Course Code: GNS 103

Course Title: Fundamentals of Information Literacy

Chapter Four
Topic: Reference Sources, Services, and References Citation Styles
Reference Unit in a library.
A reference unit is where reference materials are organised and made available to various
categories of users. The materials in the reference unit are meant only for consultation and
cannot be taken out of the library. Reference materials provide background knowledge and
facts relating to different subjects acquired from many sources and organised for easy and quick
access. They are arranged either alphabetically or chronologically
The Reference Unit serves two main functions:
1. it provides reference materials for patrons' use.
2. it offers answers, instruction, and assistance to library users.
REFERENCE SOURCES
Reference materials include dictionaries, encyclopaedias, atlases, handbooks, gazetteers,
biographies, directories, bibliographies, yearbooks, etc. Reference “Sources" are categorised
into five main types:
1. Basic Background Reference Sources
2. Fact/Ready Reference Sources
3. Literature Search Reference Sources
4. Biographical Reference Sources
5. Geographical Reference Sources
These reference sources perform two general functions:
1. They provide direction to information seekers and
2. They offer background information and facts on various subjects.
1. Basic Background Reference Sources
These reference sources are commonly regarded as the backbone of reference services.
Examples are
Encyclopaedias: An encyclopaedia is a basic or background of reference sources. It is a fact-
finding material that is useful in various branches of knowledge. This type of reference material
provides general background information on various topics. Encyclopaedias are useful for
answering ready-reference questions. They are also good pre-search tools and are good starting
points for research. There are two types of encyclopaedias. These are general encyclopaedias

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(e.g., Encyclopaedia Americana, Encyclopaedia Britannica) and subject encyclopaedias (e.g.,
Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, McGraw-Hill Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology).
Encyclopaedia resources are arranged alphabetically, and it can be in one-volume or multi-
volume.
Dictionaries: Dictionaries provide information on the meaning, origin, spelling, syllabication,
and pronunciation of words. The word entries in dictionaries are arranged alphabetically.
Dictionaries are sub-divided into three main groups namely: general dictionaries, subject
dictionaries, and special purpose dictionary
General Language Dictionary: A general language dictionary is concerned with language
generally. Examples: Oxford English Dictionary, Advance Leaners, and Longman
Contemporary English Dictionary, etc.
Subject Dictionary: A subject dictionary focuses on a particular aspect of human knowledge.
These include the shorter English Dictionary on Historical Perspectives, Building Contract
Dictionary, A Dictionary of Entomology, etc.
Special-Purpose Dictionaries: These are special forms of dictionaries. They have various sub-
types, e.g.
Etymological dictionaries: This type provides the history and linguistic derivation of words.
Dictionary of Slang: This defines terms used in ordinary informal speech.
Thesaurus: Thesaurus contains synonyms and antonyms and provides alternate or more
specific words for identified terms e.g., Roget’s International Thesaurus.
Bi-lingual dictionaries: These types of dictionaries translate two languages, e.g., French-
English dictionary.
Usage dictionaries: These dictionaries prescribe correct word usage, e.g., Fowler’s Modern
English Usage.
Lexicons: Contain vocabulary or register for specific fields, e.g., medical terms.
2. Fact/Ready Reference Sources:
Fact/Ready Reference Sources are reference sources that are heavily used in reference units to
answer common queries. The information contained in these sources is concise and current.
Ready reference sources consolidate and summarise information from other sources, thereby
making such information easy to locate
Examples of Ready-Reference queries are
“Who was the president of Nigeria in 1980?
“What is the capital of Finland?”
“What are the addresses of all health facilities in Akure metropolis? etc.

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Examples of Fact/Ready Reference Sources are directories, handbooks, yearbooks, almanacs,
manuals, and guides.
Directories:
These reference materials contain lists of names of residents, organizations, or businesses. They
provide addresses and affiliations of individuals and institutions. They are used to locate or
verify the name or spelling of organisation, institution, or person. Types include directory of
directories, trade directories, publishers' directories, education/research directories,
foundations and grants directories, business directories, association directories, Government
directories, and telephone directories
Handbooks, Manuals, and Guides:
Handbooks: These are reference materials that serve as handy guides to specific subjects. They
provide factual and comprehensive information on specific subjects using tables, graphs, and
illustrations. Manuals provide instructions through specific and clear directions such as how to
operate an electronic gadget or appliance Examples are Smartcard Handbook, Writing: A
College Handbook, and Macmillan Field Guide to Trees.
Almanacs and Yearbooks:
These reference materials provide basic data and statistics on various topics (e.g., education,
health, sports) and are usually published annually. Yearbook particularly, refers to happenings
during the previous year. Examples include the Statesman's Yearbook, Whitaker's Almanac,
Book of Facts, NYSC Yearbook, and Guinness Book of Records.
3. Literature Search Reference Sources:
Literature Search Reference Sources help researchers access detailed, complete, and timely
information for research. These search sources do not provide detailed or complete information
as they are secondary sources, but they direct or help the researcher access the primary sources.
E.g. abstracts, indexes, bibliographies, and current contents.
Abstracts: An abstract is a condensed and accurate representation of the contents of a
document. There are two types of abstracts. They are indicative and informative abstracts
Indicative Abstracts: This type of abstract describes what a document is about, including
purpose, scope, and methodology, but does not include results, conclusions, or
recommendations.
Informative Abstracts: Informative abstracts, on the other hand, summarize the substance of
the document, including purpose, scope, methods, results, conclusions, and recommendations.
The two types must contain bibliography details to access the document. The details include
the name of the author, title of the article, journal title, issue, and page. The main purpose of an
abstract is to facilitate the selection of documents by providing necessary bibliographic details,
helping readers decide whether an item is likely to be of interest. An abstract is also useful in
providing access to the content of items written in languages unfamiliar to a particular reader.

