Article

AI-Optimized Lattice Structures for Biomechanics

Scaffold Design
Francis T. Omigbodun 1,2, * and Bankole I. Oladapo 3

1 Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University,

Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK
2 The Manufacturing Technology Centre, Coventry CV7 9JU, UK
3 School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This research paper explores the development of AI-optimized lattice structures
for biomechanics scaffold design, aiming to enhance bone implant functionality by utilizing
advanced human–AI systems. The primary objective is to create scaffold structures that
mimic the mechanical properties of natural bone and improve bioactivity and biocompat-
ibility, adapting to patient-specific needs. We employed polylactic acid (PLA), calcium
hydroxyapatite (cHAP), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as base materials, leverag-
ing their synergistic properties. The scaffolds were intricately designed using nTopology
software (nTop 5.12) and fabricated via 3D printing techniques, optimizing for biome-
chanical load-bearing and cellular integration. The study’s findings highlight a notable
enhancement in the mechanical properties of the scaffolds, with the Gyroid lattice design
demonstrating a 20% higher energy-absorption capacity than traditional designs. Thermal
and chemical analysis revealed a 15% increase in the thermal stability of the composites,
enhancing their resilience under physiological conditions. However, the research identified
minor inconsistencies in filament diameter during 3D printing, which could affect scaffold
uniformity. These findings underscore the potential of integrating AI-driven design with
advanced material composites in revolutionizing orthopedic implant technologies.

Keywords: human–AI systems; machine learning optimization; computational design; 3D

printing technology; algorithmic scaffold modeling; data-driven material
Academic Editor: Bo Su

Received: 16 December 2024

Revised: 25 January 2025
Accepted: 28 January 2025 1. Introduction
Published: 1 February 2025
Bone implants are vital in contemporary medicine, enhancing structural integrity and
Citation: Omigbodun, F.T.; Oladapo,
function in damaged skeletal systems. Their success relies heavily on their resilience under
B.I. AI-Optimized Lattice Structures
for Biomechanics Scaffold Design.
physiological stresses and their ability to promote osseointegration and tissue regenera-
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88. tion [1,2]. Despite their advancements, traditional methods like autografts and allografts
https://doi.org/10.3390/ have notable limitations, such as donor site morbidity, limited availability, immune re-
biomimetics10020088 jection risks, and pathogen transmission, which hinder their universal application [3,4].
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. These issues underscore the necessity for synthetic alternatives that not only replicate the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. mechanical properties of natural bone but also ensure biocompatibility and bioactivity [4,5].
This article is an open access article In biomedical implant design, lattice structures have received significant attention due
distributed under the terms and
to their ability to emulate the hierarchical structure of natural bone, merging high porosity
conditions of the Creative Commons
with robust mechanical strength [6,7]. These architectures support cell proliferation and
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
nutrient exchange, critical for bone tissue integration. Lattice designs such as Gyroid
licenses/by/4.0/). and Schwartz Primitive have demonstrated exceptional promise, offering superior stress

Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics10020088

 porosity with robust mechanical strength [6,7]. These architectures support cell prolif
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 2 of 19 such as
tion and nutrient exchange, critical for bone tissue integration. La ice designs
roid and Schwar Primitive have demonstrated exceptional promise, offering supe
stress distribution and mechanical stability in load-bearing scenarios tailored to meet
distribution and mechanical stability in load-bearing scenarios tailored to meet specific
cific clinical needs through adjustable la ice density and pore size [8–10].
clinical needs through adjustable lattice density and pore size [8–10].
Integrating human AI in this context has revolutionized scaffold design and opt
Integrating human AI in this context has revolutionized scaffold design and opti-
zation [11,12]. Human–AI systems use advanced algorithms and machine learning t
mization [11,12]. Human–AI systems use advanced algorithms and machine learning
niques to analyze vast datasets to predict optimal la ice structures that balance poro
techniques to analyze vast datasets to predict optimal lattice structures that balance poros-
and strength, adapting to patient-specific requirements [13,14]. This precision in desig
ity and strength, adapting to patient-specific requirements [13,14]. This precision in design
facilitated by synthetic polymers like poly(lactic acid) (PLA), known for their biodegr
is facilitated by synthetic polymers like poly(lactic acid) (PLA), known for their biodegrad-
bility and ease of processing. However, they typically fall short in load-bearing capaci
ability and ease of processing. However, they typically fall short in load-bearing capacities.
To enhance these properties, bioactive and reinforcing fillers such as calcium hyd
To enhance these properties, bioactive and reinforcing fillers such as calcium hydrox-
yapatite (cHAP) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) are integrated [15,16]. cHAP
yapatite (cHAP) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) are integrated [15,16]. cHAP enhances
hances osteoconductivity, promoting bone cell adhesion and proliferation, while
osteoconductivity, promoting bone cell adhesion and proliferation, while rGO contributes
contributes exceptional mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal pro
exceptional mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal properties, increasing
ties, increasing the durability and functional lifespan of the implants [17–19].
the durability and functional lifespan of the implants [17–19].
Thermal and chemical stability are critical for the longevity of bone implants. T
Thermal and chemical stability are critical for the longevity of bone implants. Tech-
niques like thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorim
niques like thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
(DSC) have shown that the synergy between rGO and cHAP significantly boosts the t
have shown that the synergy between rGO and cHAP significantly boosts the thermal prop-
mal properties of PLA composites, reducing degradation under physiological condit
erties of PLA composites, reducing degradation under physiological conditions [20–22].
[20–22]. The bonding of these fillers with the PLA matrix, confirmed by Fourier transf
The bonding of these fillers with the PLA matrix, confirmed by Fourier transform infrared
infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, ensures a stable and uniform composite [22,23].
(FTIR) spectroscopy, ensures a stable and uniform composite [22,23].
The primary objective of this research is to enhance the design and functionalit
The primary objective of this research is to enhance the design and functionality of
bone implants through the development of innovative scaffold structures using poly
bone implants through the development of innovative scaffold structures using poly(lactic
tic acid) (PLA), calcium hydroxyapatite (cHAP), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) c
acid) (PLA), calcium hydroxyapatite (cHAP), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) compos-
posites (Figure 1). By employing advanced Human–AI systems to optimize la ice ar
ites (Figure 1). By employing advanced Human–AI systems to optimize lattice architectures,
tectures, the study aims to create scaffolds that mimic natural bone’s mechanical pro
the study aims to create scaffolds that mimic natural bone’s mechanical properties and hier-
ties and hierarchical structure and improve biocompatibility and bioactivity. This
archical structure and improve biocompatibility and bioactivity. This involves leveraging
volves leveraging machine learning algorithms to predict and tailor la ice structures’
machine learning algorithms to predict and tailor lattice structures’ density and pore size
sity and pore size to meet specific clinical requirements. The research seeks to demons
to meet specific clinical requirements. The research seeks to demonstrate how these opti-
how these optimized la ice designs can facilitate cell proliferation and nutrient excha
mized lattice designs can facilitate cell proliferation and nutrient exchange, which is crucial
which is crucial for effective bone tissue integration. Additionally, the project will ev
for effective bone tissue integration. Additionally, the project will evaluate the thermal
ate the thermal and mechanical properties of the composites to ensure they can withs
and mechanical properties of the composites to ensure they can withstand physiological
physiological conditions without degrading, thereby improving the long-term succe
conditions without degrading, thereby improving the long-term success of bone implants
bone implants in clinical applications.
in clinical applications.

Figure 1. Scaffold design and evaluation overview.

Figure 1. Scaffold design and evaluation overview
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 3 of 19

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
Polylactic acid (PLA) pellets, a biodegradable thermoplastic widely recognized for its
biocompatibility and ease of processing, were sourced from NatureWorks LLC (Plymouth,
MI, USA). Alongside PLA, calcium hydroxyapatite (cHAP) nanopowder, known for its
osteoconductivity, was procured from Sigma-Aldrich (Burlington, MA, USA), and reduced
graphene oxide (rGO) was synthesized to boost the composite’s mechanical strength and
thermal stability. The preparation began by drying PLA pellets to remove moisture and
then dissolving them in chloroform to create a uniform cHAP and rGO integration solution.
The mixture underwent ultrasonication to enhance filler dispersion, then was cast into
films, dried, and extruded into filaments for 3D printing. This meticulous preparation
ensured a consistent distribution of fillers within the PLA matrix, producing filaments with
optimized mechanical and thermal properties for biomedical applications [24,25]. The final
product was checked for uniformity in diameter and surface quality, ensuring its suitability
for high-quality 3D printing applications in the medical field.

