPROM without replacing it.

• It is possible to erase and write to it by exposing the memory chip to ultraviolet light.

• EPROM is used more commonly than PROM because it allows the manufacturers to modify or
reprogram the chip.

• A transparent quartz window covers EPROM.

EEPROM

• EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.

• It is a memory chip that we can erase and reprogram using electrical charge.

• The flash memory is a type of EEPROM which has a higher density and lower number of write cycles.

Cache Memory

• With the use of main memory, memory processor speed mismatch becomes a bottleneck in the speed
with which the CPU can process instructions because there is 1 to 10 speed mismatch between the
processor and memory.

• That is ,the rate at which data can be fetched from memory is about 10 times slower than the rate at
which CPU can process data.

32
 • The overall performance of a processor can be improved greatly by minimizing the memory processor
speed mismatch.

• Cache memory is commonly used for this purpose.It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU
and main memory whose access time is closer to the processing speed of CPU.

• It acts as a high speed buffer between CPU and main memory and it is used to temporarily store very
active data and instructions during processing.

Sequential--access Storage Devices

Arrival at the desired storage location may be preceded by sequencing through other locations
Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in which it is stored
Access time varies according to the storage location of the information being accessed
Suitable for sequential processing applications where most, if not all, of the data records need to be processed
one after another
Magnetic tape is a typical example of such a storage device
Direct--access Storage Devices
Devices where any storage location may be selected and accessed at random

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Permits access to individual information in a more direct or immediate manner
Approximately equal access time is required for accessing information from any storage location
Suitable for direct processing applications such as online ticket booking systems, on-line banking systems
Magnetic, optical, and magneto-optical disks are typical examples of such a storage device
Magnetic Tape Basics
Commonly used sequential-access secondary storage device
Physically, the tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which is usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet
long
Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable recording material such as iron-oxide or chromium dioxide
Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots (representing
1s and 0s) on its coated surface
Tape ribbon is stored in reels or a small cartridge or Cassette

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

Storage capacity is virtually unlimited because as many tapes as required can be used for storing very large
data sets
Cost per bit of storage is very low for magnetic tapes.
Tapes can be erased and reused many times
Tape reels and cartridges are compact and light in weight
Easy to handle and store.
Very large amount of data can be stored in a small storage space
Compact size and light weight
Magnetic tape reels and cartridges are also easily portable from one place to another
Often used for transferring data and programs from one computer to another that are not linked together
Limitations of Magnetic Tapes
Due to their sequential access nature, they are not suitable for storage of those data that frequently require to
be accessed randomly
Must be stored in a dust-free environment because specks of dust can cause tape-reading errors
Must be stored in an environment with properly controlled temperature and humidity levels
Tape ribbon may get twisted due to warping, resulting in loss of stored data
Should be properly labeled so that some useful data stored on a particular tape is not erased by mistake
Uses of Magnetic Tapes
For applications that are based on sequential data processing
Backing up of data for off-line storage
Archiving of infrequently used data
Transferring of data from one computer to another that are not linked together As
a distribution media for software by vendors

Magnetic Disk Basics

Commonly used direct-access secondary storage device.

Physically, a magnetic disk is a thin, circular plate/platter made of metal or plastic that is usually coated on
both sides with a magnetizable recording material such as iron-oxide
Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on the coated surfaces of the disk
The disk is stored in a specially designed protective envelope or cartridge, or several of them are stacked
together in a sealed, contamination-free container

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35
 Floppy Disks

Round, flat piece of flexible plastic disks coated with magnetic oxide
So called because they are made of flexible plastic plates which can bend
Also known as floppies or diskettes
Plastic disk is encased in a square plastic or vinyl jacket cover that gives handling protection to the disk
surface
The two types of floppy disks in use today are: 5¼-
inch diskette, whose diameter is 5¼-inch.
It is encased in a square, flexible vinyl jacket
3½-inch diskette, whose diameter is 3½-inch.
It is encased in a square, hard plastic jacket
Most popular and inexpensive secondary storage medium used in small computers

Hard Disks

Round, flat piece of rigid metal (frequently aluminium) disks coated with magnetic oxide Come
in many sizes, ranging from 1 to 14-inch diameter.
Depending on how they are packaged, hard disks are of three types:
Zip/Bernoulli disks
Disk packs
Winchester disks
Primary on-line secondary storage device for most computer systems today

Advantages off Magnetic Disks

More suitable than magnetic tapes for a wider range of applications because they support direct access of data
Random access property enables them to be used simultaneously by multiple users as a shared device. A tape
is not suitable for such type of usage due to its sequential-access property
Suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data

Except for the fixed type Winchester disks, the storage capacity of other magnetic disks is virtually unlimited
as many disks can be used for storing very large data sets

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Due to their low cost and high data recording densities, the cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic disks.
An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disks can be erased and reused many times
Floppy disks and zip disks are compact and light in weight. Hence they are easy to handle and store.
Very large amount of data can be stored in a small storage space
Due to their compact size and light weight, floppy disks and zip
disks are also easily portable from one place to another
They are often used for transferring data and programs from one computer to another, which are not linked
together
Any information desired from a disk storage can be accessed in a few milliseconds because it is a direct access
storage device
Data transfer rate for a magnetic disk system is normally
higher than a tape system
Magnetic disks are less vulnerable to data corruption due to careless handling or unfavorable temperature and
humidity conditions than magnetic tapes

Limitations of Magnetic Disks

Although used for both random processing and

sequential processing of data, for applications of the latter type, it may be less efficient than magnetic tapes
More difficult to maintain the security of information stored on shared, on-line secondary storage devices,as
compared to magnetic tapes or other types of magnetic disks
For Winchester disks, a disk crash or drive failure often results in loss of entire stored data. It is not easy to
recover the lost data. Suitable backup procedures are suggested for data stored on Winchester disks Some
types of magnetic disks, such as disk packs and Winchester disks, are not so easily portable like magnetic
tapes
On a cost-per-bit basis, the cost of magnetic disks is low, but the cost of magnetic tapes is even lower Must
be stored in a dust-free environment
Floppy disks, zip disks and disk packs should be labeled properly to prevent erasure of useful data by mistake

Uses of Magnetic Disks

For applications that are based on random data processing

As a shared on-line secondary storage device.Winchester disks and disk packs are often used for this purpose
As a backup device for off-line storage of data. Floppy disks, zip disks, and disk packs are often used for this
purpose
Archiving of data not used frequently, but may be used once in a while. Floppy disks, zip disks, and disk packs
are often used for this purpose
Transferring of data and programs from one computer
to another that are not linked together.
Floppy disks and zip disks are often used for this purpose.
Distribution of software by vendors. Originally sold software or software updates are often distributed by
vendors on floppy disks and zip disks

Cartridge Tape

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 Magnetic tape cartridge (tape cartridge) A casing containing one or more reels carrying a length of
magnetic tape, so arranged that it can be loaded on a suitable tape transport for access without the tape
being handled by the operator.

Optical Discs

• An optical disc is a storage media that is written and read by a laser. It consists of a flat, round,
portable disc made of metal and plastic.

• The size of the optical discs are 4.75 inches in diameter and less than one-twentieth of an inch thick.
Some smaller computers, game consoles, and mobile devices, however, often use mini discs that have
a diameter of 3 inches or less.

• You can store software, data, digital photos, movies, and music on optical discs. Some optical disc
formats are read-only, which means users are not able to write (save) on the media.

• Others are read/write, which allows us to save on the disc exactly as they save on a hard disk drive.
The computer designates an optical disc drive by following the alphabetical order after that of all the
hard discs.

• Consists of a circular disk, which is coated with a thin metal or some other material that is highly
reflective
• Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading of data on the disk
• Also known as laser disk / optical laser disk, due to the use of laser beam technology
• Proved to be a promising random access medium for high capacity secondary storage because it can
store extremely large amounts of data in a limited space

❖ Optical Discs Types

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 • CD-ROM

• CD-R (CD-Recordable)

• CD-RW (CD-ReWritable)

• DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)

• Blu-ray Disc

❖ CD-ROM

• CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) is a Compact Disc that contains data accessible
with the help of the computer. Compact Disc format was only designed for music and playback
music but later made to store all kinds of data.

• CD-ROMS are popularly used to share computer software, including games and multimedia
applications, though any data can be stored (up to the capacity limit of a disc). A standard 120 mm
CD-ROM can store 650 or 700 MB of data.

❖ CD-R (CD-Recordable)

• A CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a multi-session compact disc onto which you can record
your own items such as text, graphics, and audio. With a CD-R, you can write on one part of the
disc at one time and another part later.
• After recording the CD-R, you can read from it as multiple times as you want. You can write on
each part only for one time, and you cannot erase the disc’s contents. Most CD-ROM drives can
read a CD-R.

• You write on the CD-R using a CD recorder or a CD-R drive and special software. A CD-R drive
can able to read and write both the audio CDs and standard CD-ROMs.

• These drives read at speeds of up to 24% and write at speeds of up to 8X. Manufacturers always
list the write speed first, like the example, as 8/24. CD-R drives are slightly more expensive than
standard CD-ROM drives.

❖ CD-RW (CD-ReWritable)

• A CD-RW (Compact Disc-Re-Writable) is an erasable disc that allows you to write multiple times.

• Initially, called an erasable CD (CD E), a CD-RW overcomes the major disadvantage of CD-R discs,
of writing on them only once with CD-RW, the disc acts like a floppy or hard disk, allowing you to
write and rewrite data, instructions, and information onto it multiple times.

• To write on a CD-RW disc, you have CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive.

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 • These drives have a write speed up to 12x, rewrite speed up to 4X, and a read speed up to 32X.
Manufacturers typically state the speeds in this order, for example, as 12/4/32

• DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)

• A family of optical discs that have similar overall dimensions to a CD, but have significantly higher
capacities.

• DVDs are double-sided, where CDs are single-sided. Dual-layer versions are also planned. Mostly
used DVDs are able to store 4.7 GB to 17 GB, depending on the storage techniques used.

• A DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc-Read-Only Memory or Digital Video Disc Read-Only

Memory) is known as a high-capacity optical disc on which users can easily read but not able to write
or erase. DVD-ROMs store movies, music, music videos, huge databases, and software.

❖ Blu-ray Disc

• Blu-ray has a higher capacity and best quality than other standard DVDs, especially for high definition
audio and video. Blu-ray is the most expensive optical discs type available on the market.
• A Blu-ray Disc ROM (BD-ROM) has a storage ability of 100 GB, with an exceeding limit of 200 GB
in the future.

• Blu-ray Disc (BD) drives and players are easily compatible with DVD and CD formats. Some game
consoles always Include a Blu-ray drive.

Advantages of Optical Disks

The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low because of their low cost and enormous storage
density.
The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal storage medium for reading large blocks of
sequential data such as music.
Optical disk drives do not have any mechanical read/write heads to rub against or crash into the disk surface.
This makes optical disks a more reliable storage medium than magnetic tapes or magnetic disks. Optical
disks have a data storage life in excess of 30 years. This makes them a better storage medium for data
archiving as compared to magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.

As data once stored on an optical disk becomes permanent, danger of stored data getting inadvertently
erased/overwritten is removed
Due to their compact size and light weight, optical disks are easy to handle, store, and port from one place
to another
Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CDROM drive along with a sound board and speakers. This
allows computer systems to be also used as music systems
Limitations of Optical Disks
It is largely read-only (permanent) storage medium.
Data once recorded, cannot be erased and hence the optical disks cannot be reused

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 The data access speed for optical disks is slower than magnetic disks Optical
disks require a complicated drive mechanism
Uses of Optical Disks
For distributing large amounts of data at low cost
For distribution of electronic version of conference proceedings, journals, magazines, books, product catalogs,
etc
For distribution of new or upgraded versions of software products by software vendors
For storage and distribution of a wide variety of multimedia applications
For archiving of data, which are not used frequently,but which may be used once in a while
WORM disks are often used by end-user companies to make permanent storage of their own proprietary
information
Memory Storage Devices
Flash Drive (Pen Drive)
Relatively new secondary storage device based on flash memory, enabling easy transport of data from one
computer to another
Compact device of the size of a pen, comes in various shapes and stylish designs and may have
different added features
Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a USB(Universal Serial Bus) port of a computer, treated as
removable drive
Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB.
Zip Drive

• A Zip drive is a medium-capacity and portable magnetic disk storage system launched by Iomega in
the mid-1990s.
• It was popular at the time of launch as cost per storage unit was lower than that of hard disks, and it
could store a larger amount of data than a floppy disk.

Types of software

Software is used to control a computer. There are different types of software that can run on a computer: system
software, utility software, and application software.

1. System software

• If you think of software as being in layers, the system software is the bottom layer: it sits between the
hardware and the application software.

• Operating systems like Windows, macOS, Android and iOS are examples of system software.
Operating systems are loaded into RAM when the device starts up, and have access to the hard drive.

1. Utility software

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• Utility software is part of the system software and performs specific tasks to keep the computer
running. Utility software is always running in the background. Examples of utility software are
security and optimization programs.

• Security programs include anti-virus software that scans and removes viruses. Most computers will
include some sort of anti-virus software, but you can add your own.

• Optimization programs can include tools for system clean-up, disk defragmentation, and file
compression. These tools are typically installed as part of the operating system. They have access to
the hard drive to keep it tidy.

1. Application software
• Anything that is not an operating system or a utility is an application or app. So a word processor,
spreadsheet, web browser, and graphics software are all examples of application software, and they can
do many specific tasks.

• You can remove and add applications on your computer using the operating system.

• Application software like a word processor regularly directs the operating system to load and save files
from to the hard drive. When you are working on a file, it is saved temporarily in the RAM. It is only
when you choose to save it that it is written to the hard drive.

• This is why, if the computer crashes while you’re working on a file, you may lose any changes you
didn’t save. Data stored in the RAM is volatile. The data is lost when the RAM loses power.