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Indexes: Indexes serve as guides to the contents of reading or documentary materials, arranged
by author or keyword subject terms.
We have an alphabetical index and an author index. An alphabetical index is a single index
where entries of names and subjects are interfiled in a single sequence. While the author index
lists the names of authors. A book index lists words or terms arranged alphabetically at the back
of the book. Indexes contain the list of names, subjects, or terms arranged alphabetically,
providing page locations for easy reference.
Citation Indexes: This contains the list of published articles along with sub-lists of
subsequently published that cite the articles. It may contain supplementary indexes arranged
by author or keyword subject terms. Examples include the Science Citation Index, by the
Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in 1960. Social Science Citation Index and Arts and
Humanities Citation Index were published in 1965 and 1975. It may also include
supplementary information, aiding in tracking the influence and connections between scholarly
works.
ISI Web of Knowledge: This is used as an academic citation indexing and search service
provided by Thomson Reuters. It covers science, social sciences, arts, and humanities. It
provides bibliographic content and tools to access, analyse, and manage research information;
allows for simultaneous searches across multiple databases.
Bibliographies:
The bibliography is a list of works compiled on common organising principles such as
authorship, subject, place of publication, or publisher. It includes books, reports, articles,
government publications, theses, dissertations, and grey literature. Data in the bibliography
typically includes author, title, and publication information. Types of bibliographies are
National bibliographies, trade bibliographies, library catalogues, and subject bibliographies.
Library Catalogues: Library Catalogues serve the users of a particular library by listing the
holdings and locations of materials within the library. It gives a brief bibliographic description
of a publication and where to locate the publication in the library.
National Bibliographies: This is published by the national library or a government agency. It
lists materials published in a particular country, including works about the country in any
language. Example National Bibliography of Nigeria.
Trade Bibliographies: These are published by commercial publishers. They provide the
information necessary to select and acquire recently published materials. E.g. Books in Print,
publishers' catalogues etc.
Subject Bibliographies: These bibliographies contain lists of materials related to a particular
subject or topic. Examples are bibliographies on HIV/AIDS, Food Security, and Climate
Change.
Bibliographies of Bibliographies: Bibliographies of Bibliographies serve as a means of
bibliographic control by listing other bibliographies. There are annotated bibliographies that
give brief descriptions of the content of each entry. Indexes to the main listing in bibliographies
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are usually included to provide access points not covered by the primary and secondary
arrangement.
4. Biographical Reference Sources:
Biographical reference sources provide information about individuals, including basic
biographical data or detailed biographical essays. Usually available in print or electronic
formats, such as CD-ROMs or online databases. The criterion for inclusion is based on the
individual's position of responsibility and significant achievements, rather than wealth or
notoriety. Biographical reference sources provide information on individuals whether dead or
living. Examples include “Who is Who”. Who is Who in Nigeria (provides information on
notable individuals in Nigeria); International Who is Who (provides global biographical data
on distinguished individuals).
5. Geographical Reference Sources
Geographical Reference Sources also known as cartographic source is used to answer location
questions and solve spatial problems involving environmental issues, regional planning,
medical geography, political geography, mapping, and general human-physical world relations.
It is unique from others by scale (ratio of distance on the map to actual distance) and projection.
Types of geographical reference sources include maps and atlases, gazetteers, and travel guides.
Maps: Maps are drawings of the earth's surface, showing natural such as (rivers and mountains)
and artificial features such as buildings. Maps may give information about vegetation, and
occupation relief that exist in a particular area. Atlases is a collection of maps.
Gazetteers: Lists of geographical names or physical features, either appended to an atlas or
published separately. There are two types of gazetteers
a) location, and
b) descriptive
Location gazetteers: Location gazetteers usually provide information precisely locating
features, either by atlas page and good index or even more precise latitude and longitude, on
the earth’s surface.
Descriptive Gazetteers: This provides detailed information about places, including features like
brief history, commodity production, population, and latitude. It is commonly included as an
appendix in atlases to help locate place names in their volume.
Travel Guides:
This offers geographic information and guidance for travelers, especially those seeking out-of-
the-way locations. It contains information about tourist attractions, hotels, resorts, and points
of interest. Available in print and electronic formats.