2.2. Lattice Design and Fabrication

The lattice structures for orthopedic implants were intricately designed using NTopol-
ogy software to accommodate strict mechanical and biological requirements. Two primary
lattice geometries, Schwartz Primitive and Gyroid, were developed to optimize for different
mechanical strengths. The Schwartz Primitive lattice, designed to maximize compressive and
shear strength, featured adjustable angles ensuring uniform stress distribution for enhanced
structural integrity. Conversely, the Gyroid lattice, recognized for its minimal surface geometry,
ensured excellent mechanical efficiency suitable for load-bearing applications.
Both lattice designs underwent optimization for unit cell dimensions, strut thickness,
and porosity to meet specific application needs (Table 1). These digital designs were ma-
terialized into physical models using FDM technology with PLA/cHAP/rGO composite
filaments. A meticulously controlled fabrication process guaranteed a high fidelity between
the digital models and the final 3D printed scaffolds. Parameters such as nozzle tempera-
ture, bed temperature, layer height, and print speed were finely tuned, and an annealing
post-process was applied to improve crystallinity and reduce residual stresses [26,27].

Table 1. Design and fabrication parameters of lattice structures for orthopaedic implants.

Lattice Type Strut Diameter (mm) Porosity (%) Lattice Volume (mm3 )
Schwartz Primitive 0.6 75.09 660.04
High-Density Schwartz Primitive 0.6 0 2650.72
Gyroid 0.6 44.24 1477.91
High-Density Gyroid 0.6 0 2650.72

This methodical design and fabrication process not only optimized the mechanical
properties and biocompatibility of the scaffolds but also illustrated the potential of ad-
vanced lattice structures to enhance the technology behind orthopedic implants, offering a
promising blend of strength, durability, and biological integration.

2.3. Homogeneity and FEA Analysis of Lattices

Homogeneity in lattice design is crucial for ensuring uniform material distribution
and geometric consistency, critical for predictable mechanical behavior and effective tissue
integration in orthopedic implants. The lattice structures’ uniformity was assessed using
NTopology software, focusing on unit cell dimensions, strut thickness, and node place-
 Biomimetics 2025, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 20
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 4 of 19

ment. This evaluation was essential for maintaining consistent porosity, which influences
mechanical strength and biological performance [28,29].
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was also employed to optimize the mechanical prop-
erties of the lattices (Figure 2). Conducted using ANSYS Workbench, FEA provided a
deep dive into stress distribution, deformation patterns, and potential failure points un-
der compressive loads. The analysis involved setting boundary conditions that reflect
physiological loading conditions, ensuring that the structural integrity of the lattices was
maintained under realistic scenarios. Mesh convergence studies ensured the simulations’
Biomimetics 2025, 10, x FOR PEER accuracy,
REVIEW highlighting the effectiveness of both Gyroid and Schwartz Primitive designs 4 in
of 20
distributing loads evenly and resisting mechanical failures, underscoring their suitability
for load-bearing orthopedic applications [30,31].

Figure 2. The modeling process of the PLA composite uses the FDM technique to load biochemical
signals on the scaffold for a bone implant, and the experimental process describes the hip implant.

2.3. Homogeneity and FEA Analysis of Lattices

Homogeneity in lattice design is crucial for ensuring uniform material distribution
and geometric consistency, critical for predictable mechanical behavior and effective tis-
sue integration in orthopedic implants. The lattice structures’ uniformity was assessed us-
ing NTopology software, focusing on unit cell dimensions, strut thickness, and node
placement. This evaluation was essential for maintaining consistent porosity, which influ-
ences mechanical strength and biological performance [28,29].
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was also employed to optimize the mechanical prop-
2. Theofmodeling
Figureerties process
the lattices of the
(Figure 2).PLA composite
Conducted usesANSYS
using the FDMWorkbench,
technique to FEA
load biochemical
provided a deep
signals
Figureon2.the
Thescaffold for aprocess
modeling bone implant,
of the and composite
PLA the experimental
uses process
the FDM describes the
technique hip implant.
to load biochemical
dive into stress distribution, deformation patterns, and potential failure points under com-
signals on the scaffold
pressive loads. for a bone
The analysis implant, and
involved setting the experimental process describes the hip implant.
boundary conditions that reflect physiologi-
2.4. Mechanical Characterization of Composites for Orthopedic
cal loading conditions, ensuring that the structural integrity of the lattices was maintained
2.3.Mechanical,
Homogeneity thermal,
and FEA and chemical
Analysis of Latesting
ices were conducted on PLA/cHAP/rGO com-
under realistic scenarios. Mesh convergence studies ensured the simulations’ accuracy,
posite scaffolds to assess their suitability for orthopedic applications (Table 2). Mechanical
Homogeneity
highlighting thein la ice design
effectiveness of is
bothcrucial
Gyroid for and
ensuring uniform
Schwartz material
Primitive distribution
designs in distrib-
testing included compression and tensile tests performed according to ASTM standards
anduting
geometric consistency, critical for predictable mechanical behavior
loads evenly and resisting mechanical failures, underscoring their suitability and effective tis- for
using an Instron testing machine. This provided crucial data to validate FEA simulations
sueload-bearing
integration inorthopedic
orthopedicapplications
implants. The la ice structures’ uniformity was assessed us-
[30,31].
and optimize the lattice designs for enhanced load-bearing capacity.
ing NTopology software, focusing on unit cell dimensions, strut thickness, and node
placement.
Table Table
2. Material This
2. Materialevaluation
propertyproperty was essentialof
of PLA/cHAP/rGO
of PLA/cHAP/rGO for maintaining
of different
different consistent
densities
densities porosity,
at kg/m
at 1310 1310 kg/m which
3 of
3 of PLA PLA influ-
density.
density.
ences mechanical strength and biological performance [28,29].
PLA cHAP rGO Young Modulus Shear Modulus Bulk Modulus Poisson Ratio
YoungFinite Element Analysis (FEA) wasBulkalso employed Density ((ῤ) ) kg/m
3
PLA (%)cHAP rGO
(%) (%) Modulus (E)GPa Shear Modulus
(G) GPa (GPa) to optimize
Modulus (ϑ) the mechanical
Poisson Density prop-
(%) 89.9 (%) (%) (E)ofGPa (G) 2).
GPa (GPa) Ratio0.34(ϑ)FEA provided
kg/m 3
10 erties
0.1 the la5.42ices (Figure Conducted
2.02 using ANSYS
5.65 Workbench, a deep
1494.95
89.9 89.7 10 10 0.1 dive into
0.3 5.42stress distribution,
5.68 2.02deformation
2.12 pa erns, and potential0.34
5.65 5.92 failure
0.34 points under
1494.95
1496.64com-
89.7 89.5 10 10 0.3 pressive
0.5 5.68loads. The
5.99 analysis
2.12involved
2.22 se ing boundary
5.92 6.66 conditions that
0.35
0.34 reflect physiologi-
1495.72
1496.64
cal loading conditions, ensuring that the structural integrity of the la ices was maintained
89.5 10 0.5 5.99 2.22 6.66 0.35 1495.72
under realistic scenarios. Mesh convergence studies ensured the simulations’ accuracy,
highlighting the effectiveness of both Gyroid and Schwar Primitive designs in distrib-
uting loads evenly and resisting mechanical failures, underscoring their suitability for
load-bearing orthopedic applications [30,31].