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 Programming Languages

• Machine Language

• Assembly Language

• High Level Language

1. Machine Language
• A machine language consists of the numeric codes for the operations that a particular computer can
execute directly.

• The codes are strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits (“bits”), which are frequently converted both from
and to hexadecimal (base 16) for human viewing and modification.

• Machine language instructions typically use some bits to represent operations, such as addition, and
some to represent operands, or perhaps the location of the next instruction.

• Machine language is difficult to read and write, since it does not resemble conventional mathematical
notation or human language, and its codes vary from computer to computer.

Advantages

1. It makes quick and effective utilization of the machine

2.It obliges no interpreter to interpret the code i.e. directly understood by the machine

Disadvantages:

1.All operation codes have to be remembered

2.All memory addresses have to be remembered.

3.It is difficult to change or discover blunders in a project written in the machine language

2. Assembly language

• Assembly language is one level above machine language.

• It uses short mnemonic codes for instructions and allows the programmer to introduce names for
blocks of memory that hold data.

• One might thus write “add pay, total” instead of “0110101100101000” for an instruction that adds two
numbers.

• Assembly language is designed to be easily translated into machine language by an assembler.

Advantages

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Below are the advantages:

1. It allows complex jobs to run in a simpler way.

2. It is memory efficient, as it requires less memory.

3. It is faster in speed, as its execution time is less.

4. It is mainly hardware-oriented.
5. It requires less instruction to get the result.

6. It is used for critical jobs.

7. It is not required to keep track of memory locations.

8. It is a low-level embedded system.

Disadvantages
Below mentioned are the disadvantages:

1. It takes a lot of time and effort to write the code for the same.

2. It is very complex and difficult to understand.

3. The syntax is difficult to remember.

4. It has a lack of portability of program between different computer architectures.

5. It needs more size or memory of the computer to run the long programs written in Assembly

Language.

3. High Level Language

• The development of higher-level language is done for a programmer to write a human-readable

program that can be easily understood by any user.

• The syntax used and the programming style can be easily understood by humans if it is compared to
low-level language.

• The only requirement in a high-level language is the need for a compiler.

• As the program written in a high-level language is not directly understood by the computer system.
Before the execution of high-level programs, it needs to be converted to machine-level language.

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 • Examples of high-level languages are C++, C, JAVA, FORTRAN, Pascal, Perl, Ruby, and Visual
Basic.
Advantages of High-Level Language
Listed are a few advantages of High-Level Language.

1. Simple to use: Since the language used for instruction is English or familiar to the user, he can easily
command or instruct without learning any proper language. The language is closer to the natural
language we use daily and modifications can be made. Therefore it becomes simple and easy to use for
the users.
2. User familiar: As the language used by the user is closer to the natural language which we use,
therefore the high-level language is user-friendly and familiar. Users need not understand the structure
of the detailed architecture of the programs they can simply write the program without any
complication.
3. Time management is easy: As the language used by the computer is the natural language used by the
user therefore time taken to write the syntax as well as the codes is reduced and managing time
becomes easy. Since a programmer needs to execute and get the result fast so that decision making can
be possible promptly.
4. Easy to understand: The output produced depends on the input given to the computer which is the
task of the user. Therefore it becomes of utmost importance that a user must understand the input
instruction to be given to the computer. As the language used is user-friendly thus users can
understand it clearly.
5. Languages used are mostly English and user-friendly language: The Language mostly used in
computers is English which is a common language for people and easily understandable. This makes a
computer user-friendly. The high-level language uses English words that make it a friendly interface
with users. Therefore language must be user-friendly for both programmer and computer.
6. More than machine language it is problem-oriented: High-level language makes it easy to solve the
problems coming as it may not happen in machine language. They help the user to write the program
without learning much of the syntax and codes.
7. Easy to debug: Debugging refers to identifying and removing errors from the computer. High-level
language makes debugging an easy process. It allows users to evaluate the logic rather than think
about the code. With the use of an interpreter and compilers errors could be easily identified and
removed.

Disadvantages of High-Level Language

Listed are a few disadvantages of High-level languages.

1. Execution is slow: The computer can only understand the binary machine language thus High-level
language has to be converted with the help of a compiler and interpreter. This whole process therefore
takes time and thus the execution is slow.
2. Occupies more memory: The High-level Language first stores the instruction that they get from the
user and then it interprets and analyzes the result thus from conversion to interpretation it has to store
a lot of data thus it occupies more memory as compared to machine language.
3. Hardware control is less: Programmer need not be aware of the hardware as the high-level language
are far away from the hardware of the computers. Therefore users have very little control over the
hardware.
4. Not Time efficient: The process of conversion of a high-level language into machine language takes
time thus if any user wants prompt Interpretation of data by the computer then it won’t be possible.
Thus high-level language is not a time-efficient language.

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 5. Object code: The object code generated is also might be inefficient as compared to the machine
language. The machine language codes provided as well as the results generated are always accurate
and efficient

Operating System

An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application Programs and acts as
an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware .An operating system can
be thought of as having two objectives or performing two functions:

Convenience: An operating system makes a computer system more convenient to use.

Efficiency: An operating system allows the computer system resources to be used in an efficient
manner.

An operating system is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot
program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called
applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system
by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). In addition,
users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command
language or a graphical user interface (GUI).

Important functions of an operating System:

1. Security –
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other techniques. it also
prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.
2. Control over system performance –
Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the response time between service
requests and system response to having a complete view of the system health. This can help improve
performance by providing important information needed to troubleshoot problems.

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3. Job accounting –
Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users, this information
can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of users.
4. Error detecting aids –
The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid the malfunctioning of a
computer system.
5. Coordination between other software and users –
Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers, and other software to
the various users of the computer systems.
6. Memory Management –
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is made up of a
large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a certain address. Main memory is
fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it should be first
loaded in the main memory

7. Processor Management –
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes have access to the
processor, and how much processing time each process has. This function of OS is called process
scheduling.
8. Device Management –
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs the following activities
for device management. Keeps track of all devices connected to the system. designates a program
responsible for every device known as the Input/Output controller. Decides which process gets access
to a certain device and for how long. Allocates devices in an effective and efficient way. Deallocates
devices when they are no longer required.
9. File Management –
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System carries out the following file
management activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access settings and status of
every file, and more… These facilities are collectively known as the file system.
Moreover, Operating System also provides certain services to the computer system in one form or the other.
The Operating System provides certain services to the users which can be listed in the following manner:
1. Program Execution: The Operating System is responsible for the execution of all types of programs
whether it be user programs or system programs. The Operating System utilizes various resources available
for the efficient running of all types of functionalities.
2. Handling Input/Output Operations: The Operating System is responsible for handling all sorts of inputs,
i.e, from the keyboard, mouse, desktop, etc. The Operating System does all interfacing in the most
appropriate manner regarding all kinds of Inputs and Outputs.
For example, there is a difference in the nature of all types of peripheral devices such as mice or keyboards,
the Operating System is responsible for handling data between them.
3. Manipulation of File System: The Operating System is responsible for making decisions regarding the
storage of all types of data or files, i.e, floppy disk/hard disk/pen drive, etc. The Operating System decides
how the data should be manipulated and stored.
4. Error Detection and Handling: The Operating System is responsible for the detection of any type of error
or bugs that can occur while any task. The well-secured OS sometimes also acts as a countermeasure for
preventing any sort of breach to the Computer System from any external source and probably handling
them.

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5. Resource Allocation: The Operating System ensures the proper use of all the resources available by
deciding which resource to be used by whom for how much time. All the decisions are taken by the
Operating System.
6. Accounting: The Operating System tracks an account of all the functionalities taking place in the computer
system at a time. All the details such as the types of errors that occurred are recorded by the Operating
System.
7. Information and Resource Protection: The Operating System is responsible for using all the information
and resources available on the machine in the most protected way. The Operating System must foil an
attempt from any external resource to hamper any sort of data or information.
Operating system performance metrics
• OS: Memory. Shows memory usage metrics in megabytes.
• OS: CPU-Shows how much time the CPU devotes to system and user processes,
• OS: Load-The amount of work that a computer system performs
• OS: Disk usage (GB)-Tracks growth or reduction in the amount of available disk space used.
• OS: Disk Usage (percentage)-The percentage of disk space that is being used at a given time.
• OS: Disk Throughput-The average disk throughput for read and write operations, measured in
megabytes per second.
• OS: Disk Rates-Averaged disk speed for read and write operations.
• OS: Disk Latency-Measures the average time consumed by disk seeks in milliseconds.

Types of OS

1. Batch Operating System –

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator
which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and group them into batches. It is the
responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.
Advantages of Batch Operating System:
● It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete. Processors of the batch
systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue.
● Multiple users can share the batch systems.
● The idle time for the batch system is very less.
● It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
● The computer operators should be well known with batch systems.
● Batch systems are hard to debug.
● It is sometimes costly.
● The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements, etc.

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 2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –
Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of
CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be
from a single user or different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After
this time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.
Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:
● Each task gets an equal opportunity
● Fewer chances of duplication of software
● CPU idle time can be reduced

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

● Reliability problem
● One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data
● Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.

3.Multiprogrammed System

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 • CPU utilization is increased by organizing the jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
• OS keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously, and begins executing one of them. Once this job
has to wait for some tasks, OS switches to another job.
• In a non-multiprogramming environment, OS sits idle if one job has to wait for some tasks.
• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy all the time.
• When it has to wait (for example-I/O), OS switches to another job.
• Multiprogramming organizes jobs so that CPU always has one to execute.
• Advantage-Effective resource utilization.
• Drawback-Poor user experience.

4. Multitasking
Multitasking term used in a modern computer system. It is a logical extension of a multiprogramming
system that enables the execution of multiple programs simultaneously. In an operating system,
multitasking allows a user to perform more than one computer task simultaneously. Multiple tasks are also
known as processes that share similar processing resources like a CPU. The operating system keeps track
of where you are in each of these jobs and allows you to transition between them without losing data.
Early operating system could execute various programs at the same time, although multitasking was not
fully supported. As a result, a single software could consume the entire CPU of the computer while
completing a certain activity. Basic operating system functions, such as file copying, prevented the user
from completing other tasks, such as opening and closing windows. Fortunately, because modern
operating systems have complete multitasking capability, numerous programs can run concurrently
without interfering with one other. In addition, many operating system processes can run at the same time.
5.Multiprocessor System
▪ Multiprocessor systems have more than one CPU.

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 ▪ All the processors share memory and a clock; communication usually takes place through the
shared memory.
▪ Also known as Tightly-coupled Systems or Parallel Systems.
▪ Example-Windows, Unix
▪ Advantages of Parallel Systems:
▪ Increased through put – When N processors work together, the speed up is huge.
Although this speed up ratio is not N times due to sharing of data.
▪ Economical – Multiprocessor save money than multiple single-processor systems coz they
share memory and peripherals.
▪ Increased reliability – If one of the 10 processors fail, other 9 processors should be able to
share the work without halting the system.
Language Processors –
Compilers, interpreters, translate programs written in high-level languages into machine code that a computer
understands. And assemblers translate programs written in low-level or assembly language into machine
code. In the compilation process, there are several stages. To help programmers write error-free code, tools
are available.
Assembly language is machine-dependent, yet mnemonics used to represent instructions in it are not
directly understandable by machine and high-Level language is machine-independent. A computer
understands instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s. It is a tedious task to write a
computer program directly in machine code. The programs are written mostly in high-level languages like
Java, C++, Python etc. and are called source code. These source code cannot be executed directly by the
computer and must be converted into machine language to be executed. Hence, a special translator system
software is used to translate the program written in a high-level language into machine code is called
Language Processor and the program after translated into machine code (object program/object code).
The language processors can be any of the following three types:
1. Compiler :
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high-level language as a whole in
one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine language is called a Compiler.
Example: C, C++, C#, Java.
In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of errors. The compiler
specifies the errors at the end of the compilation with line numbers when there are any errors in the source
code. The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the source code again

2. Assembler :
The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code. The
source program is an input of an assembler that contains assembly language instructions. The output
generated by the assembler is the object code or machine code understandable by the computer.
Assembler is basically the 1st interface that is able to communicate humans with the machine. We need
an Assembler to fill the gap between human and machine so that they can communicate with each other.
code written in assembly language is some sort of mnemonics(instructions) like ADD, MUL, MUX,
SUB, DIV, MOV and so on. and the assembler is basically able to convert these mnemonics in Binary

51
code. Here, these mnemonics also depend upon the architecture of the machine. For example, the
architecture of intel 8085 and intel 8086 are different.

3. Interpreter :
The translation of a single statement of the source program into machine code is done by a language
processor and executes immediately before moving on to the next line is called an interpreter. If there is an
error in the statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an
error message. The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after the removal of the error.
An Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language without
previously converting them to an object code or machine code. Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.

52
Difference Between DOS, Linux & Windows Operating System
DOS: DOS stands for Disk Operating System, which is an operating system that was popular till 1995 in
IBM PCs. It is a single-tasking OS i.e., it can perform one task at a time. It is based on a command-line
interface where one has to provide instructions to the computer in the command form. It runs from hard
disks, floppy disks, or any other storage devices and thus provides an environment for the execution of
programs. It occupies less memory. To use more than 64kb of memory, memory extenders were used,
which older Windows used to use more memory. It was originally released only to OEMs(Original
Equipment Manufacturers) who added support for their hardware. It was eventually released to the public.
Windows: Windows is a product of Microsoft. It is an operating system with various versions, Windows
10 being the latest version. It is a Graphics-Based user interface. Users give commands through clicking
or choosing icons and images with the help of a mouse, keyboard, or touchscreen to the computer.
Windows was originally a DOS extender running on top of DOS. The Windows 9x family consisting of
Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 98SE, and Windows ME ran on top of MS-DOS and is capable of
running DOS programs directly. Windows NT was released separately and is portable, and initially, it was
written in C and C++ languages where processor reliability code is separated into DAL and HLL and was
designed to be more secure than DOS and the Windows 9x family. The Windows NT family includes
Windows NT 3.x,4.x, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and so on. Windows is
more reliable than DOS and handles errors with ease due to various tools available for debugging and
error handling.
Linux: Linux is a freely distributed multitasking and multi-user operating system that behaves like

UNIX. It was originally developed by a Finnish student, LINUS TORVALDS in 1991. It is the best

53
known and most commonly used open - source operating system. It is a cross - platform operating system
based on UNIX that can be installed on PCs and laptops.

