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University of Khartoum
Faculty of Engineering 2 DEFINING THE TUNING PROBLEM
Chemical Engineering Department
 The entire control problem must be completely defined before the tuning
constants can be determined and control performance evaluated.
Naturally, the physical process is a key element of the system that must be
defined.
 the form of the PID controller used here is:
1 𝑡 𝑑𝐶𝑉(𝑡)
𝑀𝑉 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑐 𝐸 𝑡 + න 𝐸 𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 ′ − 𝑇𝑑 +𝐼
𝑇𝐼 0 𝑑𝑡
 Next, carefully defining control performance by specifying several goals to
1 PID Controller Tuning be balanced concurrently. This definition provides a comprehensive
specification of control performance that is flexible enough to represent
most situations. The three goals are the following:
1) Controlled-variable performance: The well-tuned controller should provide
satisfactory performance for one or more measures of the behavior of the
controlled variable, e.g. minimize the integral of absolute value of the error:
∞
𝐼𝐴𝐸 = න 𝑆𝑃 𝑡 − 𝐶𝑉(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0

 To evaluate the control performance, the goals and the scenario(s) under
3 4 which the controller operates need to be defined. These definitions are
summarized in table below:

2) Model error: Linear dynamic models always have errors, because the plant is
nonlinear and its operation changes. Since the tuning will be based on these
models, the tuning procedure should account for the errors, so that acceptable
control performance is provided as the process dynamics change. The changes
are defined as ± percentage changes from the base-case or nominal model
parameters. The ability of a control system to provide good performance when
the plant dynamics change is often termed robustness.
3) Manipulated-variable behavior: We shall choose the common goal of
preventing "excessive" variation in the manipulated variable by defining limits on
its allowed variation.

5 DETERMINING GOOD TUNING 6 Introduction

CONSTANT VALUES
 Many procedures exist for estimating optimum settings for controllers. One
of the usual bases employed is that the response of the controlled variable
 The "best" tuning constants are those values that satisfy the control to a change in load or set point should have a decay ratio of 1/4.
performance goals.
 There is no direct mathematical justification for this but it is a compromise
 the optimum tuning gives the minimum IAE, for the selected plant (with between a rapid initial response and a short response time.
variations in model parameters), when the manipulated variable observes
specified bounds on its dynamic behavior.  The response time (settling time or line-out time) is the time required for

 The dynamic response of the control system with a complex process model the absolute value of the system response
including dead time cannot be determined analytically, but it can be to come within a small specified amount
evaluated using a numerical solution of the process and controller
of the final value of the response (±5%).
equations. The dynamic equations are solved from the initial steady state to
the time at which the system attains steady state after the input change.
 The result is a set of tuning (𝐾𝑐 , 𝑇𝐼 , 𝑇𝑑 ) that gives the best performance for a
specific plant, model uncertainty, and control performance definition.

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7 On line Trial and Error Tuning Method 8

Step 4. Reduce 𝐾𝑐 by a factor of 2.

Step 5. Decrease 𝑇𝐼 in small increments, and each increment is followed by a
 Dynamic testing on the given process is performed by executing the
following stepwise procedure to find the optimum controller parameter small setpoint or load change, until a sustained oscillation with a constant
amplitude (continuous cycling) of the measured variable is observed. Set 𝑇𝐼
values:
equal to three times of this value.
Step 1. Eliminate integral and derivative action by setting 𝑇𝐼 to its maximum
Step 6. Increase 𝑇𝑑 in small increments, and each increment is followed by a
value and 𝑇𝑑 to its minimum value.
small set point or load change, until a sustained oscillation with a constant
Step 2. Set 𝐾𝑐 at a low value (say 𝐾𝑐 = 0.2 to 0.5), put the controller on amplitude (continuous cycling) of the measured variable is observed. Set 𝑇𝑑
automatic and apply a small step in load or set point (observe the response of equal to one third of this value.
the controlled variable).
 The value of 𝐾𝑐 , that results in continuous cycling, is termed as the ultimate
Step 3. Increase the 𝐾𝑐 by small increments, and each increment is followed gain and is denoted by 𝐾𝑈 .
by a small set point or load change, until sustained oscillation with constant
amplitude (continuous cycling) of the measured variable is observed.