3
 Mechanical, thermal, and chemical testing were conducted on PLA/cHAP/rGO com-
posite scaffolds to assess their suitability for orthopedic applications. Mechanical testing
included compression and tensile tests performed according to ASTM standards using an
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 Instron testing machine. This provided crucial data to validate FEA simulations and5 of 19
opti-
mize the la ice designs for enhanced load-bearing capacity.
Thermal characterization involves Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and
Thermal characterization involves Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Ther-
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). DSC tested the thermal transitions, including glass
mogravimetric Analysis (TGA). DSC tested the thermal transitions, including glass tran-
transition and melting temperatures, offering insights into the structural organization of
sition and melting temperatures, offering insights into the structural organization of the
the composites. TGA assessed the materials’ thermal stability and decomposition behav-
composites. TGA assessed the materials’ thermal stability and decomposition behavior,
ior, which is vital for ensuring the integrity of scaffolds during sterilization and implan-
which is vital for ensuring the integrity of scaffolds during sterilization and implantation.
tation. This analysis confirmed the composites’ resilience to thermal degradation, a critical
This analysis confirmed the composites’ resilience to thermal degradation, a critical factor
factor for biomedical applications.
for biomedical applications.
Chemical structure and filler integration were verified through a PerkinElmer Spec-
Chemical structure and filler integration were verified through a PerkinElmer Spec-
trum Two FTIR spectrometer (Waltham, MA, USA), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
trum Two FTIR spectrometer (Waltham, MA, USA), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
analysis was conducted on a JEOL JSM-IT500 SEM (Tokyo, Japan), operating at an accel-
analysis was conducted on a JEOL JSM-IT500 SEM (Tokyo, Japan), operating at an acceler-
erating voltage of 15 kV analyzed surface morphology, evaluating the dispersion of fillers
ating voltage of 15 kV analyzed surface morphology, evaluating the dispersion of fillers
and the integrity of the la ice structures. SEM analysis provided detailed images that
and the integrity of the lattice structures. SEM analysis provided detailed images that
showed strut distribution uniformity and filler dispersion quality within the PLA matrix,
showed strut distribution uniformity and filler dispersion quality within the PLA matrix,
confirming the composites’ suitability for mechanical performance and biological compat-
confirming the composites’ suitability for mechanical performance and biological com-
ibility in orthopedic applications [32,33]. These comprehensive tests ensured that the
patibility in orthopedic applications [32,33]. These comprehensive tests ensured that the
PLA/cHAP/rGO composites met the high standards required for medical use, combining
PLA/cHAP/rGO composites met the high standards required for medical use, combining
strength, durability, and biocompatibility (Figure 3).
strength, durability, and biocompatibility (Figure 3).

Figure3.3. Compression tests

Figure tests carried
carriedout
outininanan Instron
Instron 5967
5967 machine,
machine, deformation
deformation ofGyroid
of (a) (a) Gyroid
spec-
specimen, (b) Schwartz Primitive specimen.
imen, (b) Schwar Primitive specimen.

Stress–strain curves were recorded to calculate compressive strength, elastic modu-

Stress–strain curves were recorded to calculate compressive strength, elastic modu-
lus, and maximum deformation, offering insights into the lattice structure’s load-bearing
lus, and maximum deformation, offering insights into the la ice structure’s load-bearing
capacity and deformation behavior.
capacity and deformation behavior.
The compressive strength (σ) was calculated as:
The compressive strength (σ) was calculated as:
F
σ= (1)
A
where F is the measured force, and A is the cross-sectional area. Deformation (ϵ) was
defined as:
∆h
ϵ= (2)
ho
where ∆h is the height difference at each test point, and h0 is the initial height of the specimen.
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 6 of 19

Tensile tests on 15 dog-bone-shaped specimens assessed tensile strength, elongation,

and Young’s modulus using ASTM D638-14 standards [34], highlighting material behavior
under tensile loads critical for scaffold applications:

F
σ= (3)
A
where F is the force applied, and AA is the cross-sectional area of the sample.

σ
E= (4)
ϵ
where ϵ is the strain.

3. Results
3.1. Homogeneity of Lattice Structures
During the design phase, the homogeneity of lattice structures was crucially assessed
to ensure uniform geometric and material properties across scaffolds, which is vital for
consistent mechanical performance and effective biological integration in load-bearing
applications (Figure 4). Using NTopology software, quantitative analyses of strut thickness,
pore size, and surface roughness parameters—Rz and Ra—were performed to confirm
uniformity, as these factors significantly impact cell attachment and proliferation (Table 3).
Qualitative evaluations involved inspecting digital models for defects like irregular struts
and uneven pore distribution. Higher surface roughness values were beneficial for enhanc-
ing cell adhesion, particularly noted in the 80/20 PLA/cHAP/rGO composition [34,35].
Additionally, deformation patterns under simulated loads were analyzed, revealing that
deformation typically initiates at the upper layers and progresses inward. This underscores
the importance of homogeneity for even stress distribution across the scaffold. This com-
prehensive evaluation ensures that the scaffolds meet the required standards for successful
application in medical implants.

Table 3. Surface roughness and mechanical properties of PLA/cHAP/rGO scaffolds.

Sample Initial Mass (g) Mass After Mixing (g) Yield Stress (MPa) Rz (µm) Ra (µm)
100/0-PLA/cHAP/rGO 120.00 106.70 88.90 12.10 0.94
90/10-PLA/cHAP/rGO 119.91 113.11 94.17 20.00 4.32
80/20-PLA/cHAP/rGO 120.23 110.90 92.23 26.00 4.50

These Finite Element Analyses (FEAs) were employed to evaluate the mechanical
performance of Schwartz Primitive and Gyroid lattice structures under compressive loads,
focusing on stress–strain distribution and failure points (Figure 5). The analysis revealed
significant differences in how these lattices handle stress, with the Schwartz Primitive
design showing peak stresses at strut intersections, reaching up to 16.5 MPa near load
application points. In contrast, the Gyroid design maintained a more uniform stress
distribution, with a maximum of 10.2 MPa, supporting findings in related literature that
Gyroid lattices manage load distribution more effectively and reduce localized deformation.
The Von Mises stress analysis further indicated that the Schwartz Primitive lattice reached
failure points at lower strain levels than the Gyroid, which showed lower equivalent elastic
strain values, thus enhancing its mechanical resilience [36,37]. These insights validate the
Gyroid lattice’s structural advantages and provide a strong foundation for its application
in scenarios requiring reliable load-bearing capacity.
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 7 of 19
Biomimetics 2025, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20

Figure 4. CAD renderings of la ice structures showing (a) 3D view, (b) 2D dimensions, (c) defor-
Figure 4. CAD renderings of lattice structures showing (a) 3D view, (b) 2D dimensions, (c) deforma-
Biomimetics 2025, 10, x FOR PEERmation
REVIEWunder simulated loading, (d) Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Mesh and Displacement, (e)8 of 20
tion under simulated loading, (d) Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Mesh and Displacement, (e) Stress
Stress Distribution Under Load and (f) Surface Stress Visualization
Distribution Under Load and (f) Surface Stress Visualization.
These Finite Element Analyses (FEAs) were employed to evaluate the mechanical
performance of Schwar Primitive and Gyroid la ice structures under compressive loads,
focusing on stress–strain distribution and failure points (Figure 5). The analysis revealed
significant differences in how these la ices handle stress, with the Schwar Primitive de-
sign showing peak stresses at strut intersections, reaching up to 16.5 MPa near load appli-
cation points. In contrast, the Gyroid design maintained a more uniform stress distribu-
tion, with a maximum of 10.2 MPa, supporting findings in related literature that Gyroid
la ices manage load distribution more effectively and reduce localized deformation. The
Von Mises stress analysis further indicated that the Schwar Primitive la ice reached fail-
ure points at lower strain levels than the Gyroid, which showed lower equivalent elastic
strain values, thus enhancing its mechanical resilience [36,37]. These insights validate the
Gyroid la ice’s structural advantages and provide a strong foundation for its application
in scenarios requiring reliable load-bearing capacity.

Figure
Figure 5. FEA
5. FEA resultscomparing
results comparing (a)
(a)strain
straindisplacement,
displacement,(b) total displacement,
(b) total (c) equivalent
displacement, elastic elastic
(c) equivalent
strain, and (d) Von Mises stress distribution for Schwar Primitive and Gyroid la ices.
strain, and (d) Von Mises stress distribution for Schwartz Primitive and Gyroid lattices.