54
 MCQ for Practice

What characteristic of read-only memory (ROM) makes it useful?

a. ROM information can be easily updated.

b. Data in ROM is non-volatile, that is, it remains there even without electrical power.

c. ROM provides very large amounts of inexpensive data storage.

d. ROM chips are easily swapped between different brands of computers.

What do you call the programs that are used to find out possible faults and their causes?

a. operating system extensions b. cookies

c. diagnostic software d. boot diskettes

A normal CD- ROM usually can store up to _________ _data?

a. 680 KB b. 680 Bytes

c. 680 MB d. 680 GB

EEPROM stands for

a. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

b. Easily Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

c. Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

d. None of the above

RAM stands for

a. Random origin money b. Random only memory

c. Read only memory d. Random access memory

1 Byte =?

a. 8 bits b. 4 bits

55
 c. 2 bits d. 9 bits

MPS stands for

a. Switched mode Power Supply b. Start mode power supply

c. Store mode power supply d. Single mode power supply

Reusable optical storage will typically have the acronym-

a. CD b. DVD c. ROM d. RW

The most common type of storage devices are-

a. Steel b. optical c. magnetic d. flash

A device that connects to a network without the use of cables is said to be-

a. Distributed b. free c. centralized d. none of these

A DVD is an example of a (n)-

a. hard disk b. optical disc

c. output device d. solid-state storage device

The process of transferring files from a computer on the Internet to your computer is called

a. Downloading b. uploading

c. FTP d. JPEG

.......... is the process of dividing the disk into tracks and sectors.

a. Tracking b. Formatting c. Crashing d. Allotting

Help Menu is available at which button?

a. End b. Start

c. Turnoff d. Restart

Which of the following is not a binary number?

a. 001 b. 101 c. 202 d. 110

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Which of the following does not store data permanently?

a. ROM b. RAM c. Floppy Disk d. Hard Disk

Which of the following is the smallest storage?

a. Megabyte b. Gigabyte c. Terabyte d. None of these

Which of the following contains permanent data and gets updated during the processing of transactions?

a. Operating System File b. Transaction file

c. Software File d. Master file

Which of the following helps to protect floppy disks from data getting accidentally erased?

a. Access notch b. Write-protect notch

c. Entry notch d. Input notch

CAD stands for

a. Computer aided design b. Computer algorithm for design

c. Computer application in design d. Computer analogue design

A computer cannot 'boot' if it does not have the

a. Compiler b. Loader

c. Operating System d. Assembler

Example of non-numeric data is

a. Employee address b. Examination score

c. Bank balance d. All of these

What is embedded system?

a. The programme which arrives by being wrapped in box.

b. The programme which is the permanent part of the computer

c. The computer which is the part of a big computer

d. The computer and software system that control the machine

First page of Website is termed as-

57
 a. Homepage b. Index c. JAVA script d. Bookmark

. ..................... Is the appearance of typed characters?

a. Size b. Format c. Point d. Colour

When a file is saved for the first time

a. a copy is automatically printed

b. it must be given a name to identify it

c. it does not need a name

d. it only needs a name if it is not going to be printed

Which programming languages are classified as low level languages?

a. BASIC, COBOL, Fortran b. Prolog

c. C, C++ d. Assembly languages

Which of the following is not anti- viruses’ software?

a. NAV b. F-Prot

c. Oracle d. McAfee

DOS stands for

a. Disk Operating System b. Disk operating session

c. Digital Operating System d. Digital Open system

Who is the chief of Microsoft

a. Babbage b. Bill Gates c. Bill Clinton d. none of these

COBOL is widely used in application s

a. Commercial b. Scientific c. Space d. Mathematical

ASCII is a coding system that provides

a. 256 different characters b. 512 different characters

c. 1024 different characters d. 128 different characters

58
Malicious software is known as:

a. Badware. b. Malware. c. Maliciousware. d. Illegalware.

..are specific to users’ needs

a. System software b. Application software

c. Assemblers d. Compiler

Which of the following is/ are operating systems

a. Windows b. Unix

c. OS/2 d. All of these

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 UNIT 3

DATA & INFORMATION

Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed data that enables us to
take decisions.

Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students, when you find the marks you
have scored you have the information that lets you know whether you have passed or failed.

The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is agreed and accepted upon by is
creators and users.

DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information

In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The hardware
part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the data passes.
The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it is to be
communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.

The following sections describes the fundamental characteristics that are important for the effective
working of data communication process and is followed by the components that make up a data
communications system.

Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four fundamental
characteristics:

• Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
• Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any
errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data.
• Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a
data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
• Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data
being transmitted.
Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below:

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 Fig. Components of a Data Communication System
1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.

2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).

3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).

4.Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can be wired or wireless and many
subtypes in both.

5. Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate data.

A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a necessity in data
communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to talk to each
other in a different language without know the other language.

Data Transmission Speed

Data transmission speed is the rate of transferring data from source to destination. It is also referred as
Bandwidth. Unit of bandwidth is Bit Per Second or bps. This is also called Band speed, which is the
number of bits transmitted in a second is bps or Bandwidth. There are 3 types of Bands which are as
follows:

Narrow Band
Speed or bandwidth of this band can be 45bps to 300bps in general. Data transmission in narrow band is
called sub-voice band. This band is used in slow data transmission. Narrow band is used in telegraphy. In
telegraphy, use of more cable slows down the speed.

Voice Band
Speed of this band can be up to 9600bps. This band is mostly used in telephone communication. Also in
computer, this band is used in transferring data from computer to printer or card reader to computer.

Broad Band

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Broad band is ideal for very high speed data transmission where the minimum data transmission speed can
be 1Mbps (Mega bits per second) and reach up to a few giga bits per second. This band is used in data
transmission through coaxial cable and optical fiber cable. Beside these, board band is also used in
satellite and microwave communication.

Mode of Transmission
Analog & Digital Data
Data can be analog or digital.

The term analog data refers to information that is continuous.

Digital data refers to information that has discrete states. For example, an analog clock that has hour,
minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous form; the movements of the hands are
continuous. On the other hand, a digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will change suddenly
from 8:05 to 8:06.

Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values. When someone
speaks, an analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone and converted to an
analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal.

Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of 0s
and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into an analog signal for transmission
across a medium.

Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital.

Analog & Digital Signal

An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from value
A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path.

A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined values. Although
each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

Types of Data Flow

• Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in figure given
below.

Simplex –
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices
on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices. The key-board can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

62
Half-Duplex –
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device
is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
• The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
* When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting
at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

Full-Duplex –
• In full-duplex made (also, called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-
duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Transmission Modes
The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.

• In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
• In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
• While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous shown below.

Parallel Transmission

• Binary data, consisting of ls and 0s, may be organized into groups of n bits each.
• The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one. It uses n wires to send n bits at one
time.

That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock tick from
one device to another. Figure given below shows how parallel transmission works for n = 8.

• The advantage of parallel transmission is speed.

• But there is a significant disadvantage: cost.
• Parallel transmission requires n communication lines (wires in the example) just to transmit the data stream.
Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.

Serial Transmission

• In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel rather than n to
transmit data between two communicating devices.
• Figure given below depicts the serial transmission.
The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel, serial
transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n

• Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the interface between the
sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the receiver (serial-toparallel).
• Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous.

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Transmission Modes
Mode of transmission can be synchronous or asynchronous. The data to be transmitted are assembled with
special code in order to indicate the start and ending of characters. When two computers communicate
with each other, they must have a way to synchronize the flow of data so that the receiving computer can
read at the same speed.

In the synchronous mode, characters are transmitted in a group, preceded and followed by special control
characters,. At the time of sending or receiving these characters are checked by originating and
destinations computer to ensure the proper synchronization. Data bytes are sent one after the other at a
regular interval. The data form a continuous stream of bits spaced at regular interval, with no space
between consecutive bytes. A timing mechanism causes the receiving modem to read the steam at the
precise frequency. When the receiving modem has read the required number of bits to make up a
character, it sends the character to the receiving computer.

Advantage
Fewer bits are needed to identify the beginning and ending of characters.

Disadvantage
Biggest drawbacks is inaccuracy, when the receiver goes out of synchronization, then track of individual
characters where they start and end is lost, such correction of errors takes additional time. It is expensive

Asynchronous
In asynchronous communication, each bit in the character is preceded and followed by a control character.
These characters mark the starting and ending of a bit in the word. This is the advantage that start and stop
bit synchronize the communication between the two computers. This is the most commonly used method
worldwide, because of its accuracy.

Disadvantage

It is slow because of lots of start and stop bits. This type of communication is used mostly with the
communication rate less than 2400 baud

Asynchronous Transmission
• In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (ls) at the end
of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.
• The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning and end of each byte and allow it to
synchronize with the data stream.
• This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at the byte level, the sender and receiver do not have to be
synchronized. But within each byte, the receiver must still be synchronized with the incoming bit stream. •
That is, some synchronization is required, but only for the duration of a single byte.
• Asynchronous here means "asynchronous at the byte level," but the bits are still synchronized; their
durations are the same.

64
Synchronous Transmission
• In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which may contain multiple
bytes.
• Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission link without a gap between it and the next one.
• It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purposes.
• In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
• Figure given below gives a schematic illustration of synchronous transmission.
• We have drawn in the divisions between bytes. In reality, those divisions do not exist; the sender puts its
data onto the line as one long string.
• If the sender wishes to send data in separate bursts, the gaps between bursts must be filled with a special
sequence of 0s and ls that means idle.
• The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups them in 8-bit units.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)

Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a communication
mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between individual devices that
are interconnected. There are three types of transmission mode:-

Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data can
flow between the two devices in the following ways.

• Simplex
• Half Duplex
• Full Duplex

Simplex

65
 Figure: Simplex mode of communication

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional

Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one
only receives the data.
Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only
receives data.

Half Duplex

66
Data Transmission Media A communication channel that is used to carry the data from the
transmitter to the receiver through the electromagnetic signals. The main function of this is to
carry the data in the bits form through the Local Area Network (LAN). In data communication, it
works like a physical path between the sender & the receiver. For instance, in a copper cable
network the bits in the form of electrical signals whereas in a fiber network, the bits are available
in the form of light pulses. The quality, as well as characteristics of data transmission, can be

67
determined from the characteristics of medium & signal. The properties of different transmission
media are delay, bandwidth, maintenance, cost, and easy installation.

Different Types of Transmission Media

Transmission media is classified into two types namely wired media & wireless media. The
medium characteristics of wired media are more significant but, in wireless media the signal
characteristics are important.

Types-of-Transmission-Media

Guided Media

This kind of transmission media is also known as wired otherwise bounded media. In this type,
the signals can be transmitted directly & restricted in a thin path through physical links.

The main features of guided media mainly include secure, high-speed, and used in small
distances. This kind of media is classified into three types which are discussed below.

Twisted Pair Cable

It includes two separately protected conductor wires. Normally, some pairs of cables are
packaged jointly in a protective cover. This is the most frequently used type of transmission
media and it is available in two types.

1. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

This UTP cable has the capacity to block interference. It doesn’t depend on a physical guard and
used in telephonic applications. The advantage of UTP is a low cost, very simple to install, and
high speed. The disadvantages of UTP is liable to exterior interference, transmits in fewer
distances, and less capacity.

2. STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

STP cable includes a particular jacket for blocking outside interference. It is used in rapid data
rate Ethernet, in voice & data channels of telephone lines. The main advantages of STP cable
mainly include good speed, removes crosstalk. The main disadvantages are hard to manufacture
as well as install, It is expensive and bulky also

Coaxial Cable

This cable contains an external plastic cover and it includes two parallel conductors where each
conductor includes a separate protection cover. This cable is used to transmit data in two modes
like baseband mode as well as broadband mode. This cable is widely used in cable TVs & analog
TV networks.

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The advantages of the coaxial cable include high bandwidth, noise immunity is good, low cost
and simple to install. The disadvantage of this cable is, the failure of cable can disturb the whole
network

Optical Fibre Cable

This cable uses the notion of light reflected through a core that is made with plastic or glass. The
core is enclosed with less thick plastic or glass and it is known as the cladding, used for large
volume data transmission.

The main advantages of this cable include lightweight, capacity & bandwidth will be increased,
signal attenuation is less, etc. The disadvantages are high cost, fragile, installation & maintenance
is difficult and unidirectional.

Unguided Media

It is also known as unbounded otherwise wireless transmission media. It doesn’t require any
physical medium to transmit electromagnetic signals. The main features of this media are less
secure, the signal can be transmitted through air, and applicable for large distances. There are
three types of unguided media which are discussed below.

Radiowaves

These waves are very easy to produce as well as penetrate through buildings. In this, the
transmitting & receiving antennas no need to align. The frequency range of these waves ranges
from 3 kHz to 1GHz. These waves are used in AM & Fm radios for transmission. These waves
are classified into two types namely Terrestrial & Satellite.