9 Ziegler–Nichol’s Method: 10

The Ultimate Sensitivity Method:

 All the components in the control loop, excepting the controller, is plotted
and the cross-over frequency determined. If the amplitude ratio at 𝜔𝑐 is
 If the frequency response characteristics of the control system are known
(𝐴𝑅)𝑐 then, the gain of a proportional controller which would cause the
then it is possible to estimate values of controller parameters which will give
system to be on the verge of instability will be:
specified gain and phase margins. However, this necessitates trial and error 1
procedures. The semi-empirical method of Ziegler and Nichols is more easily 𝐾𝑢 =
applied. (𝐴𝑅)𝑐

 Ziegler and Nichol method, presented the controller setting formulae for (P),  The ultimate period is defined as that period of sustained cycling which
(PI), and (PID) controllers based on continuous cycling experiment carried would occur if a proportional controller of gain 𝐾𝑢 were used, thus:
2𝜋
on the close loop process. The sustained oscillatory condition is to be 𝑃𝑢 =
obtained by the way as described above after having the controller turned 𝜔𝑐
to manual with only the proportional mode remaining active. Their
objective function was that the tuned close loop system would produce an
under damped oscillatory response in the disturbed condition, with quarter
decay ratio(DR = 0.25) character.

11 12 Example: The three-tank mixing process

 Using the values of 𝐾𝑢 and 𝑃𝑢 , Ziegler and Nichol recommended the
following controller parameter setting formulae:

 Calculate controller tuning constants for the three-tank mixing process by

using the Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop method. The transfer function for this
process has already been developed:
0.039
𝐺𝑝 𝑠 = 5𝑠+1 3
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑐 = 1
∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 3 tan−1 (−5𝜔)
3
1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 0.039
1 + 52 𝜔 2

 The Ziegler-Nichols settings are derived from 𝐾𝑢 , and 𝑃𝑢 , on the basis of gain  Use trial-and-error procedure to determine
and phase margins of 2 and 30°, respectively, for proportional control The critical frequency:
alone. The addition of integral action introduces more phase lag at all
frequencies, and hence a lower value of proportional gain 𝐾𝑐 is required to
maintain the same phase margin. Adding derivative action introduces
phase lead and thus a greater value of 𝐾𝑐 can be tolerated.

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13 14 Process Reaction Curve Method:

The Cohen-Coon Procedure:
 The controller is placed on manual control (i.e. effectively removing it from
the control loop) and the response of the measured variable to a small step
change in the manipulated variable is recorded as shown in figure (a). This
response is called the process reaction curve.
 From the results in the table, the ultimate gain and period can be
2𝜋 1
determined to be 𝑃𝑢 = = 17.9 𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝐾𝑢 = = 208. The tuning
𝜔𝑐 (𝐴𝑅)𝑐
constants for P,PI, and PID controllers according to the Ziegler-Nichols
correlations are:

 A tangent is drawn to this curve at the point of inflexion figure (b). The
15 intercept of this tangent on the abscissa is termed the (𝜏𝑎𝑑 ) apparent dead 16
time of the system. The gradient of the tangent is given by:
𝐾𝑟
𝑚=
𝜏𝑎
Where: 𝐾𝑟 the steady state gain of the response and
 The Cohen-Coon settings are based on the assumption that the open-loop
𝜏𝑎 is the apparent time constant system behaves in the same manner as the transfer function:
 The relevant controller settings are given in table below: 𝐾𝑟 exp(−𝜏𝑎𝑑 𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 =
1 + 𝜏𝑎𝑑 𝑠
 Cohen and Coon determined the relationships in table above so as to give
responses having large decay ratios, minimum offset and minimum area
under the closed-loop response curve.