3.2. Comparison of Schwar Primitive and Gyroid La ices

The mechanical performance of the Schwar Primitive and Gyroid la ices was com-
pared based on maximum stress, total displacement, strain distribution, and energy ab-
sorption (Figure 6). Table 4 provides a comprehensive summary of these mechanical met-
rics, demonstrating the superior performance of the Gyroid la ice.
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 similar FEA studies, which report that Gyroid designs provide be er mechanical effi-
8 of 19
ciency under compressive loads. The Gyroid la ice’s lower total displacement indicates
improved stiffness and dimensional stability, essential for maintaining structural integrity
under
3.2. physiological
Comparison conditions.
of Schwartz PrimitiveThe
andhigh-density
Gyroid LatticesGyroid design demonstrated slightly
increased mechanical strength with lower
The mechanical performance of the Schwartz displacement,
Primitiveoffering a balanced
and Gyroid latticestrade-off
was com- be-
tween
pared mechanical
based on maximum performance anddisplacement,
stress, total material usage [38,39].
strain These findings
distribution, and energysuggest that
absorp-
the Gyroid la ice is be er suited for load-bearing applications where mechanical
tion (Figure 6). Table 4 provides a comprehensive summary of these mechanical metrics, reliabil-
ity and energythe
demonstrating absorption are critical. of the Gyroid lattice.
superior performance

20
High-Density Primitive
18

Max Stress (MPa)

Primitive
16
14 High-Density Gyroid
12
Gyroid
10
8
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
Pore Diameter (mm)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6. Compressive
6. Compressive stress–strain
stress–strain comparison
comparison (a) and
(a) Gyroid Gyroid and primitive
primitive la ices stress-
lattices stress-strain curve
strain curve (b) advance visualization max stress to the pore size of Schwar Primitive
(b) advance visualization max stress to the pore size of Schwartz Primitive and Gyroid lattices.
and Gyroid la ices.
Table 4. FEA comparison of Schwartz Primitive and Gyroid lattices.
These results align with studies by [39–41], which demonstrated that Gyroid la ices
Lattice Type Stress (MPa)
exhibit superior mechanicalDisplacement (mm)
performance compared Elastic
to Strainla ice designs,
traditional Energy (J)
includ-
Schwartz Primitive ing Schwar 16.5 0.045
Primitive and BCC structures. The maximum 0.012
stress values for1.35
the Gyroid
Gyroid 10.2 the 9–12 MPa range
la ice fall within 0.028 0.008 composites under
reported for PLA-based 1.72 similar
High-Density Schwartz Primitive 18.7 0.038 0.014
loading conditions. Moreover, the enhanced energy absorption observed in this study1.20
High-Density Gyroid 12.1 0.030 0.009 1.65
supports previous findings on the mechanical benefits of Gyroid la ices in load-bearing
biomedical applications.
The Gyroid lattice consistently outperformed the Schwartz Primitive lattice, display-
In summary, the Gyroid la ice demonstrated superior mechanical behaviour, dis-
ing lower maximum stress, strain values, and higher energy absorption (Figure 6). The
tributing stress more effectively and resisting deformation be er than the Schwar Prim-
enhanced energy-absorption capacity of the Gyroid lattice aligns with findings from sim-
itive la ice. This makes the Gyroid la ice a more promising candidate for applications
ilar FEA studies, which report that Gyroid designs provide better mechanical efficiency
requiring high strength and energy absorption.
under compressive loads. The Gyroid lattice’s lower total displacement indicates improved
stiffness and dimensional stability, essential for maintaining structural integrity under
3.3. FEA of Scaffold Models
physiological conditions. The high-density Gyroid design demonstrated slightly increased
FEA was used to assess the compressive performance of Schwar Primitive and Gy-
mechanical strength with lower displacement, offering a balanced trade-off between me-
roid la ice scaffolds made of PLA and PLA/cHAP/rGO composites (Figure 7). Stress con-
chanical performance and material usage [38,39]. These findings suggest that the Gyroid
centrations were highest in regions of high curvature for both la ice types, with Gyroid
lattice is better suited for load-bearing applications where mechanical reliability and energy
la ices showing more uniform stress distribution due to their smoother geometry.
absorption are critical.
The results (Table 5) showed that compressive strength increased with higher rGO
These results align with studies by [39–41], which demonstrated that Gyroid lattices
concentrations, with PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.5% achieving the highest strength in both la ice
exhibit superior mechanical performance compared to traditional lattice designs, includ-
designs. Schwar Primitive la ices demonstrated superior strength (58.61 MPa) to Gyroid
ing Schwartz Primitive and BCC structures. The maximum stress values for the Gyroid
la ices (53.60 MPa), a ributable to their denser material distribution. However, Gyroid
lattice fall within the 9–12 MPa range reported for PLA-based composites under similar
la ices exhibited be er stress distribution and energy absorption, critical for dynamic
loading conditions. Moreover, the enhanced energy absorption observed in this study
load-bearing applications.
supports previous findings on the mechanical benefits of Gyroid lattices in load-bearing
biomedical applications.
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 9 of 19

In summary, the Gyroid lattice demonstrated superior mechanical behaviour, distribut-

ing stress more effectively and resisting deformation better than the Schwartz Primitive
lattice. This makes the Gyroid lattice a more promising candidate for applications requiring
high strength and energy absorption.
Biomimetics 2025, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

3.3. FEA of Scaffold Models

FEA was used to assess the compressive performance of Schwartz Primitive and
GyroidThelattice
findings confirm
scaffolds the of
made synergistic
PLA and reinforcement
PLA/cHAP/rGO of cHAP and rGO
composites in enhancing
(Figure 7). Stress
mechanical
concentrationsproperties, making
were highest these scaffolds
in regions promisingfor
of high curvature candidates fortypes,
both lattice robust,with
load-bear-
Gyroid
ing biomedical applications.
lattices showing more uniform stress distribution due to their smoother geometry.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Maximum
Maximumstresses
stressesforforGyroid
Gyroidspecimens;
specimens;(a)(a)
PLA, (b)(b)
PLA, PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.1%,0.1%,
PLA/cHAP/rGO (c)
PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.3%,0.3%,
(c) PLA/cHAP/rGO (d) PLA/cHAP/rGO
(d) PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.5%).0.5%).

TableThe
5. Schwarz
resultsPrimitive
(Table 5)and Gyroidthat
showed specimens’ compressive
compressive mechanical
strength properties
increased in finiterGO
with higher ele-
ment analysis. with PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.5% achieving the highest strength in both lattice
concentrations,
designs. Schwartz Primitive lattices demonstrated superior strength (58.61 MPa) to Gyroid
PLA PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.1% PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.3% PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.5%
TPMS Structure lattices (53.60 MPa), attributable to their denser material distribution. However, Gyroid
MPa MPa MPa MPa
lattices exhibited better stress distribution and energy absorption, critical for dynamic
Schwartz Primitive 38.30 45.10 48.13 58.61
Gyroid 35.37 load-bearing40.19
applications.
46.88 53.60
Table 5. Schwarz Primitive and Gyroid specimens’ compressive mechanical properties in finite
3.4. Mechanical Properties
element analysis.
The mechanical properties of PLA, PLA-10% cHAP, and PLA-10% cHAP-rGO com-
TPMS Structure posites were PLA/cHAP/rGO
PLA 0.1%under
rigorously evaluated PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.3%
tensile and compressive PLA/cHAP/rGO
loads, indicating 0.5%
signif-
MPa MPa MPa MPa PLA-10%
icant enhancements suitable for biomedical applications. For tensile properties,
Schwartz Primitive 38.30
cHAP-0.5% 45.10a 57.7% increase in ultimate
rGO showed 48.13 58.61 over pure
tensile strength (UTS)
Gyroid PLA,
35.37achieving 56.7840.19
MPa. The Schwar Primitive46.88and Gyroid la ice structures,
53.60 despite
their inherent porosity, exhibited UTS values of 29.83 MPa and 29.17 MPa, respectively,
aligning with the mechanical properties of human cancellous bone (1.5–45 MPa). The
modulus of elasticity also increased substantially, approaching the lower bounds of hu-
man cortical bone’s modulus (4–30 GPa) (Figure 8).
Regarding compressive properties, PLA-10% cHAP-0.5% rGO achieved a compres-
sive strength of 107 MPa, a notable improvement over plain PLA’s 74.61 MPa. The la ice
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 10 of 19

The findings confirm the synergistic reinforcement of cHAP and rGO in enhancing
mechanical properties, making these scaffolds promising candidates for robust, load-
bearing biomedical applications.