Microwaves

It is a sightline transmission which means the transmitting & receiving antennas need to align
correctly with each other. The distance which is covered through the signal can be directly
proportional to the antenna’s height. The frequency range of microwaves ranges from 1GHz to
300GHz. These are extensively used in TV distribution & mobile phone communication

Infrared Waves

69
Infrared (IR) waves are used in extremely small distance communication as they cannot go
through obstacles. So it stops intrusion between systems. The range of frequency of these waves
is 300GHz to 400THz. These waves are used in TV remotes, keyboards, wireless mouse, printer,
etc.

Some Factors

The following factors must be considered to design the transmission media like the following.

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Bandwidth

The bandwidth mainly refers to the capacity of data-carrying in a medium otherwise a channel.
So, high BW communication channels mainly support high data rates.

Radiation

The radiation refers to the signal leakage from the medium because of its unwanted electrical
characteristics.

Absorption of Noise

The absorption of noise refers to the vulnerability of the media to exterior electrical noise. This
noise can cause data signal distortion.

Attenuation

Attenuation refers to the energy loss when signal broadcasts externally. The loss of energy
amount mainly depends on frequency. Radiation, as well as physical media characteristics,
contributes to attenuation.

Transmission Impairment Causes

The transmission impairment mainly causes because of the following reasons.

Attenuation

It is the loss of energy which can be occurred due to the decrease in signal & increase in the
distance. Distortion

Distortion mainly occurs because of the change in signal shape. This kind of distortion can be
observed from various signals which have different frequencies. Every frequency component has
its separate propagation speed because they arrive at a different time which leads to the delay in
distortion. Noise

When data is transmitted above a transmission medium, an unwanted signal can be added to it.
So the noise can be created.

MODEM, its block diagram and working.

The term Modem Definition is an acronym for modulator-demodulator. The primary modem
function is to convert digital data into an analog form which is suitable for transmission on
71
common carrier circuits (example telephone lines). Modulation is the D/A conversion in which
the digital data is placed on the transmission line by modulation of a tone or carrier.
Demodulation is the reverse process.

Modem is an abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer from
one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The computer
network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying messages across
phone lines.

The device which performs modulation is called a modulator and the device which recovers the
information signal from the modulated carrier is called a demodulator. In data transmission, we
usually come across devices which perform both modulation as well as demodulation functions
and these devices are called modems. When data is to be transmitted over long distances,
modems are needed. In a modem, the input signal modulates a carrier which is transmitted to the
distant end. At the distant end, another modem demodulators the received carrier to obtain the
digital signal. Thus, a pair of modems is always required. The term ‘modem’ is derived from the
words, Modulator and Demodulator.

Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end and
demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of converting
analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of another computer network so they
can be processed by a receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.

A modem contains a modulator as well as a demodulator. Nearly all the modems are designed for
utilizing the analog voice band service provided by the telecommunication network. Thus, the
modulated carrier produced by a modem fits into the 300-400 Hz bandwidth of the speech
channel. The figure shows a typical data connection set up using modems. The digital terminal
devices exchange digital signals and are known as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE). Two
modems are always needed, one at each end. At the transmitting end, the modem converts the
digital signal from the DTE into an analog signal by modulating a carrier. At the receiving end,
the modem demodulates the carrier and hands over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

A dedicated leased circuit or a switched telephone circuit can be used as transmission medium
between the two modems. In the latter case, moderns are connected to the local telephone
exchanges. Whenever data transmission is needed, connection between the modems is established
through the telephone exchanges. Modems are also needed within a building to connect terminals
which are located at distances, more than 15 metres from the host.

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Block diagram of Modem is as
below:

A block diagram of a modem is shown in the above figure, which comprises a transmitter, a
receiver and two interfaces. The digital signal to be sent is given to the transmitter. The
modulated carrier that is received from the distant end is given to the receiver. TI1e digital
interface connects the modem to the DTE which produces and receives the digital signals. In
order to transmit it and receive the modulated signals, the line interface connects the modem to
the transmission channel. Modems connected to telephone exchanges have additional provision
for connecting a telephone instrument, which enables establishment of the telephone connection.

Networking
Networking refers to the creation of networks. Network is a group of devices linked to one
another. For example a network of telephones, or radio network.
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Need Of Networking

The need for networking lies mainly to break the barriers of distance, time and cost. This is
because the communications via computers can be done to any distance in very short amount of
time and in very cost-effective manner. It breaks the barriers of distance, cost and time. It is very
cost-effective as compared to telephone networks.

All types of data viz text, audio, video, pictures, graphics etc, can be transmitted through it.

Network Criteria

• A network must meet a number of criteria that are important to consider the network
effective and efficient. These are performance, security and reliability.
• Performance: The performance of the network depends on a number of factors including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium.
• Reliability: Network reliability is measured by frequency of failure • Recovery time
of a network after a failure

• The network robustness in a catastrophe.

• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
• Unauthorized access
• Viruses

Different Types of Computer Networks

There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The classification of network
in computers can be done according to their size as well as their purpose.

The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of computers,
which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of
devices spread across the world. Following are the popular types of Computer Network:

74
Types of Computer Networks

Some of the most popular computer network types are:

PAN (Personal Area Network)

•
LAN (Local Area Network)
•
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
•
W AN (Wide Area Network)
•

Let’s study all of these types of networking in detail.

What is PAN (Personal Area Network)? k

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists of a computer,
mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing communication among these personal devices
for connecting to a digital network and the internet.
Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

It is mostly personal devices network equipped wi thin a limited area.

•
Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single u s
•
er.
PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
•
It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
•
Appliances use for PAN: cordless m ice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.
•

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

• PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters

75
 • Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
Distance limits.
•

What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected in a limited area
such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files,
printers, games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in
someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which
consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

•
LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
•
There are various kinds of media access contro l methods like token ring and ethernet.
•

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

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• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the
LAN users.

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 Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

LAN will in deed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
•
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
•
good privacy.
Unauthorized users can access criti cal data of an organization in case LAN admin is not
•
able to secure centralized data repository.
Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
•
software setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a large geographical
area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN’s using telephone lines
and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Characteristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:

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 • The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest
files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network: • The

initial setup cost of investment is very high.

• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire
city, college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly
limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of
network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 5 0 km range

•
Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
•
Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
•

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

It offers fast communication using high - speed carriers, like fiber optic cable s.
•
It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
•
The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions co n
•
currently.
A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
•

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
•
In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
•

Other Types of Computer Networks

Apart from above mentioned computer networks, here are some other important types of networks:

• WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

• Storage Area Network
• System Area Network

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 • Home Area Network
• POLAN- Passive Optical LAN
• Enterprise private network
• Campus Area Network
• Virtual Area Network

Let’s see all these different types of networks in detail:

1) WLAN
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple devices using
wireless communication within a limited area like home, school, or office building. It gives users
an ability to move around within a local coverage area which may be connected to the network.
Today most modern day’s WLAN systems are based on IEEE 802.11 standards.

2) Storage-Area Network (SAN)

A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows consolidated, block-level data
storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical jukeboxes, and tape
libraries.

3) System-Area Network
System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in server-to-
server and processorto-processor applications. The computers connected on a SAN network
operate as a single system at quite high speed.

4) Passive Optical Local Area Network

POLAN is a networking technology which helps you to integrate into structured cabling. It allows
you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and network apps.

POLAN allows you to use optical splitter which helps you to separate an optical signal from a
single-mode optical fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple signals.

5) Home Area Network (HAN):

A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to form a
local area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States, about 15 million
homes have more than one computer.

These types of network connections help computer owners to interconnect with multiple
computers. This network allows sharing files, programs, printers, and other peripherals.

6) Enterprise Private Network :

Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are build and owned by businesses that want to
securely connect numerous locations in order to share various computer resources.

81
7) Campus Area Network (CAN):
A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a specific
geographical area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a variety of campus
buildings to connect all the academic departments.
8) Virtual Private Network:
A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites or users
together. The VPN network uses “virtual” connections routed through the internet from the
enterprise’s private network or a thirdparty VPN service to the remote site.

It is a free or paid service that keeps your web browsing secure and private over public WiFi
hotspots.

Network topology

The term Network Topology defines the geographic Physical or logical arrangement of computer networking
devices . The term Topology refers to the way in which the various nodes or computers of a network are linked
together. It describes the actual layout of the computer network hardware. Two or more devices connect to a link;
two or more links form a topology. Topology determines the data paths that may b e used between any pair of
devices of the network.

The selection of a Network Topology for a network can not be done in isolation as it affects the choice of media
and the access method used. Because it determines the strategy used in wiring a building for a network and
deserves some careful study.

Type s of Topologies

Topology refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.

Here, some logical layout of topology.

82
 • Mesh
• Star
• Bus
• Ring
• Tree and Hybrid

Mesh Topology

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In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through a dedicated point -to-point
link. When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for the two connected devices only. Lets say we
have n devices in the net work then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links
in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.

There are two types of Mesh topology:

1. Full Mesh Topology: In this topology each device is connected to the all devices
available on the network.
2. Partial Mesh Topology: In partial mesh topology, each device is connected to o n
ly those devices, to which they communicate frequently. This serves the purpose of
mesh topology and saves the cost of redundant connection, wh ere no communic a
tion happens and connection is not required.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data loss: No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link is only
available for those two devices.
2. Reliable: Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
3. Secure: Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not possible.

4. Easy to troubleshoot: Fault detection is easy as there is a separate connection between each
devices.
5. Fast communication: As there is a dedication connection between two devices on a network,
the communication is fast.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
84
1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required must
be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a
dedicated point to point link.

Star Topology

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In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star
topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device must have to communicate through hub.

If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that
data to the designated device.

The central device is known as hub and other devices connected to hub are called clients . Generally Coaxial
cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the clients to the hub.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive: Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with
hub with one link.
2. Easier to install

3. Cost effective: Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with
the hub only.
4. Robust: If one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy to troubleshoot: Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
6. Reliable: Each device is separately connected to the hub, so a connection failure between a
device and hub doesn’t affect the connection of the other devices.
7. Expendable: It is easy to add new devices to the network in star topology. This is because a
new device just requires a connection to the hub and it can easily communicate with other
devices on the network.

Disadvantages of Star topology

86
1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star topology.

Bus Topology

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main cable through
drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the
87
data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable
can have.

• The main cable that is connected to the devices on the network using drop line is
called backbone cable.
• The main cable broadcast the message to all the devices connected to it.
• When a device wants to sends a message, it transmits the message to the
backbone cable. All the other devices connected to the backbone cable receives the
message whether they are intended to receive the message or not.
• The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access). This method is used to prevent the collision of data as two or
more devices can send the data to main cable at the same time.

CSMA: This method is developed to decrease the chance of collisions when two or more devices
starts sending the signal at the same time.

CSMA CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): In this method, a device
monitors the transmission medium after it sends the data to see if the transmission was successful.
If successful, the device marks the communication successful else it sends the data again.
CSMA CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): This method tries to
prevent the collision from happening. In this method, before sending the data, the device checks
the transmission medium to see if it is busy or not. If busy, then the sender device waits until the
transmission medium becomes idle.
Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.

2. Less Expensive: Less cables are required than Mesh and star topology
3. Limited failure: The connection failure of one device doesn’t affect the connections of other
devices on network.

88
Disadvantages of bus
topology
1. Difficultly in fault detection.
2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with cable.
backbone
3. Difficult to troubleshoot:
It is difficult to identify the cause of failure.
4. Data collision: When two or more devices send the data simultaneously then there is a chance of data collision.
However this can be solved by implementing CSMA ques that
techni
we discussed above.

Ring Topology

89
In ring topology each device is connected
wo with
devices
the ton either side of it. There are two dedicated point to
point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This
a ring
structure
thus it is
forms
known as ring
topology.

If a device wants to send data to another device then it sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology
has a repeater, if the received data is intended for other device then repeater
ata until
forwards
the intended
this d
device receives it.

Data flow isunidirectional in ring topology.

•
This topology doesn’t have any end points as nodes are connected in hcircular fas
•
ion.
The data transfers in ring topology in clockwise direction.
•
The popular access thod
me used in ring topologytoken
is passing method. The
•
word token describes segment of data send through the network. There are multiple
tokens available on the network, the device that successfully acquirest the token a
taches the data to the token. evice
The d that successfully decodes the token,
e r
ceives the data.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links are required
to be changed.

90
3. Less expensive: Generally Twisted pair cabling is used in ring topology which is inexpensive
and easily available.
4. Easy maintenance: The network in ring topology is easy to maintain as a system failure
doesn’t affect other systems on network, the failed system can be easily removed and installed
again after fixing the issue.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Hybrid topolo
gy

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a combination of star and mesh
topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid
topology
1. We can choose the topology based on the requirementscalability
for example,
is our concern then we can use star
topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks with different topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

91
1. Fault detection is difficult.
2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.
Tree topology

Tree topology is an
example of hybrid topology as it is a combination of
star t o
•
pology and bus topology .
The devices are connected to each
other in hierarchical manner. Each node has
r a
•
bitrary number of child nodes. The device at the top of the hierarchy is known as
root node and other devices that are lower in hierarchy known as descendants of
the root node.
There is a single path betweenotw
devices and this is the path of the communic
a
•
tion between devices.
Tree topology is also called
star - bus topology .
•

Advantages of Tree
topology
1. Easy error detection.
2. Expendable:It is easy to add new devices to the network in tree topology.

92
3. Easy maintenance: Devices are grouped in small star networks and these star networks
are connected to each other using bus topology. It is easy to manage a device in small star
network.
4. Reliable: One system failure doesn’t bring the whole network down. The failed system
can be easily managed. 5. Supports broadband transmissions: It supports broadband
transmission that is reason this topology is frequently used in corporate networks.
Disadvantages of Tree topology

1. Cost: Cost of broadband transmission is high.

2. Dependant on backbone cable of bus topology: All the devices connected in star networks
are connected with other devices using backbone cable of bus topology. Failure in this main
cable can affect the whole network.

Considerations for choosing topology

• Money-Bus n/w may be the least expensive way to install a n/w.

• Length-of cable needed- the linear bus n/w uses shorter lengths of cable.
• Future growth-with star topology, expending a n/w is easily done by adding another
devices.
• Cable type-most common used cable in commercial organization is twisted pair. which
often used with star topologies.
• Full mesh topology is theoretically the best since every device is connected to every other
device.(thus maximizing speed and security. however, it quite expensive to install)
• Next best would be tree topology, which is basically a connection of star.
Protocol

A Protocol is one of the components of a data communications system. Without protocol

communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data and expect the
receiving device to receive and further interpret it correctly. When the sender sends a message
it may consist of text, number, images, etc. which are converted into bits and grouped into
blocks to be transmitted and often certain additional information called control information is
also added to help the receiver interpret the data.

For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain
rules called protocol. A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data
communications. A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be
communicated and when it is to be communicated.

Elements of a Protocol

93
 There are three key elements of a protocol:

A. Syntax
It means the structure or format of the data.

It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.

B. Semantics

It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each section.

It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.

C. Timing

It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data

It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid overwhelming
the receiver.

There are various types of protocols that support a major and compassionate role in
communicating with different devices across the network. These are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol which

is used for communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets
that are sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used
with TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a
network until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol
connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to
Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and
low-latency linking between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute
outgoing E-Mail.

94
 6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to
another. Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and
documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext
among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be
in any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow
a client system for establishing a connection with the server machine for making a
request. The server acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds
accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among two
computers one using the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP is used
for transferring data between the client browser (request) and the web server (response) in
the hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in
an encrypted format. So it can be said that https thwart hackers from interpretation or
modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The
connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for
connection is the local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the
remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server
principle.

MCQ for Practice

MAN” stands for

a. Maximum Area Network b. Minimum Area Network

95
 c. Main Area Network d. Metropolitan Area Network

Which of the following is a network topology

a. LAN b. WAN

c. MAN d. BUS

Which of the following is a type of network

a. Ring b. Bus c. Star d. PAN

VOIP stands for..........

a. Voice over IP b. Video over IP

c. Viruses over IP d. Virtual over IP

The first web browser is

a. Mosaic b. Netscape

c. Internet explorer d. Collabra

LAN stands for...............

a. Limited Area Network b. Logical Area Network

c. Local Area Network d. Large Area Network

......... are set of rules and procedures to control the data transmission over the internet

a. IP address b. Domains

c. Protocol d. Gateway

NOS stands for

a. Node operating system b. Non-open software

c. Network Operating system d. Non-operating software

............. are system software to facilitate editing of text and data

a. MS Word b. Editors

c. PowerPoint d. MS publisher

Computers, combine both measuring and counting, are called :

a. Analog b. Digital c. Hybrid d. All of these

96
In world today, most of the computers are :

a. Digital b. Hybrid c. Analog d. Complex

Physical structure of computer is called :

a. Software b. Hardware c. Human ware d. All of these

------ is the measurement of things such as fingerprints and retinal scans used for security access.

a. Biometrics b. Bio measurement

c. Computer security d. Smart weapon machinery

What is the most common tool used to restrict access to a computer system?

a. User logins b. Passwords

b. Computer keys d. Access-control software

Hardware or software designed to guard against unauthorized access to a computer

network is known as a(n):

a. Hacker-proof program. b. Firewall.

c. Hacker-resistant server. d. Encryption safe wall.

The scrambling of code is known as:

a. Encryption. b. a firewall.

c. Scrambling. d. Password proofing.

To prevent the loss of data during power failures, use a(n):

a. Encryption program. b. Surge protector.

c. Firewall. d. UPS.

------Is defined as any crime completed through the use of computer technology.

a. Computer forensics b. Computer crime

c. Hacking d. Cracking

------ refers to electronic trespassing or criminal hacking.

a. Cracking b. Jacking c. Spoofing d. Smarming

97
The process of transferring files from a computer on the Internet to your computer is called

a. Downloading b. uploading

c. FTP d. JPEG

Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves ______________ transmission

a. Automatic b. Half-duplex c. Full-duplex d. Simplex

Data communication system spanning states, countries, or the whole world is

a. LAN b. WAN c. MAN d. PAN

Bluetooth is an example of

a.personal area network b. local area network

c. virtual private network d. WAN

In IPV 4, the IP address 200.200.200.200 belongs to

a.Class A b.Class B c. Class C d. Class D

Networks that use different technologies can be connected by using

a. Packets b. Switches c. Bridges d. Routers

Unit-4
Brief history of e-commerce, definitions of e-commerce, technical components and their
functions, e-commerce versus traditional business, requirements of e-commerce. Advantages and
disadvantages of e-commerce, Value chain in e-commerce, current status of e-commerce in India.
Types of business models (B2B, B2C, C2B, C2C) with examples.

4.1 Brief History of e-commerce

98
E-commerce originated in a standard for the exchange of business documents, such as orders or
invoices, between suppliers and their business customers. Those origins date to the 1948–49
Berlin blockade and airlift with a system of ordering goods primarily via telex. Various industries
elaborated upon that system in the ensuing decades before the first general standard was
published in 1975. The resulting computer-to-computer electronic data interchange (EDI)
standard is flexible enough to handle most simple electronic business transactions.

1969: CompuServe Founded

Amidst the landmark events of 1969, the history of eCommerce in the USA – and the world –
begins in Columbus, Ohio with the launch of CompuServe, the first eCommerce company.
Because there’s no internet, the company provides computer sharing services to businesses by
sending data through phone lines (known as Electronic Data Interchange, or EDI).

1972: Computers Facilitate the First Online Sale

You may hear that the first online sale was marijuana, but this is only partially true. While
Stanford University and MIT students do use an Arpanet account to make a marijuana sale,
money and product still exchanges hands in person. So while a computer facilitates the
transaction, it’s not truly “sold over the internet.”

1976: Online Transaction Processing Introduced

As our nation celebrates its bicentennial, Atalla Technovation and Bunker Ramo Corporation
introduce products designed for secure online transaction processing, intended for financial
institutions.

1979: Electronic Shopping Invented

Ten years after the founding of CompuServe, British inventor Michael Aldrich demonstrates how
electronic shopping could work by connecting a modified television to a transactionprocessing
computer via telephone line.

1983: Electronic Commerce Acknowledged

California State Assembly holds its first hearing on "electronic commerce." Testifying are

CPUC, MCI Mail, Prodigy, CompuServe, Volcano Telephone, and Pacific Telesis. A year later,
California's Electronic Commerce Act would pass, imposing certain requirements on systems
designed "to conduct the purchase of goods and services via a telecommunications network."

1984: CompuServe Opens the Electronic Mall

99
One of the first examples of online retail, CompuServe introduces the Electronic Mall in 1984,
allowing its users to purchase products from approximately 100 different merchants. Check out
these vintage news clips highlighting this new way to shop. Think it will catch on?

1990: WorldWideWeb Launches

The first web browser launches, which will be a catalyst for online shopping as internet users can
quickly find what they’re looking for and retailers can reach a broader audience.

1994: The First Secure Online Transaction is Made

A full ten years after the launch of the Electronic Mall, Netscape 1.0 releases. Featuring a
protocol called Secure Socket Layer (SSL), it keeps both the sending and receiving side of online
transactions secure through encryption. A number of third-party credit card processing companies
launch shortly after as the internet becomes a truly commercial medium.

The first ever secure online transaction using encryption takes place on August 11, 1994, when
Phil Brandenberger purchases the Sting CD Ten Summoners’ Tales through NetMarket, as
reported in the New York Times story “Attention Shoppers: Internet is Open.”

1995: Amazon, eBay, and the Online Marketplace Boom

Online marketplaces begin opening up. This includes Jeff Bezos’ Amazon, initially designed for
selling books, and Pierre Omidyar’s AuctionWeb, the first online auction site which would soon
become known as eBay. 1998: PayPal Launches

Originally introduced as Confinity, PayPal debuts as a money transfer tool. By 2000, it would
merge with Elon Musk’s online banking company and mark its rise in popularity.

1999: Global eCommerce reaches $150 Billion

Startups proliferate, with entrepreneurs being seduced by the get-rich-quick promise of the
internet. Of course, the good times won’t last forever...

2000: The Dotcom Bust and Online Advertising

The bubble bursts with the NASDAQ falling 75% from March 2000 to October 2002, erasing
most of the gains made since the internet took off. Many online and technology entities declare
bankruptcy, including Webvan, an early grocery delivery service.

Despite the bust, Google AdWords is introduced as a way for eCommerce companies to advertise
through short-text ad copy and display URLs. Pay-per-click (PPC) advertising efforts of online
retailers takes off.

100
2005: eCommerce Makes a Comeback

eCommerce bounces back from the bust big time, and Cyber Monday (the Monday after Black
Friday) is introduced to boost online holiday purchases. In addition, Amazon launches Amazon
Prime, giving members free 2-day shipping within the United States and making expedited
shipping a consumer expectation. Today, there are approximately 142 million Prime members in
the United States.

2006: Online Shopping Platforms Increase

Shopify as we know it today is founded by Tobias Lütke, Daniel Weinand, and Scott Lake,
making it easy for merchants to create online stores. Many other eCommerce platforms, such as
Magento and BigCommerce, quickly enter the space and make a name for themselves.

2012: Food Shopping Goes Virtual

Though the aforementioned Webvan and other grocery delivery services failed or struggled in the
past, food shopping finally finds its groove in 2012, with the founding of Instacart. Instacart
sends shoppers to local stores to pick out groceries that consumers order online. Today, with
advances in cold warehousing and delivery, online food shopping is big business.

Also in 2012, fulfillment solutions provider The Fulfillment Lab is founded by Rick Nelson,
giving eCommerce business owners further insight into their inventory, new methods of
customizing packaging, and more ways to increase sales.

2017: Ecommerce Remains Unstoppable

As brick-and-mortar sales decline, global e-commerce transactions soar, generating $29.267

trillion, including $25.516 trillion for B2B transactions and $3.851 trillion for B2C sales.

2020: The COVID-19 Boost

The coronavirus pandemic forces many physical stores to close their doors, and lockdowns keep
many citizens quarantined at home. To purchase essentials and combat boredom, people embrace
online shopping. According to data from IBM’s U.S. Retail Index, the pandemic accelerated the
shift away from physical stores to digital shopping by roughly five years.

4.2 Definitions of e-commerce

Ecommerce, also known as electronic commerce or internet commerce, refers to the buying and
selling of goods or services using the internet, and the transfer of money and data to execute these
transactions. Ecommerce is often used to refer to the sale of physical products online, but it can
also describe any kind of commercial transaction that is facilitated through the internet.

101
Whereas e-business refers to all aspects of operating an online business, ecommerce refers
specifically to the transaction of goods and services.

The history of ecommerce begins with the first ever online sale: on the August 11, 1994 a man
sold a CD by the band Sting to his friend through his website NetMarket, an American retail
platform. This is the first example of a consumer purchasing a product from a business through
the World Wide Web—or “ecommerce” as we commonly know it today.

Since then, ecommerce has evolved to make products easier to discover and purchase through
online retailers and marketplaces. Independent freelancers, small businesses, and large
corporations have all benefited from ecommerce, which enables them to sell their goods and
services at a scale that was not possible with traditional offline retail.

4.3 Technical components and their functions

Every business person is looking to have an online store to sell their range of products and
services. Creating an effective business strategy is one of the major keys as it defines what your
business offers. Having a clear purpose and direction will help you understand the things you
need and your consumers.

Customer Engagement

To convert potential consumers, you need to make a good first impression. Your website
represents your online presence, and you need to be creative as well.

Getting the best design for your website can last your impression, and easy navigation to your
website can give your consumers an excellent shopping experience. You can go for a less stylish
design or bold themes with colors to represent your website.

The pages of your website are also important. Your “About Us” page conveys details about your
business niche, your location, and what you serve. Adding good quality images and a unique
description of your products is also a must. Adding an FAQ page that can answer the basic
questions of your customers will add up to your customer satisfaction experience.

Quality Of Your Products

The quality of your products can help you gain trusted and loyal consumers. This also reduces
your time, cost, and risk of getting return requests for defective products.

This will create a negative impression that products you sell online are not of good quality. You
create a good impression and brand reputation by ensuring your online consumers that your
products are genuine and of good quality. Getting ISO accreditation is another way of gaining
your consumers’ trust.
102
Standardization Of Your Product Prices
Online consumers always look for and compare the product prices that you offer. Product pricing
is considered to be a marketing tool and has a direct effect on your conversion rates. This is the
reason why you must evaluate your product prices.

You have to keep in mind that when an online consumer visits a website, the first thing they look
for is the product’s price A proven way to standardize your product pricing is by having a
costbased model that works in three steps deciding your cost price, wholesale price, and your
retail price.

Ensuring Your Store Security

Your online store must be secured so that your consumers will have the confidence to purchase
your products. Your online retail shopping cart should have excellent security features that will
prevent your consumers’ personal information from falling into the wrong hands. This can
directly improve your business’ reputation.

There are different ways to secure your eCommerce website. One is by using an SSL (Secure
Socket Layer) certificate that encrypts data on your website to secure it from online threats.
Another is implementing advanced verification methods. This will earn your consumer’s trust
because they know you are taking good security measures.

Reliable and Trusted Customer Support

Online consumers trust the reliability part. If your customer support attends to their questions,
queries, and problems relating to product purchase, payment, returns, and delivery adds reliability
and trust to your brand.

Your customer service should be available 24/7 and must provide your consumers with an
excellent approach. Additionally, you can use a chatbot for connecting with your audience on a
personal level.

Having good customer service will help you gain and retain consumers. This will also help you
build your brand identity.