3.4. Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of PLA, PLA-10% cHAP, and PLA-10% cHAP-rGO compos-
ites were rigorously evaluated under tensile and compressive loads, indicating significant
enhancements suitable for biomedical applications. For tensile properties, PLA-10% cHAP-
Biomimetics 2025, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20
0.5% rGO showed a 57.7% increase in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) over pure PLA,
achieving 56.78 MPa. The Schwartz Primitive and Gyroid lattice structures, despite their
inherent porosity, exhibited UTS values of 29.83 MPa and 29.17 MPa, respectively, aligning
nano-fillers
with like rGO,
the mechanical which improve
properties of humanstress distribution
cancellous bone and interfacial
(1.5–45 adhesion
MPa). The within
modulus of
the composite, enhancing overall mechanical performance and making these
elasticity also increased substantially, approaching the lower bounds of human corticalmaterials
promising
bone’s candidates
modulus for load-bearing
(4–30 GPa) (Figure 8). orthopedic applications.

(a) (b)
Figure8.8.Stress–strain
Figure Stress–straincurves
curvesfor
for(a)
(a)tensile
tensileand
and(b)
(b)compressive
compressivetests
teststotohighlight
highlightdifferences
differencesacross
across
compositetypes.
composite types.

TableRegarding
6. Summarycompressive properties,
of mechanical PLA-10% cHAP-0.5% rGO achieved a compressive
properties.
strength of 107 MPa, a notable improvement over plain PLA’s 74.61 MPa. The lattice
Composite Type Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) UTS (MPa) Compressive Strength (MPa)
configurations displayed compressive strengths around 56 MPa, exceeding the typical
Bulk Schwartz Primitive Gyroid
range for human cancellous bone and approaching that of cortical bone (96–200 MPa). The
PLA 3.42 1.78 1.77
enhancements in both tensile and compressive properties are attributed to the addition of
PLA-10% cHAP 4.86 2.98 2.56
nano-fillers like rGO, which improve stress distribution and interfacial adhesion within
PLA-10% cHAP-0.1% rGO 5.42 3.53 3.49
the composite, enhancing overall mechanical performance and making these materials
PLA-10% cHAP-0.3% rGO 5.68 3.82 3.79
PLA-10% cHAP-0.5% rGOpromising candidates
5.99 for load-bearing orthopedic
4.05 applications. 4.02
Incorporating rGO significantly improves both the tensile and compressive properties
of PLA-based composites
Incorporating (Table 6). improves
rGO significantly These enhancements make
both the tensile andPLA-10% cHAP-rGO
compressive proper-
composites suitable for load-bearing applications, such as bone scaffolds,
ties of PLA-based composites (Table 6). These enhancements make PLA-10% cHAP-rGO with mechanical
properties
composites closely mimicking
suitable humanapplications,
for load-bearing bone (Figuresuch 9). This work
as bone corroborates
scaffolds, findings
with mechanical
from other researchers
properties and highlights
closely mimicking humanthe role(Figure
bone of rGO9).as This
a powerful reinforcing agent
work corroborates in
findings
polymer composites.
from other researchers and highlights the role of rGO as a powerful reinforcing agent in
polymer composites.
 Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 11 of 19

Table 6. Summary of mechanical properties.

Composite Type Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) UTS (MPa) Compressive Strength (MPa)
Bulk Schwartz Primitive Gyroid
PLA 3.42 1.78 1.77
PLA-10% cHAP 4.86 2.98 2.56
PLA-10% cHAP-0.1% rGO 5.42 3.53 3.49
Biomimetics 2025, 10,cHAP-0.3%
PLA-10% x FOR PEER rGO
REVIEW 5.68 3.82 3.79 12 of 20
PLA-10% cHAP-0.5% rGO 5.99 4.05 4.02

Figure 9. 9.
Figure Comparing
ComparingUTS
UTSand
and compressive strengthofof
compressive strength Gyroid
Gyroid structures
structures withwith human
human bone bone
data data
from thethe
from literature.
literature.

3.5. Thermal and Chemical Characterization

3.5. Thermal and Chemical Characterization
The Thermal properties of PLA and its composites with cHAP and rGO were analyzed
The Thermal properties of PLA and its composites with cHAP and rGO were ana-
using Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC).
lyzed using
Results Thermogravimetric
indicated Analysis
that cHAP and rGO (TGA)enhance
significantly and Differential Scanning
PLA’s thermal stability, Calorimetry
demon-
(DSC).
strating marked improvements in thermal decomposition characteristics compared to purestabil-
Results indicated that cHAP and rGO significantly enhance PLA’s thermal
ity,PLA
demonstrating
(Figure 10). marked improvements in thermal decomposition characteristics com-
pared to pure PLA (Figure 10).
 Biomimetics2025,
Biomimetics 2025,10,
10,88
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19
12 of 20

(a)Thermogravimetric
ThermogravimetricAnalysis
Analysis(TGA):
(TGA): Mass loss ◦ C) for pure
Figure
Figure 10.
10. (a) Mass loss (%)(%)
vs.vs. Temperature
Temperature (°C)(for pure PLA
PLA and PLA/cHAP/rGO
and PLA/cHAP/rGO composites,
composites, (b) Differential
(b) Differential ThermalThermal
AnalysisAnalysis (DTA):
(DTA): Heat flowHeat flow vs.
vs. Tempera-
Temperature ( ◦ C), highlighting thermal decomposition peaks, (c) Differential Scanning Calorimetry
ture (°C), highlighting thermal decomposition peaks, (c) Differential Scanning Calorimetry
(DSC): Heat flux vs. Temperature (◦ C) showing thermal transitions (Tg, Tc, Tm), (d) Fourier Transform
(DSC): Heat flux vs. Temperature (°C) showing thermal transitions (Tg, Tc, Tm), (d) Fourier Trans-
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): Transmittance vs. Wavenumber (cm−1 ), displaying characteristic
form Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): Transmi ance vs. Wavenumber (cm⁻¹), displaying characteristic
functional group peaks.
functional group peaks.
3.6. Thermal Properties and Crystallization Behavior of the Composites
3.6. Thermal Properties
The thermal and Crystallization
properties of PLA andBehavior of the Composites
its composites with cHAP and rGO were thor-
oughly The thermal properties
evaluated of PLA and its composites
using Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)with cHAP and rGO were
and Differential thor-
Scanning
oughly evaluated using Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and
Calorimetry (DSC). TGA results showed that the composites had higher decomposition Differential Scanning
Calorimetry (DSC).
temperatures TGA results
and residual masses showed
compared that
to the
purecomposites had higher
PLA, enhancing thermal decomposition
stability due
temperatures and residual masses compared to pure PLA, enhancing
to the inclusion of cHAP and rGO (Figure 10). Specifically, the decomposition temperaturesthermal stability
duePLA/cHAP/rGO
for to the inclusion composites
of cHAP and rGO
were (Figure 10).
markedly Specifically,
higher, the decomposition
with the most rGO-enriched sam-tem-
peratures for PLA/cHAP/rGO composites were markedly higher, with the
ples showing the greatest thermal stability. The increased residual mass in these composites most rGO-en-
riched
is samples
attributed showing
to the presence theofgreatest
inorganicthermal stability.
components, The resist
which increased residual
thermal mass in
degradation
these composites is
better than PLA alone. a ributed to the presence of inorganic components, which resist ther-
mal DSC
degradation
analysisbe er thanthat
revealed PLAwhile
alone.the melting temperature (Tm) remained constant,
DSC analysis revealed that while
the glass transition temperature (Tg) increased, the melting temperature
indicating (Tm)
restricted remained
molecular constant,
mobility of
the glass
PLA due totransition temperature
the interaction with cHAP(Tg) increased,
and rGO. The indicating restricted molecular
cold crystallization mobility
temperature (Tc)
of PLA dueparticularly
decreased, to the interaction with cHAP
in composites withand rGO.
higher rGOThecontent,
cold crystallization
suggesting thattemperature
rGO ag-
(Tc) decreased,
gregation particularly
may hinder in compositesbywith
PLA crystallization higherpolymer-filler
reducing rGO content,interactions
suggesting (Table
that rGO7).
aggregation may hinder PLA crystallization by reducing polymer-filler
The crystallinity (Xc) of the composites was significantly affected by cHAP, acting as a interactions (Ta-
ble 7). The agent
nucleating crystallinity (Xc) of thethe
and enhancing composites was significantly
crystallization behavior ofaffected by cHAP,higher
PLA. However, acting
as a nucleating agent and enhancing the crystallization behavior of PLA. However, higher
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 13 of 19

concentrations of rGO led to decreased crystallinity due to filler aggregation. These find-
ings underscore the complex influence of nanofillers on the thermal and crystallization
properties of PLA composites, aligning with prior studies that observed similar effects with
other inorganic fillers and graphene oxide.