Enabling M-Commerce

Your online eCommerce business should be able to adapt to technological advancement to stay
competitive in the market. M-Commerce or Mobile Commerce is an innovative trend in online
retailers nowadays.

Most consumers do their product research, purchase, and payment with the use of their
smartphones. Having a mobile app for your online retail store is the main component of an

103
effective eCommerce business. It is also important that you should monitor and upgrade your app
regularly.

Utilize The Power Of Social Media

There are approximately 4.4 billion internet users worldwide, out of which 3.44 billion are active
on social media. Most companies sell products or services on Instagram Shopping as it generates
more attention and engagement than Facebook.

Therefore, promoting your eCommerce business on social media will surely boost your store’s

presence, engagement, and conversion rate. 4.4 E-commerce versus traditional business

Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR TRADITIONAL COMMERCE E-COMMERCE
COMPARISON

Traditional commerce is a branch of busi e-Commerce means carryng

ness which focuses on the exchange of out commercial transactions
products and services, and includes all or exchange of information,
those activities which encourages ex electronically on the internet. change,
in some way or the other.

Processing of Automatic
Transactions

24×7×365

Goods can be inspected physically before Goods cannot be inspected

purchase. physically before purchase.

Customer interac Screen-to-face tion

Worldwide reach

Information ex No uniform platform for exchange of in Provides a uniform platform change

formation. for information exchange.
Meaning
Manual
Accessibility Limited Time
Physical inspection
Face-to-face
Scope of business Limited to particular area.

104
Resource focus Supply side Demand side

Business Relation- Linear End-to-end

BASIS FOR TRADITIONAL COMMERCE E-COMMERCE
COMPARISON

ship

Marketing One way marketing One-to-one marketing

Payment Cash, cheque, credit card, etc. Credit card, fund transfer etc.

Delivery of goods Instantly Takes time

4.5 Requirements of e-commerce

E-Commerce website requirements

checklist o 1. Fast, stable & secure
web hosting o 2. Highly-responsive
mobile site o 3. User-friendly web
design o 4. Robust operation
systems o 5. Fast checkout process
o 6. Transparent brand information
pages o 7. SEO-friendly web pages o
8. Smooth sales channels integration
o 9. Product reviews
o 10. Personalized product
recommendations o 11. Low
shipping fee
o 12. Integration with a digital
advertising service o 13.
Integration with an email marketing tool
o 14. Blogs
o 15. Report + Analytics tool

4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce

Advantages of eCommerce
There are a number of prominent and not-so-obvious advantages for doing business on an
online platform. Understanding exactly how e-Commerce works can help individuals
leverage them to their and their businesses advantage:

1. A Larger Market: E-Commerce allows individuals to reach customers all

across the country and all around the world. E-Commerce gives business owners the
platform to reach people from the comfort of their homes. The customers can make
any purchase anytime and anywhere, and significantly more individuals are getting
used to shopping on their mobile devices.
2. Customer Insights Via Tracking And Analytics: Whether the businesses
are sending the visitors to their eCommerce website via PPC, SEO, ads, or a good
old postcard, there is a way of tracking the traffic and the consumers’ entire user
journey for getting insights into the keywords, marketing message, user experience,
pricing strategy, and many more.
3. Fast Response To The Consumer Trends And The Market Demands:
Especially for the business people who do “drop ship,” the logistics, when
streamlined, allow these businesses to respond to the market and the trends of
eCommerce and demands of the consumers in a lively manner. Business people can
also create deals and promotions on the fly for attracting customers and generate
more sales.
4. Lower Cost: With the advancement of the eCommerce platforms, it has
become very affordable and easy to set up and run an eCommerce business with a
lower overhead. Business people no longer need to spend a big budget on TV ads or
billboards, nor think about personnel and real estate expenses.
5. More Opportunities For “Selling.”: Business people can only offer a
limited amount of information about a product in a physical store. Besides that,
eCommerce websites give them the space to include more information like reviews,
demo videos, and customer testimonials for helping increased conversion.
6. Personalised Messaging: E-Commerce platforms give people in business the
opportunity to provide personalised content and product recommendations for
registering customers. These targeted communications can help in increasing
conversion by showing the most relevant content to the visitor.
7. Increased Sales Along with Instant Gratification: For businesses selling
digital goods, eCommerce allows them to deliver products within seconds of placing
an order. This satisfies the needs of the consumers for instant gratification and assists
increase sales, especially for the low-cost objects that are often known as “impulse
buys.”
8. Ability to Scaling Up (Or Down) Quickly Also Unlimited “Shelf Space.”:
The growth of any online business is not only limited by the availability of space.
Even though logistics might become an issue as one’s business grows, it’s less of a
challenge compared to running any brick-and-mortar store. E-Commerce business
owners can choose to scale up or down their operation quickly by taking advantage
of the non-ending “shelf space,” as a response to the market trends and demands of
consumers.

Disadvantages of e-Commerce
Running a business that is e-commerce is not always rainbows and unicorns. There are
unique challenges to this business model — learning about them will help business people
navigate the choppy waters and avoid common pitfalls.

1. Lack of Personal Touch: Some customers appreciate the personal touch

they offer when visiting a physical store by interacting with the sales associates. Such
personal touch is especially essential for businesses that sell high-end products as
customers will want to buy the products and have an excellent experience during the
process.
2. Lack of Tactile Experience: No matter how good a video is made,
customers still can’t feel and touch a product. Not to mention, it’s never an easy task
to deliver a brand experience that could often be including the sense of touch, taste,
smell, and sound via the twodimensionality of any screen.
3. Product and Price Comparison: With online shopping, customers can
compare several products and find the least price. This forces many businesses to
compete on price and reduce their profit margin, reducing the quality of products.
4. Need for Access to the Internet: This is obvious, but don’t forget that the
customers do need access to the Internet before purchasing from any business! As
many eCommerce platforms have the features and functionalities which require a
high-speed Internet connection for an optimal consumer experience, there’s a chance
that companies are excluding visitors who have slow internet connections.
5. Credit Card Fraud: Credit card frauds are a natural and growing problem
for online businesses. It can lead to many chargebacks, which result in the loss of
penalties, revenue, and a bad reputation.
6. IT Security Issues: More and more organisations and businesses have fallen
prey to malicious hackers who have stolen information of the customers from their
databases. This could have financial and legal implications, but it also reduces the
company’s trust.
7. All the Eggs in One Basket: E-Commerce businesses rely solely or heavily
on their websites. Even just some minutes of downtime or technology glitches could
be resulting in a substantial revenue loss and customer dissatisfaction.
8. Complexity in Regulations, Taxation, and Compliance: Suppose any
online business sells to its consumers in different territories. In that case, they’ll have
to stick to the regulations in their own countries or states and their consumers’ places
of residence. This could be creating a lot of complexities in accounting, taxation and
compliance.

4.7 Value chain in e-commerce

A value chain is a business model that describes the full range of activities needed to
create a product or service. For companies that produce goods, a value chain comprises the
steps that involve bringing a product from conception to distribution, and everything in
between— such as procuring raw materials, manufacturing functions, and marketing
activities.

Components of a Value Chain

In his concept of a value chain, Porter splits a business's activities into two categories,
"primary" and "support," -

Primary Activities
Primary activities consist of five components, and all are essential for adding value and creating
competitive advantage:

1. Inbound logistics include functions like receiving, warehousing, and managing

inventory.
2. Operations include procedures for converting raw materials into a finished product.
3. Outbound logistics include activities to distribute a final product to a consumer.
4. Marketing and sales include strategies to enhance visibility and target appropriate
customers—such as advertising, promotion, and pricing.
5. Service includes programs to maintain products and enhance the consumer
experience— like customer service, maintenance, repair, refund, and exchange.
Support Activities
The role of support activities is to help make the primary activities more efficient. When you
increase the efficiency of any of the four support activities, it benefits at least one of the five
primary activities. These support activities are generally denoted as overhead costs on a
company's income statement:

1. Procurement concerns how a company obtains raw materials.

2. Technological development is used at a firm's research and development (R&D)
stage—like designing and developing manufacturing techniques and automating
processes.
3. Human resources (HR) management involves hiring and retaining employees
who will fulfill the firm's business strategy and help design, market, and sell the product.
4. Infrastructure includes company systems and the composition of its
management team—such as planning, accounting, finance, and quality control.

4.8 current status of e-commerce in India

Describes how widely ecommerce is used, the primary sectors that sell through ecommerce,
and how much product/service in each sector is sold through e-commerce versus brick-and-
mortar retail. Includes what a company needs to know to take advantage of ecommerce in
the local market with a list of reputable, prominent B2B websites.

Current Market Trends

Online retail sales in India are expected to grow by 31 per cent to US$ 32.70 billion in 2018,
led by Flipkart, Amazon India and Paytm Mall.

Electronics is currently the biggest online retail sales category with a share of 48 per cent,
followed closely by apparel at 29 per cent.

Some of the major developments in the India eCommerce sector are:

 • Flipkart, after getting acquired by Walmart for US$ 16 billion, is expected to launch
more offline retail stores in India to promote private labels in segments such as fashion
and electronics. In September 2018, Flipkart acquired Israel based analytics start-up
Upstream Commerce that will help the firm to price and position its products in an
efficient way.

• Launch of Paytm Payment Bank. Paytm bank is India's first bank with zero charges
on online transactions, no minimum balance requirement and free virtual debit card

• The E-commerce industry in India witnessed 21 private equity and venture capital
deals worth US$ 2.1 billion in 2017 and 40 deals worth US$ 1,129 million in the first
half of 2018.

• Google enters India's eCommerce Space with Google Shopping. Google and Tata
Trust have collaborated for the project ‘Internet Saathi’ to improve internet penetration
among rural women in India
Government Initiatives:

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has decided to allow "inter-operability" among
Prepaid Payment Instruments (PPIs) such as digital wallets, prepaid cash coupons and
prepaid telephone topup cards. RBI has also instructed banks and companies to make all
know-your-customer (KYC)compliant prepaid payment instruments (PPIs), like mobile
wallets, interoperable amongst themselves via Unified Payments Interface (UPI).

• The Government of India has distributed rewards worth around US$23.8 million to 1
million customers for embracing digital payments, under the Lucky Grahak Yojana and
Digi-Dhan Vyapar Yojana.

• The Government of India launched an e-commerce portal called TRIFED and an m-

commerce portal called ‘Tribes India’ which will enable 55,000 tribal artisans get access
to international markets.

• To increase the participation of foreign players in the e-commerce field, the Indian
Government hiked the limit of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the E-commerce
marketplace model for up to 100 per cent (in B2B models).

• The e-commerce industry been directly impacting the micro, small & medium
enterprises (MSME) in India by providing means of financing, technology and training
and has a favorable cascading effect on other industries as well.

NEW Government Regulatory Landscape for eCommerce Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):
On December 26th, 2018 the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade
under the Ministry of Commerce (the "DPIIT"), introduced stricter guidelines that govern
foreign direct investment ("FDI") in e-commerce firms.Equity Ownership

• Inventory Based or Marketplace Based

 • Exclusivity
• Services Offered by the E-Commerce Entity
• Compliance Certificate
4.9 Types of business models (B2B, B2C, C2B, C2C) with examples
B2B

B2B (Business-To-Business) is a commercial activity (business) between two companies.

So the clients of one enterprise are other companies. The use of internet technologies in the
commercial communication of enterprises creates new business connections, speeds up
transactions, facilitates the process of purchasing and selling goods, materials, equipment,
and products.

The sizes of companies, engaged in B2B, can be different – from the smallest to the largest.
Let’s say, very small barbershops can be consumers of products of large (mass-production)
factories, which produce hair clippers, trimmers, and other similar equipment. And vice versa: a
small firm, consisting of ten developers, can supply entire corporations with exclusive software.

Originally, the term was used to describe any type of process of selling products between
enterprises. Today, it is more commonly used to describe online transactions between companies.

The most popular B2B types:

 Engineering and machinery (auto industry, airplane industry, shipbuilding, etc).

But you should remember that when, for instance, Mercedes Benz produces its vehicles and
sells them to end users (individuals), it is B2C. However, the plant doesn’t sell cars directly
to people. Usually, such enterprises implement this through an authorized dealer network,
thus it is B2B. Authorized dealers, in turn, will sell cars to individuals, which makes it a
B2C situation. But if an authorized dealer sold vehicles to a transport company, it again will
become a B2B case;
 Commodity and metal processing companies. When an enterprise that does the
job of exploiting oil, sells it to oil-processing plants it is B2B. Oil refineries sell it to gas
stations, and they are B2B companies for the latter. Finally, when you get some gas from a
gas station, it is definitely a B2C case;
 Chemical industry;
 Wood processing;
 Advertising and marketing services. Mostly, individuals don’t need marketing and
advertising. Thus, this industry is a B2B representative.

There are many other examples of industries, but they depend on the country, economy, and many
other factors.

B2C
B2C (Business-To-Consumer) is a commercial activity between companies and consumers.
It can be a huge supermarket, online store, or even a small branch of a law firm (consulting
individuals).

Initially, the term was used to define any type of process of selling products directly to
consumers, including shopping in-store or eating in a restaurant. Nowadays, it is used to
describe transactions between online retailers and their customers.

The most popular B2C types:

 Stationary points of sale. It is about all kinds of brick-and-mortar stores. Any large
or small shop near your house, even a tobacco kiosk, is a B2C business;
 Mobile points of sale. Hot dogs on wheels, portable coffee carts, and even
individuals (entrepreneurs) that sell goods on the street are good examples of mobile points
of sale;
 Catering, such as fast food networks (McDonald’s or Burger King), cafes,
restaurants, diners, bars, pubs, etc.;
 E-commerce. It is the biggest sector, including all kinds of online stores, from
specialized (for example, Oriflame or DeWalt) to general (like Amazon) ones. It is about
any product or service aimed at the final consumer.

C2C

C2C (Consumer-To-Consumer) is a commercial activity between private individuals

(consumers). This business model can be implemented directly, as well as through a third-
party (mediator).

Initially, the C2C model implies direct sales between individuals. Today, it is more about
online sales between individuals. In this case, a need for a third-party emerges (marketplaces
and classified advertisements sites, such as eBay, Craigslist, or Gumtree). Thus, if you buy
an iPad on eBay from an individual, not an entrepreneur, it is a classic C2C model. If you
sell a chainsaw to your neighbor, it is also an example of C2C, however, an offline “old-
school” type.

C2B
C2B (Consumer-To-Business) is a little unusual model of e-commerce. Consumers define
(bid) prices on goods and services (offered by businesses) by themselves. An American
company Priceline.com is a typical example of C2B. Thus, the company is more like a
broker, which searches for firms that are ready to sell goods or services for the bid (by the
customer) prices.
E-Government

E-government is the use of electronic communications devices (computers, Internet, etc) to

provide public services in a country or region.

With the modern development of technology, it is quite logical to move some interaction
with the government and state to the electronic form. It includes the collection of taxes and
duties, registration of vehicles and small and medium-sized businesses, communication with
the traffic police, etc.

Thus, there are new abbreviations and definitions:

1. G2G (Government-To-Government) is commerce between government

authorities and institutions.
2. B2G (Business-To-Government) is a commercial activity between companies and
the public sector. Public tenders, businesses that pay taxes, file reports, selling goods to
governmental institutions are the best examples of B2G model.
3. G2C (Government-To-Citizens) is relationships between organizations (subjects)
of public administration and citizens.
 UNIT -5

INTRODUCTION
Communication plays a vital role in the fulfillment of all marketing objectives.
Understanding communication is essential since it is the basic process through which
managers specifically and organizations in their entirety accomplish their set
objectives culminating in their success. Various communication tools are MS Word,
MS Excel, MS Powerpoint.

4.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson you would be able to:

• Indicate the names and functions of the Word interface components.

• Create, edit, save, and print documents to include documents with lists and
tables.
• Format text and to use styles.
• Add a header and footer to a document.
• Add a footnote to a document.
• Add a graphic to a document.
• Use the Spelling and Grammar Checker as well as Microsoft Help.
• Manipulate documents using functions such as find and replace; cut, copy,
replace.
• Identify the names and functions of the PowerPoint interface.
• Create, edit, save, and print presentations.
• Format presentations.
• Add a graphic to a presentation.
• Create and manipulate simple slide shows with outlines and notes.
• Create slide presentations that include text, graphics, animation, and
transitions.
• Use design layouts and templates for presentations.
• Create a PowerPoint presentation.

What is Ms Office
Microsoft Office is the most efficient suite of applications for document creation,
communication and business information analysis. For many functions, the business
platform has evolved from paper to the Web. Microsoft Office extends desktop
productivity to the web, streamlining the way you work and making it easier to
share, access and analyze information so you get better results. Office offers a
multitude of new features. Of particular importance for this release are the features
that affect the entire suite. These Office-wide, or shared features hold the key to the
new realm of functionality enabled by Office. Office offers a new Web-productivity
work style that integrates core productivity tools with the Web to streamline the
process of sharing information and working with others. It makes it easier to use an
organization's intranet to access vital business information and provides innovative
analysis tools that help users
make better,timelierbusinessdecisions.Office deliversnew levels of resilienc
y and

intelligence, enabling users and organizations to get up and running quickly, stay working

and achieve great results with fewer resources.

4.3 COMPONENTS OF MS OFFICE

• MS -WORD

• MS -EXCEL

• MS -POWER -POINT

• MS -ACCESS

4.3.1 MS - WORD

Ms-word is a owerful
p word processor that allows you to create :

• Memos

• Fax coversheets

• Web pages

• Reports

• Mailing labels

• Brochures

• Tables

• And many other professional and business applications.

4.3.2 MS -PowerPoint

MS -PowerPoint is a powerful prese

ntation software, used to create

• Professional quality presentations.

• These can be reproduced on the

 Transparency
 Paper
 35mm slide  Photo print
 On screen presentations

• This allows you to easily publish presentations on the Internet.

4.4 MS WORD
Let us consider an office scene. Many letters are typed in the office. The officer
dictates a letter. The typist first types a draft copy of the letter. The officer goes
through it to check mistakes regarding spelling errors, missing words, etc. and
suggests corrections. The typist changes the letter as suggested by the officer. This is
a simple example of word processing.

There are many software packages to do the job of word processing. Some of them
work in DOS environment. Example are WordStar, Word Perfect and Professional
Write. But in these days working in WINDOWS is becoming more and more
popular. So let us consider software for word processing which works in
WINDOWS. Our choice is MSWORD because it is the most popular software in
these days.

MS-WORD is a part of the bigger package called MS OFFICE, which can do much more
than word processing.

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Word Processor is a Software package that enables you to create, edit, print and save
documents for future retrieval and reference. Creating a document involves typing by
using a keyboard and saving it. Editing a document involves correcting the spelling
mistakes, if any, deleting or moving words sentences or paragraphs.

(a) Advantages of Word Processing

One of the main advantages of a word processor over a conventional typewriter is
that a word processor enables you to make changes to a document without retyping
the entire document.

(b) Features of Word Processing

Most Word Processor available today allows more than just creating and editing
documents. They have wide range of other tools and functions, which are used in
formatting the documents. The following are the main features of a Word Processor
i) Text is typing into the computer, which allows alterations to be made easily.

ii) Words and sentences can be inserted, amended or deleted. iii)

Paragraphs or text can be copied /moved throughout the

document.
 iv) Margins and page length can be adjusted as desired.
v) Spelling can be checked and modified through the spell check facility.
vi) Multiple document/files can be merged.
vii)Multiple copies of letters can be generated with different addresses through the
mailmerge facility.

4.4.2 STARTING MS – WORD

To begin working in Word, start the program from within the Windows environment
or ‘workspace’. You can usually start Word by choosing Microsoft Word from the
Start menu’s Program submenu.

To start Word:

1. On the Windows taskbar, choose Start.

2. From the Programs submenu, choose Microsoft Word 2013.

4.4.3 MS-WORD SCREEN AND COMPONENTS

When you start working in Word, your monitor displays what appears to be a blank
piece of paper on your screen with a blinking black bar on the left. This screen, the
document window, is where you enter and manage your document text. Different
command interfaces and informational display areas, illustrated in Figure 4-1,
surround the document window. Each of these items allows you to receive
information about, or apply features to, your document. Microsoft Word wants you
to manage, organise, and create things with words. That's the essence of word
processing. What you see on the screen, on Word's interface, is designed to make
writing an easy and effortless task. The largest portion of the Word screen is for
composing text. It's blank and white, just like a fresh sheet of paper. That's where
you compose and format your text.

 The title bar lists the document's title or merely Document1 until you
give the document a title by saving it to disk.
 The File Ribbon Tab replaces the traditional File menu of most
Windows programmes. Clicking the File Ribbon Tab displays the File
Ribbon Tab menu, a list of commands that deal with files and documents. It's
the big round button at
 the top left of the screen, with four colourful squares in it.

 Tabs organise Word's various and sundry commands into groups based on word
processing activities. Tabs appear and disappear depending on what you're doing
in Word.

 Groups and command buttons help keep commands for the various tabs
organised. Each group containscommand buttons that do specific things to your
text.

 The Ruler may or may not be visible. When the Ruler is visible, it helps you set
margins and tabs. To show or hide the Ribbon select View Tab then Ruler.

FIGURE 4-1 THE DOCUMENT WINDOW

These Microsoft Word Keyboard Shortcut will help you to complete your documents
much faster.
 TABLE 4-1 STANDARD TOOLBAR

Icon Icon Available in Menu and Command Keyboard Shortcut

Standard Toolbar File, New Ctrl+N

Standard Toolbar File, Open Ctrl+O

Standard Toolbar File, Save Ctrl+S

Standard Toolbar File, Print Ctrl+P

Standard Toolbar File, Print Preview Ctrl+F2 Standard Toolbar Tools, Grammar
Spelling and F7

Standard Toolbar Edit, Cut Ctrl+X

Standard Toolbar Edit, Copy Ctrl+C

Standard Toolbar Edit, Paste Ctrl+V Standard Toolbar

Edit, Undo Ctrl+Z Standard Toolbar Edit, Redo Ctrl+Y
Formatting Toolbar Format, Font, Bold Ctrl+B

Formatting Toolbar Format, Font, Italic Ctrl+I

Formatting Toolbar Format, Font, Underline Ctrl+U Formatting Toolbar Format,

Paragraph, Align Left Ctrl+L

Formatting Toolbar Format, Paragraph, Align Center Ctrl+E

Formatting Toolbar Format, Paragraph, Align Right Ctrl+R

Formatting Toolbar Format, Paragraph, Align Justified Ctrl+J

Standard Toolbar Edit, Find Ctrl+F

View Controls View, Normal Alt+Ctrl+N

View Controls View, Print Layout Alt+Ctrl+P View Controls View, Outline
Alt+Ctrl+O

NA Edit, Replace Ctrl+H NA Edit, Go To Ctrl+G NA Edit, Select All

Ctrl+A

NA View, Task Pane Ctrl+F1

do so:

Figure 4- 2. CREATING NEW DOCUMENT

a) Creating a new blank document . When you’re preparing a simple document—

like a two- page essay, a note for the babysitter, or a press release— a plain,
4.4.3.1 CREATING A NEW DOCUMENT
Whenunadorned
you startpageis fine. Or, when you’re just brainstorming and you’re not sure
Word without opening an existing document, the program gives you an
what you want the final document to look like, you probably want to start with
empty one to work in. If you’re eager to put words to page, then type away. Sooner or
a blank slate or use one of Word’s templates to provide structure for your text.

b) Creating a document from an existing document. For letters, resumes,

and other documents that require more formatting, why reinvent the wheel? You
can save time by using an existing document as a starting point. When you have a
letter format that you like, you can use it over and over by editing the contents.
c) Creating a document from a template. Use a template when you need a
professional design for a complex document, like a newsletter, a contract, or
meeting
minutes.Templatesare a lot like forms— the margins,formatting,and graphicsare

already in place. All you do is fill in your text.

4.4.3.2 OPENING AN EXISTING DOCUMENT

The steps are :

1.
Choose Office button → Open (Alt+F, O). In the Open window , navigate to
the folder and file you want to open .

The Open window startsout showing your My Documentsfolder, since that’swhere

Word suggests you save your files. When your document’s in a more exotic location,
click the My Computer icon, and then navigate to the proper folder from there.

2. With the file selected, click Open in t h e lower -right corner .

The Open box goes away and your document opens in Word. You’re all set to get to
work. Just remember, when you
vesa
this document (Alt+F, S or Ctrl+S), you write over
the previous file. Essentially, you crea
te anew, improved, and only copy of the file you
just opened.If you don’t want to write over the existingdocument,use the Save As
command (Alt+F, A), and then type a new name in the File Name text box.

Figure 4-3 Open dialog box

4. Italic. Italicize your text.
5. Underline. Underline your text.
6. Strikethrough. Strikethrough your text.
7. Text Highlight Color. Highlight your text.
8. Font Color. Change the color of your text.
9. Clear All Formatting. Clear all formatting in the selection and return the text
to its
 default.

3) Clear Existing Formatting

You can clear the formatting in a document by selecting the section you want to clear (or

press CTRL A to select the entire document), and from

Home
thetab in theFont group,

selectClear All Formatting

.

4)Change Text to WordArt

You can quickly and easily add visual appeal to Word text using WordArt.

To change text to WordArt:

1. Select the text you want to convert to WordArt.

2. From theInserttab,in theText group, select

WordArt.

3. Select an option from the drop

-down list.

5)Working with Fonts

1. Bold your name and increase the text size to 20.

1. Highlight your name.
 2. Begin typing.
3. Press the enter key to add additional bullets.
4. Press the Enter key twice to get out of list mode.

To add a numbered list to a Microsoft Word document:

 1. Click the left side of the Numbering command:

2. Begin typing.
3. Press the Enter key to add additional numbers.
4. Press the Enter key twice to get out of list mode.

4.4.1 MAIL MERGE

In any working environment, there are situations when a similar type of letter or
document is to be sent to many persons who reside at different locations. The letters
may contain the address of each recipient, in addition to the standard information
contained in the letter. One way of doing this is to print the letters by changing the
address each time in the document after printing such letter. But this would mean lot
of effort and time and also results in bad organization.

Such problems are taken care of by the Mail Merge facility. In word processing,
Mail Merge is the process of transferring selected information from one document to
another document.

Steps are as follows:

1) In a blank Microsoft Word document, click on the Mailings tab, and in the Start
Mail Merge group, click Start Mail Merge.
2 ) Click Step - by - Step Mail Merge Wizard.

3 ) Select your document type . In this demo we will select Letters. Click Next:
4) Select the starting document. In this demo we will use the current (blank)
Starting document.
document. Select Use the current document and then click Next: Select recipients.
5) Select recipients. In this demo we will create a new list, so select Type a new list and
then click Create.

a) Create a list by adding data in the New Address List dialog box and
clicking OK.
 b)

Save the list.

c) Selecting Edit recipient list opens up the Mail Merge Recipients dialog

box, where you can edit the list and select or unselect records. Click OK to
accept the list as is.
 d) Click Next: Write your letter.

6) Write the letter and add custom fields.

 o Click Address block to add the recipients' addresses at the top of the
document.

7) Press on your keyboard and click Greeting line... to enter a greeting.

8) Note that the address block and greeting line are surrounded by chevrons (« »).
9) Preview your letter and click Next: Complete the merge.

10) Click Print to print your letters or Edit individual letters to further personalize some

or all of the letters.

Write a short letter and click Next: Preview your letters.