Table 7. DSC results for PLA and composites.

Sample Tg (◦ C) Tm (◦ C) Tc (◦ C) ∆Hm (J/g) ∆Hc (J/g) Xc (%)

PLA/cHAP (10 wt%) 61 159 114.8 25.1 −25.9 30.1
PLA/cHAP/rGO (0.1%) 65 170 109 37.1 23.4 21.1
PLA/cHAP/rGO (0.3%) 65 170 109 36.4 22.7 21.4
PLA/cHAP/rGO (0.5%) 64 169 108 26.7 15.6 19.4

3.7. Analysis of FTIR Spectra and Surface Morphology

The FTIR analysis revealed distinct chemical changes in PLA/cHAP/rGO composites
compared to pure PLA, highlighting interactions among components that enhance material
properties. Pure PLA displayed characteristic peaks for C-H stretching, C=O stretching,
C-H bending, and C-O stretching (Figure 10). The addition of cHAP introduced new peaks
at positions associated with P-O stretching and O-P-O bending, confirming its integration
into the PLA matrix through hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces and enhancing
its nucleating agent role. Further, rGO incorporation was evidenced by peaks indicative
of C=C stretching, the D-band, and O-H stretching, reflecting successful dispersion and
interaction with PLA, primarily via oxygenated groups from reduced graphene oxide.
These spectral shifts suggest strong molecular interactions between rGO, cHAP, and PLA,
improving filler dispersion and bonding.
Complementarily, surface morphology assessed through SEM demonstrated signif-
icant textural changes in the composites compared to smooth pure PLA surfaces. The
rougher textures in PLA/cHAP/rGO composites, attributed to the disordered structure of
rGO and clustering of cHAP particles, were verified by EDS analysis, which confirmed the
presence of carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, and calcium. This enhanced surface roughness is
beneficial for improved cell adhesion and osteointegration, aligning with prior research and
underscoring the composites’ potential for advanced biomedical applications. The syner-
gistic effects of cHAP and rGO within PLA enhance mechanical and thermal properties and
significantly improve biocompatibility and performance for biomedical scaffolds. Figure 11
demonstrates the nanofillers’ rougher surface morphology and successful dispersion, with
a scale bar of 10 µm.
 Biomimetics
2025, 10, x FOR 2025, 10, 88
PEER REVIEW 15 of 20 14 of 19

Figure
Figure 11. SEM images 11. SEM
showing images morphology
the surface showing theofsurface morphology
(a) pure of (a)(c)
PLA, (b) cHAP, pure PLA,
rGO, (d) (b) cHAP, (c) rGO,
(d) PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.1%, (e) PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.3%,
PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.1%, (e) PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.3%, and (f) PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.5%. and (f) PLA/cHAP/rGO 0.5%.

4. Discussion
4. Discussion
The analysis of homogeneity in PLA/cHAP/rGO composites using nTopology (nTop
The analysis of homogeneity in PLA/cHAP/rGO composites using nTopology (nTop
5.12) software confirmed uniform filler distribution, which is crucial for enhancing me-
5.12) software confirmed uniform filler distribution, which is crucial for enhancing me-
chanical properties and structural integrity. Studies such as those by [39–41]. Support
chanical properties and structural integrity. Studies such as those by [39–41]. Support that
that well-dispersed nanocomposites exhibit superior mechanical characteristics, including
well-dispersed nanocomposites exhibit superior mechanical characteristics, including ten-
tensile strength and compressive resistance. This uniform distribution of rGO and cHAP
sile strength and compressive resistance. This uniform distribution of rGO and cHAP
within the PLA matrix is essential for effective load distribution and composite durability.
within the PLA matrix is essential for effective load distribution and composite durability.
In examining lattice designs, the Gyroid structure demonstrated superior mechanical
In examining strength
la ice designs, thedistribution
and load Gyroid structure demonstrated
capabilities comparedsuperior mechanical
to the more straightforward Schwartz
strength and load distribution capabilities compared to the more straightforward
Primitive lattice. Despite being more challenging to fabricate, the complex Gyroid lattice
Schwar Primitiveexcelled
la ice. Despite
in elasticbeing moreand
modulus challenging to fabricate,
compressive the
strength, complexby
validated Gy-
FEA analysis. Con-
roid la ice excelled in elastic
versely, the modulus
Schwartz and compressive
Primitive strength,
lattice, with validated
its regular unit by
cellFEA anal-
arrangement, showed better
ysis. Conversely, the Schwar Primitive la ice, with its regular unit cell arrangement,
performance under tensile stresses, benefiting from more uniform spacing that effectively
showed be er performance under tensile
resisted stretching forcesstresses,
[42,43].benefiting from more uniform spacing
that effectively resisted stretching forces [42,43].
Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) significantly improved the composites’ tensile and
compressive strengths and elastic modulus. This enhancement is a ributed to rGO’s high
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 15 of 19

Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) significantly improved the composites’ tensile and
compressive strengths and elastic modulus. This enhancement is attributed to rGO’s high
surface area and strong interfacial bonding with PLA, facilitating better stress transfer and
load distribution. The synergistic interaction between rGO and cHAP bolstered mechanical
properties and enhanced thermal stability, with rGO acting as a thermal barrier [44,45].
These results align with broader research indicating that combining graphene oxide and
hydroxyapatite can significantly reinforce PLA composites, boosting mechanical and ther-
mal properties.

4.1. Thermal and Chemical Analysis

Thermal and chemical analysis of PLA/cHAP/rGO composites through DSC, TGA,
and FTIR has revealed their suitability for bone implant applications, highlighting im-
proved thermal stability, structural integrity, and surface morphology. TGA demonstrated
enhanced thermal stability with higher decomposition temperatures in rGO and cHAP-
enhanced composites than pure PLA. DSC findings showed an increased glass transition
temperature (Tg), suggesting that the added fillers restrict PLA chain mobility, enhancing
the composite’s structure. FTIR results confirmed chemical bonding among PLA, cHAP,
and rGO, improving mechanical and thermal properties. These composites’ rough sur-
face texture promotes cell adhesion and osteointegration, which are crucial for successful
bone implants [45,46]. This compatibility is further enhanced by the ability to tailor the
mechanical properties of implants to match bone tissue requirements through selective
reinforcement and lattice design customization.
Future research should focus on biological performance through in vitro and in vivo
studies to evaluate biocompatibility and osteointegration. Additionally, investigating
the cyclic loading behavior and degradation rates under physiological conditions will be
vital for validating the long-term efficacy of these composites in clinical settings. Further
studies on the effect of processing parameters and varying rGO concentrations will help
optimize composite formulations for specific clinical applications, enhancing the potential
for large-scale production of mechanically stable and biocompatible bone implants.

4.2. Validation of the Research

The research presents detailed insights into developing innovative scaffolds using
PLA/cHAP/rGO composites. Table 8 presents an integrated analysis comparing this re-
search with the other datasets provided alongside the new information from this document.

Table 8. Comparison validation of work with this research on scaffold properties in bone implant
applications.

Tensile Test Compressive Test Thermal

Source Material Used Key Findings
(MPa) (MPa) Property
Enhanced mechanical
Omigbodun et al. [11] PLA/cHAP/rGO 56.78 107 >300 ◦ C properties and
thermal stability
Improved strength
Polyamide with Schwartz
Balabanov et al. [3] N/A 50 N/A for 3D-printed
Primitive topology
polyamide products
Superior strength in
Maconachie et al. [16] ABS Gyroid lattice structures N/A 44 N/A Gyroid lattice
structures
Enhanced electrical
Graphene-based scaffolds for
Li et al. [19] N/A Not specified N/A conductivity and
nerve repair
mechanical support
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 16 of 19

Table 8. Cont.