 1. Click on the PowerPoint icon in the
Taskbar
. If you do not see the icon, go to
theStartbutton, right
-click, and choose
Search
. Type "PowerPoint" in the search
field, and when PowerPoint appears, double
-click it.

2. PowerPoint will open, prompting you to select a theme. Click on Blank

Presentation.

4.5.3 BASICS OF MS POWERPOINT :

4.5.4 MS POWERPOINT COMPONENTS

 1) Ribbon Organizes commands on tabs, and then groups the commands by
topic for performing related presentation tasks.
2) File tab Displays a list of commands related to things you can do with a
presentation, such as opening, saving, printing, or sharing.
3) Quick Access Toolbar (QAT) Displays buttons to perform frequently used
commands with a single click. Frequently used commands in PowerPoint include
Save, Undo, and Repeat. For commands that you use frequently, you can add
additional buttons to the Quick Access Toolbar.
4) Title bar Displays the name of the presentation and the name of the program.
The Minimize, Maximize/Restore Down, and Close window control buttons are
grouped on the right side of the title bar.
5) Ribbon tabs Display across the top of the Ribbon, and each tab relates to a
type of task-related activity within PowerPoint.
6) Program-level control buttons Minimizes, restores or closes the program
window.
7) Groups Indicate the name of the groups of related commands on each
displayed tab.
8) Slide pane Displays a large image of the active slide in PowerPoint.
9) View buttons A set of commands that control the look of the presentation
window.

4.5.5 ELEMENTARY WORKING WITH MS POWERPOINT

Microsoft PowerPoint is an electronic presentation program that helps people present

a speech using a collection of slides. A PowerPoint presentation is a collection of
slides that can be used to create oral presentations

A) SLIDE SHOW

View >>Slide Show

B) INSERTING A SOUND
Select the slide you are going to put the sound on
Insert << Audio >> Audio from File
Browse for your sound file >> Insert
  MS-Excl Introduction
 File, home, insert etc tab
 Function related to String, maths , Date time  Working of Macro
 Working of vlookup, hlookup, goalseek etc.

SOFTWARE ORIENTATION Microsoft Excel’s Opening Screen Microsoft Office

Excel 2016 provides powerful tools that enable users to organize, analyze, manage,
and share information easily. The foundation of Excel and locations where you do
your work are cells, rows, and columns within a worksheet, and worksheets as part
of a workbook. Many of the tools you use while working in Excel are located on the
ribbon that displays across the top of the window. The ribbon is organized into task-
oriented command tabs. Each tab is divided into task-specific command groups with
commands and options that relate to the group name. Because you can customize the
ribbon and new tabs might appear, such as the Developer and Add-Ins tabs, your
screen might appear different than Figure 1-1. To work efficiently in Microsoft
Excel, you need to become familiar with its primary user interface. You can open
Microsoft Excel 2016 in Windows 10 by moving to the lower-left corner of your
screen, clicking on Start, clicking All apps, and then clicking Excel 2016. Excel
opens to a list of templates and in most cases you choose Blank workbook or open a
previous file. A workbook, or spreadsheet file, is shown in Figure 1-1. Think of a
workbook as a physical book with many pages. The filename (Book1) and the
program name (Excel) appear in the title bar at the top of the screen. Book1 (or
Book2, Book3, and so on) is a temporary title for your workbook until you save the
workbook with a name of your choice. The new workbook contains one worksheet
(Sheet1) by default—similar to the first page in a book—where you enter
information. If a workbook has more pages (or worksheets), you use the sheet tabs
that are located just above the Status bar and are identified as Sheet1, Sheet2, and
Sheet3. You can rename worksheets to identify their content and add worksheets
with the New sheet (+) button as needed.
Navigate a Worksheet GET READY. Click the File tab, click Open, and then click
Browse. In the Open dialog box, choose the location of your Lesson01 data files,
select 01 Contoso Employee Info, and then click Open.

1. Press Ctrl+End to move to the end of the worksheet (cell D27).

2. Press Ctrl+Home to move to the beginning of the worksheet (cell A1).

3. Click in the Name Box, type A3, and then press Enter to make the cell active.

4. Press Ctrl+Down Arrow to go to the last row of data (cell A27). Take Note
Ctrl+Arrow shortcuts allow you to move to the start and end of ranges of data. The
worksheet title, which spans all of the columns, is not considered part of the worksheet’s
data range.

5. Press Ctrl+Right Arrow. Cell D27, the last column in the range of data, becomes the
active cell.

6. Press Ctrl+Down Arrow. The last possible row in the worksheet displays.

7. Press Ctrl+Home.

8. Use the vertical scroll bar to navigate from the beginning to the end of the data.

9. If your mouse has a wheel button, roll the wheel button forward and back to quickly
scroll through the worksheet.

Excel’s Home Tab

The ribbon in Microsoft Office Excel 2016 is made up of a series of tabs, each related to
specific kinds of tasks that you perform in Excel. The Home tab, contains the commands
that people use the most when creating Excel documents. Having commands visible on the
work surface enables you to see at a glance most tasks you want to perform. Each tab
File Button: The leftmost tab on the Ribbon at the top of the Excel window —
replaces the Excel 2007 Office button and the Excel 2003 and earlier versions File
menu. This is where you will find commands and settings to manage and share your
files…
Quick Access Tool Bar: The Quick Access toolbar contains a few command icons. By
default, this toolbar holds buttons Save (Ctrl+S), Undo (Ctrl+Z), and Redo (Ctrl+Y).
Although you can customize the Quick Access toolbar to include your favorite
command that you frequently use.

Different Tab Ribbons: It contains tabs of Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data,
Review, and Views. Each tab holds a group of commands associated with the tab.

Title Bar: The title bar displays the name of the active Spreadsheet.

Ribbon: Below the title bar is the Ribbon, which includes all Excel commands
available in a single area so that you can work with the program efficiently. The
commands in the Ribbon vary depending on which tab is selected. Workbook
commands are represented as buttons on the tabs that make up the Ribbon. By
default, the Home tab is active. Other tabs can be activated by clicking on one of the
other tabs, such as Insert, which displays the buttons of that tab. The Ribbon is
arranged in groups of related commands. Here’s a quick overview of the Excel tabs.
To get the respective ribbon, click on different tabs.

Home: You’re probably going to spend most of your time with the selected home
tab. ‘ This tab contains basic clipboard commands, formatting commands, style
commands, insert and delete commands for rows or columns, as well as a variety of
worksheet editing commands.
Insert: If you need to insert something into a worksheet, select this tab — a table, a
diagram, a chart, a symbol, etc.

Page Layout: This tab contains commands that affect your worksheet’s overall
appearance, including printing settings.

Formulas: Use this tab to insert a formula, name a range, access the tools for formula
auditing, or control how Excel performs calculations.
Data: Excel’ s data-related commands are on this tab.

Review: This tab contains tools for spell checking, translating words, adding
comments, or protecting sheets.

View: The View tab contains commands that control different aspects of viewing a sheet.
There are also some commands on this tab in the status bar.

Control Buttons:
At the right end of the title, the bar is the three familiar buttons that all windows
programs have the same functions. You can temporarily hide the word window by
clicking the Minimize button, adjust window size with the Restore Down /
Maximize button, and close the active document or quit Excel with the close button.

Name Box:
The address bar shows the active cell’s address. That’s why we get A1 in the name box
in the active cell above.

Formula Bar:
The formula bar is located in the top of the Excel worksheet below the toolbar. Use the
formula bar to enter and edit the data from the worksheet. In the formula bar, the
contents of the active cell will always appear.
Rows, Columns, and Cells:
Each worksheet consists of rows (numbered 1 to 1,048576) and columns (numbered
A through XFD). Each column is identified by one, two, or three letters: letters A to
Z is used in the first 26 columns. The next 26 columns are using AA to AZ, the
following 26 BA to BZ, and so on. Excel uses three letters when the two-letter
combinations are exhausted: AAA, B AAB, and so on. A number identifies each row,
ranging from 1 to 1048576.
Each cell is identified by its column lettering and its row number. For example, the cell
at the intersection of Column A and Row 1 is cell A1.
Sheet Tabs: By default, sheet tabs contain a list of worksheets, which includes three worksheets
named Sheet 1, Sheet 2, and Sheet 3.
Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bar: The Scroll Bar is used to drop up / down / right
and left and see changes in the column/row number until you release the mouse button.
Zoom Slider: A slider that magnifies or reduces the conten t in the worksheet area.

Groups: Buttons are organized into groups on each tab. Depending on the size of the

program window, the button you are most likely to use in some groups is larger than the

rest.

Dialog box launcher:

Related but less common comman ds are not represented as group buttons. Instead, they
are available in a dialog box that you can display by clicking the Launcher dialog at the
right end of the group title bar.
 QUESTION PAPERS
(Internal and External)
Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University)
FinalPractical Exam Paper
Old Suggestive Question Papers as per old Course & Syllabus
 Practical Lab Assignments (Total marks- 20)
Note: Students need to learn ,practice and complete all 20 Questions in a separate LAB file to be
submitted at the end of the semester.
LAB Work: 1
Q. Using MS – Word, create a table of your qualifications in the format:
Sr. No.
Name of Exam
Board / University
Year of Passing
Percentage of Marks
Class
LAB Work: 2 Q. Take a double column book or newspaper and design or create similar paragraph
style in the word document.
LAB WORK :3
Q. Create a file in MS Word in to create Diwali greeting using Clip Art, Word Art & give proper
message in your greeting.
LAB work 4
Q. Insert a 7-column,6-row table to create a calendar for the current month and do:
a. Enter the names of the days of the week in the first row of the table.
b. Centre the day names horizontally and vertically.
c. Change the font and font size as desired.
d. Insert a row at the top of the table.
e. Merge the cells in the row and enter the current month and year using a large font size.
f. Shade the row.
g. Enter and right-align the dates for the month in the appropriate cells of the table.
h. Change the outside border to a more decorative border. Identify two important dates in the
calendar and shade them.
LAB work 5
Q. Create the resume using the resume Template facility and write down the steps for the same.
LAB work 6
Q. Create a table in MS-Word with the following entries: S.No, Name, M1M2,M3,M4,M5 and
apply the following operations on it
a. Calculate the minimum marks in M1 & M3.
b. Calculate the maximum marks in M2 & M5.
c. Find the sum of total marks obtained in Each subject.
d. Insert a new column named grade in the Table.
e. Sort the table with respect to the column M6.
f. Convert the table into text.
LAB work 7

Eg: 𝐴=𝑚c2
Q. Write 10 mathematics equations in MS word from Insert option using equation and symbol tab.

LAB work 8
Q. Create a manual by writing steps and pasting screenshots of Mail-Merge
LAB work 9
Q. Create a spreadsheet of the purchases made by a customer in a super mart having the following
fields:.
a. S.no
b. Product ID
c. Product Name
d. Product type(food, clothes, toys etc)
e. Quantity
f. Price per unit
Note: All the field names should be bold and underlined. Also Insert Borders to the spreadsheet. For
the spreadsheet created above, find the total bill, using the auto sum facility of Ms Excel.
LAB work 10
Q. Create a student performance report using Conditional formatting in M.S. Excel the following
specifications:
a. Greater than 70 yellow
b. Less than 50 green
c. Equal to 60 blue
d. Between 80-90 pink
LAB work 11
Q. Make use of the purpose of following functions in MS-Excel ROUND(), SQRT(), MIN(),
Lower(), ABS()
LAB work 12
Q. Create a list in Excel with the fields as CustCode, CustName, Address, OrderNo, OrderAmt,
Discount and Tax
-Calculate the following as
Discount is 10% of OrderAmt
Tax is 2% of OrderAmt
LAB work 13
Q. Draw a pie chart for sales report of XYZ Company for the last 5 years.
LAB work 14
Q. Create a record of Bank consisting of the following columns: (Goal Seek)
a. Customer id
b. Customer Name
c. Principle Deposited
d. Rate of Interest
e. Time
f. Now for the above table find the interest earned by each customer.
(i) Each customer must earn minimum interest of Rs5000, by changing the value of time period for
which money must be deposited
ii) change the minimum interest to Rs 10000 by changing the value of Principle.
LAB work 15
Q. Create a record or table of BBA(1ST Sem) consisting of the following fields:
a. S.no(number)
b. Name (text)
c. Date of birth(date)
d. Age(should not be less than 18)
e. Marks(not more than 100)
f. Remarks
g. For the above record, apply the appropriate data validation.
Q. For the record created above for BBA, protect your worksheet by providing password
a. Hide/unhide cells.
b. Allow users to select columns
c. Allow users to sort cells
d. Freeze and unfreeze the rows and columns.
Write steps for each of the following
LAB work 16
Q. Assuming you have 10 mins. time to prepare a presentation on your new business idea or product
of your choice or your dream future venture and gain attention of an angel investor to earn initial
investment amount. -Prepare an attention grabbing 2 slide presentation using template (excluding
introduction and thank you slide) Save the ppt with your name and take screen shots
LAB work 17
Q. Create a presentation on Types of Memory having a table for the Types of Memory and then
create hyperlinks on the types of Memory in the master slide that opens new slides for it.
LAB work 18
Q. Create a presentation on types of Operating Systems with different themes and apply the
animation effects on it. For the presentation created apply the different slide show options and
protect the presentation to restrict unauthorized access.
LAB work 19
Q. Create a ppt on the topic Windows versions. Apply slide number ,header and footer on the slides.
LAB work 20
Q. Create a quiz on the subject Computer application for business(10 slides)
Declaration by Faculty:
I, Preeti Taneja, Ankita Gulati, Gargi Mukherjee, Apurva Gupta and Mansi Agnihotri Ajay
Teaching Fundamental of Information Technology subject in BBA course I Sem have incorporated
all the necessary pages section/quotations papers mentioned in this check list above.