Tensile Test Compressive Test Thermal

Source Material Used Key Findings
(MPa) (MPa) Property
Confirmation and
PLA/Hydroxyapatite/Reduced ◦C extension of the
Omigbodun et al. [9] 29.17 53.60 >200
Graphene Oxide mechanical
improvements
Use of Human
systems to predict
optimal lattice
PLA/cHAP/rGO with Gyroid 107 (Gyroid: 53.60,
This Research 56.78 >300 ◦ C structures. Superior
and Schwartz Lattices Schwartz: 58.61)
Gyroid lattice design
for load-bearing
applications.

4.3. Discussion on Validation

The research highlights the use of advanced Human–AI systems for designing lattices
that significantly enhance mechanical properties, showing a marked improvement in tensile
and compressive strength compared to previous research data. The Gyroid structures, in
particular, are emphasized for their superior mechanical efficiency and stress distribution,
making them suitable for high-load applications in medical implants [47,48]. The new
research underscores increased thermal stability by incorporating rGO and cHAP into PLA,
as in the previous results. This enhancement is crucial for the durability and reliability of
implants under physiological conditions. The research from Omigbodun et al. [8,10] also
brings a new dimension to scaffold design with its focus on biocompatibility and effective
cell integration, which is vital for the success of bone implants in clinical applications. The
integration of Humans in optimizing scaffold designs presents a significant technological
advancement, potentially setting new standards in the field of biomedical engineering.
This comparative analysis underscores the considerable advancements made by the latest
research in enhancing the functionality and application of bone implant scaffolds, setting a
benchmark for future studies in this area.

5. Conclusions
The research introduces an innovative approach to bone implant design by integrating
AI-optimized lattice structures, harnessing the combined strengths of PLA, cHAP, and rGO.
By leveraging advanced human–AI systems, the study not only refines the biomechanical
properties of scaffolds but also enhances their bioactivity and biocompatibility, tailored
explicitly to patient-specific needs. The quantified results of this study are particularly
compelling, showcasing a Gyroid lattice design that achieves 20% higher energy absorption
than traditional scaffolds. Additionally, the thermal stability of the composites increased
by 15%, illustrating a significant enhancement in the materials’ ability to withstand physio-
logical conditions.
However, the research did uncover some challenges, such as minor inconsistencies
in filament diameter during the 3D printing process, which could impact the uniformity
and overall reliability of the scaffolds. Despite these issues, the study marks a significant
step forward in applying computational techniques and AI in medical implant design,
suggesting a promising future for more resilient and effective orthopedic treatments. This
work lays a foundation for further exploration and refinement of AI-driven methodolo-
gies in medical applications, potentially transforming patient outcomes in orthopedics
and beyond.
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 17 of 19

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.T.O.; Methodology, F.T.O. and B.I.O.; Software, F.T.O.
and B.I.O.; Validation, F.T.O.; Formal analysis, F.T.O.; Investigation, F.T.O. and B.I.O.; Resources, F.T.O.
and B.I.O.; Data curation, F.T.O.; Writing—original draft, F.T.O.; Writing—review and editing, F.T.O.
and B.I.O.; Visualization, F.T.O.; Supervision, F.T.O. and B.I.O. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: As this study does not contain any ethically relevant
data according to the ethics committee of Loughborough University, the need for ethical approval
was waived.

Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Oladapo, B.I.; Zahedi, S.A.; Ismail, S.O.; Olawade, D.B. Recent advances in biopolymeric composite materials: Future sustainability
of bone-implant. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 150, 111505. [CrossRef]
2. Xu, Y.; Zhang, F.; Zhai, W.; Cheng, S.; Li, J.; Wang, Y. Unraveling of Advances in 3D-Printed Polymer-Based Bone Scaffolds.
Polymers 2022, 14, 566. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Balabanov, S.V.; Makogon, A.I.; Sychev, M.M.; Evstratov, A.A.; Regazzi, A.; Lopez-Cuesta, J.M. 3D printing and mechanical
properties of polyamide products with Schwartz primitive topology. Tech. Phys. 2020, 65, 211–215. [CrossRef]
4. Long, T.; Song, X.; Han, B.; Suo, Y.; Jia, L. In Situ Magnetic Field Compensation Method for Optically Pumped Magnetometers
Under Three-Axis Nonorthogonality. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2024, 73, 9502112. [CrossRef]
5. Overview of Materials for Polylactic Acid (PLA) Biopolymer. Available online: https://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.
aspx?MatGUID=ab96a4c0655c4018a8785ac4031b9278 (accessed on 14 November 2024).
6. Luan, S.; Yu, X.; Lei, S.; Ma, C.; Wang, X.; Xue, X.; Ding, Y.; Ma, T.; Zhu, B. Deep learning for fast super-resolution ultrasound
microvessel imaging. Phys. Med. Biol. 2023, 68, 245023. [CrossRef]
7. Yang, X. Hydroxyapatite: Design with Nature. In Orthopedic Biomaterials: Advances and Applications; Springer: Cham, Switzerland,
2017; pp. 141–165. [CrossRef]
8. Wang, K.; Boonpratatong, A.; Chen, W.; Ren, L.; Wei, G.; Qian, Z.; Lu, X.; Zhao, D. The Fundamental Property of Human Leg
During Walking: Linearity and Nonlinearity. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 2023, 31, 4871–4881. [CrossRef]
9. Omigbodun, F.T.; Oladapo, B.I. Enhanced Mechanical Properties and Degradation Control of Poly(Lactic) Acid/Hydroxyapatite/
Reduced Graphene Oxide Composites for Advanced Bone Tissue Engineering Application. Biomimetics 2024, 9, 651. [CrossRef]
10. Zhao, Y.; Liu, Y.; Kang, S.; Sun, D.; Liu, Y.; Wang, X.; Lu, L. Peripheral nerve injury repair by electrical stimulation combined with
graphene-based scaffolds. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2024, 12, 1345163. [CrossRef]
11. Omigbodun, F. Manufacturing and Mechanical Characterisation of PLA/cHAP/rGO Composite for Bone Implants; Loughborough
University: Loughborough, UK, 2024. [CrossRef]
12. Javaid, M.; Haleem, A. 3D printed tissue and organ using additive manufacturing: An overview. Clin. Epidemiol. Glob. Health
2019, 8, 586–594. [CrossRef]
13. Xu, J.; Chang, L.; Chen, T.; Ren, T.; Zhang, Y.; Cai, Z. Study of the bending properties of variable stiffness chain mail fabrics.
Compos. Struct. 2023, 322, 117369. [CrossRef]
14. Viet, N.V.; Zaki, W. Artificial neural network model of the mechanical behaviour of shape memory alloy Schwartz primitive
lattice architectures. Mech. Mater. 2023, 183, 104680. [CrossRef]
15. Wang, J.; Sarkar, D.; Mohan, A.; Lee, M.; Ma, Z.; Chortos, A. Deep Learningfor Strain Field Customization inBioreactor with
Dielectric Elastomer Actuator Array. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2024, 5, 0155. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Maconachie, T.; Tino, R.; Lozanovski, B.; Watson, M.; Jones, A.; Pandelidi, C.; Alghamdi, A.; Almalki, A.; Downing, D.; Brandt,
M.; et al. The compressive behaviour of ABS gyroid lattice structures manufactured by fused deposition modelling. Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 2020, 107, 4449–4467. [CrossRef]
17. He, X.; Jiang, Z.; Akakuru, O.U.; Li, J.; Wu, A. Nanoscale covalent organic frameworks: From controlled synthesis to cancer
therapy. Chem. Commun. 2021, 57, 12417–12435. [CrossRef]
18. Hayashi, K.; Kishida, R.; Tsuchiya, A.; Ishikawa, K. Superiority of triply periodic minimal surface gyroid structure to strut-based
grid structure in both strength and bone regeneration. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2023, 15, 34570–34577. [CrossRef]
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 18 of 19

19. Li, C.; Bian, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Liu, Y.; Guo, Y. Advances in Biointegrated Wearable and Implantable Optoelectronic Devices for Cardiac
Healthcare. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2024, 5, 0172. [CrossRef]
20. Berman, J. Homogeneous lattices and lattice-ordered groups. Colloq. Math. 1974, 1, 13–24. Available online: https:
//www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.zamlynska-4e5aeaae-e4c1-444f-ae36-a31e5a94712d/content/partDownload/
4c833e38-7cb8-35ed-a389-a5bcf7506891 (accessed on 28 November 2024). [CrossRef]
21. Uesugi, K.; Mayama, H.; Morishima, K. Analysis of Rowing Force of the Water Strider Middle Leg by Direct Measurement Using
a Bio-Appropriating Probe and by Indirect Measurement Using Image Analysis. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2023, 4, 0061. [CrossRef]
22. Soro, N.; Attar, H.; Wu, X.; Dargusch, M.S. Investigation of the structure and mechanical properties of additively manufactured
Ti-6Al-4V biomedical scaffolds designed with a Schwartz primitive unit-cell. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2018, 745, 195–202. [CrossRef]
23. Li, Z.; Xu, Q. Multi-Section Magnetic Soft Robot with Multirobot Navigation System for Vasculature Intervention. Cyborg Bionic
Syst. 2024, 5, 0188. [CrossRef]
24. Chouhan, G.; Murali, G.B. Designs, advancements, and applications of three-dimensional printed gyroid structures: A review.
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part E J. Process Mech. Eng. 2024, 238, 965–987. [CrossRef]
25. Joyce, M.; Hodgkinson, T.; Lemoine, M.; González-Vázquez, A.; Kelly, D.J.; O’Brien, F.J. Development of a 3D-printed bioab-
sorbable composite scaffold with mechanical properties suitable for treating large, load-bearingarticular cartilage defects. Eur.
Cells Mater. 2023, 45, 158–172. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Maskery, I.; Sturm, L.; Aremu, A.O.; Panesar, A.; Williams, C.B.; Tuck, C.J.; Wildman, R.D.; Ashcroft, I.; Hague, R.J.M. Insights into
the mechanical properties of several triply periodic minimal surface lattice structures made by polymer additive manufacturing.
Polymer 2018, 152, 62–71. [CrossRef]
27. Jiang, Z.; Shi, H.; Tang, X.; Qin, J. Recent advances in droplet microfluidics for single-cell analysis. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2023,
159, 116932. [CrossRef]
28. Zhang, L.; Feih, S.; Daynes, S.; Chang, S.; Wang, M.Y.; Wei, J.; Lu, W.F. Energy absorption characteristics of metallic triply periodic
minimal surface sheet structures under compressive loading. Addit. Manuf. 2018, 23, 505–515. [CrossRef]
29. Maskery, I.; Aremu, A.O.; Parry, L.; Wildman, R.D.; Tuck, C.J.; Ashcroft, I.A. Effective design and simulation of surface-based
lattice structures featuring volume fraction and cell type grading. Mater. Des. 2018, 155, 220–232. [CrossRef]
30. Wang, H.; Wang, Y.; Yan, S.; Du, X.; Gao, Y.; Liu, H. Merge-and-Split Graph Convolutional Network for Skeleton-Based Interaction
Recognition. Cyborg Bionic Syst. 2024, 5, 0102. [CrossRef]
31. Lee, S.S.; Du, X.; Kim, I.; Ferguson, S.J. Scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Matter 2022, 5, 2722–2759. [CrossRef]
32. Cui, Q.; Ding, Z.; Chen, F. Hybrid Directed Hypergraph Learning and Forecasting of Skeleton-Based Human Poses. Cyborg Bionic
Syst. 2024, 5, 0093. [CrossRef]
33. da Silva Siqueira, A.; Braga, N.F.; Muñoz, P.A.R.; de Freitas, L.F.; Ferreira, A.H.; Fechine, G.J.M. Biodegradable scaffold: Integration
of polylactic acid, hydroxyapatite, and graphene oxide via FDM 3D printing. Express Polym. Lett. 2024, 18, 656–672. [CrossRef]
34. Xue, R.; Yuan, P.; Zhao, B.; Jing, F.; Kou, X.; Yue, W.; Wang, Y.; Wang, D.; Sewvandi, G.A.; Hu, D. DLP printing of BT/HA
nanocomposite ceramic scaffolds using low refractive index BT crystals. J. Mater. 2024, 10, 1036–1048. [CrossRef]
35. Gomez, J.; Villaro, E.; Perez, J.; Haidar, B.A. Preparation of electrically conductive PLA/rGO nanocomposite filaments. Graphene
Technol. 2020, 5, 41–48. [CrossRef]
36. Peng, X.; Han, Y.; Liu, G.; Li, J.; Yi, B.; Sa, G.; Jiang, S. Effect of manufacturing process parameters on the compression and energy
absorption properties of 4D-printed deformable honeycomb structure. Smart Mater. Struct. 2024, 33, 075035. [CrossRef]
37. Wang, Y.; Zhang, L.; Daynes, S.; Zhang, H.; Feih, S.; Wang, M.Y. Design of graded lattice structure with optimised mesostructures
for additive manufacturing. Mater. Des. 2018, 142, 114–123. [CrossRef]
38. Jiang, Z.; Han, X.; Zhao, C.; Wang, S.; Tang, X. Recent Advance in Biological Responsive Nanomaterials for Biosensing and
Molecular Imaging Application. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 1923. [CrossRef]
39. Omigbodun, F.T.; Oladapo, B.I.; Osa-Uwagboe, N. Exploring the frontier of Polylactic Acid/Hydroxyapatite composites in bone
regeneration and their revolutionary biomedical applications—A review. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2024. [CrossRef]
40. Wu, Y.; Chiu, G. An Improved Model of Height Profile for Drop-On-Demand Print of Ultraviolet Curable Ink. ASME Lett. Dyn.
Syst. Control 2021, 1, 031010. [CrossRef]
41. Zhang, B.; Wang, L.; Song, P.; Pei, X.; Sun, H.; Wu, L.; Zhou, C.; Wang, K.; Fan, Y.; Zhang, X. 3D printed bone tissue regenerative
PLA/HA scaffolds with comprehensive performance optimisations. Mater. Des. 2021, 201, 109490. [CrossRef]
42. Wu, Y.; Chiu, G. Modeling Height Profile for Drop-on-Demand Print of UV Curable Ink. In Proceedings of the ASME 2019
Dynamic Systems and Control Conference, Park City, UT, USA, 8–11 October 2019. V002T13A006. [CrossRef]
43. Raquez, J.M.; Habibi, Y.; Murariu, M.; Dubois, P. Polylactide (PLA)-based nanocomposites. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2013, 38, 1504–1542.
[CrossRef]
44. Wu, Y.; Chiu, G. An Improved Height Difference Based Model of Height Profile for Drop-on-Demand 3D Printing with UV Curable
Ink. In Proceedings of the 2021 American Control Conference (ACC), New Orleans, LA, USA, 25–28 May 2021; pp. 491–495.
[CrossRef]
Biomimetics 2025, 10, 88 19 of 19

45. Marques, P.A.A.P.; Gonçalves, G.; Singh, M.K.; Grácio, J. Graphene oxide and hydroxyapatite as fillers of polylactic acid
nanocomposites: Preparation and characterisation. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2012, 12, 6686–6692. [CrossRef]
46. Zhu, L.; Bai, M.; Xiao, S.; Liu, Y.; Zhu, Q.; Wang, Z.; Zhao, J.; Zhang, W.; Chen, D. In-situ monitoring of cellular H2 O2 within 3D
cell clusters using conductive scaffolds. Talanta 2024, 279, 126559. [CrossRef]
47. Liu, C.; Wong, H.M.; Yeung, K.W.K.; Tjong, S.C. Novel Electrospun Polylactic Acid Nanocomposite Fiber Mats with Hybrid
Graphene Oxide and Nanohydroxyapatite Reinforcements Having Enhanced Biocompatibility. Polymers 2016, 8, 287. [CrossRef]
48. Wu, Y.; Chiu, G. Error Diffusion based Feedforward Height Control for Inkjet 3D Printing. In Proceedings of the 2023 IEEE/ASME
International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM), Seattle, WA, USA, 28–30 June 2023; pp. 125–131. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.