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 REFERENCE SERVICES
Reference services are usually provided by reference librarians who answer user queries and
facilitate information searches. Reference services generally entail supporting users in their
queries and assisting information seekers. Reference services include
1. Answering user queries: The reference librarian creates a conducive environment for
information seekers and provides appropriate answers to user’s queries. There are two
types of users’ queries
Quick Reference Queries: This type of query requires immediate answers, such as dates of
recent events.
Research Queries: These queries require more time and detailed responses. For example, query
on the youngest elected governor in Nigeria.
Reference Query Slip: A reference query slip is designed by a reference librarian to keep
records of questions and answers. The slip consists of the user's name and address, status, the
question, the answer provided, sources consulted, length of time taken, and the reasons for not
providing an answer to the question.
Responsibilities of Reference Librarian:
1 Reference librarian must master all the reference tools in the library. He should be
patient, polite, sympathetic, empathetic, and possess a good sense of humour when
interacting with users.
2 User Education: Reference librarian educates users on the use of library and library
catalogue. The unit also teaches users to use some reference materials like
encyclopaedias, science citation index, and other specialised reference materials.
3 Compilation of Bibliographies: The librarian compiles and publishes
bibliographies focused on various subject areas to enable users to access desired
material resources even without visiting other libraries.
4 Current Awareness Services (CAS): Current Awareness Services (CAS) is the
function performed in the reference unit by librarian to keep users informed about
recent developments and new materials. This includes Selective Dissemination of
Information (SDI), publication of current contents, and lists of 'new arrivals.'
5 Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI): This is the process of preparing and
disseminating a list of useful information in the user's subject area. The process
involves
i). Capturing the research/academic background of users through questionnaires.
ii). Maintaining a progress file for important users (e.g., researchers, scientists).
iii). Providing the most recent publications' contents by photocopying or scanning.
iv). duplicating more copies of available contents

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v). inserting relevant information copies into the user’s files
6. Publication of List of New Arrivals: The department publishes a list of newly acquired
monographic publications, alphabetically arranged and displayed at the main access point. This
service ensures maximum exposure to and utilization of library resources.
7. Publication of Current Contents: This involves extracting and arranging current contents
of newly acquired journals under each journal title alphabetically. The extracted content is
published and circulated, with copies kept for library use.
8. Compilation of Reading Lists: The department compiles and makes available a list of
materials on different subject areas, reflecting the needs of users. The reference librarian needs
to be familiar with the user community's composition and characteristics of the user
community.
9. Indexing and Abstracting: Indexing involves extracting aspects of the contents of library
materials and making them available to users. Indexes are provided where they are lacking in
newly acquired materials.
10. Abstracting: Abstracting gives a summary of the essential contents of documents. It
facilitates information retrieval by helping the readers to determine whether the original
document will meet their information needs.
11. Inter-library Loan Services: Users consult available union catalogue and request materials
in other libraries. The reference librarian arranges to borrow the books and in turn, lend them
to the users.

REFERENCE CITATIONS AND REFERENCE STYLES

One of the important aspects of academic paper writing is citing the previous research you used
in your paper. Incorporating ideas from other people in report writing is allowed but
acknowledging the authorities is crucial. A list of references must be included at the end of the
report to document cited sources. The reasons for consulting and citing other sources are to:
i. save re-writing all the information in your report
ii. enable people to check your interpretation and use of early works
iii. give credit where appropriate to the originator of an idea and guard against
plagiarism
iv. allow those who read your report to examine the sources and follow trends in the
subject.
Reference is an alphabetical list of all the sources quoted or cited in the document and is usually
found at the end of the research paper. The different styles of references are the Modern
Language Association (MLA), the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), the American
Psychological Association (APA), and the Council of Science Editors (CSE). Each style has
unique characteristics for in-text citations and a list of references or works cited. MLA and APA
are common in Nigerian universities.

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Plagiarism: Plagiarism is using another person’s words or ideas as if they were one’s own.
To acknowledge when words or ideas are borrowed from another person's work is important.
Plagiarism is a serious offence.
Paraphrasing: This involves restating in the writer's words what is written in the source.
Summarising condenses the essential ideas in the source into a few short statements.
Direct quotation involves copying parts of a report exactly, either enclosing short quotes in
quotation marks or indenting long quotes.
Evaluating the Report
Evaluation of a report is done after you have completed your first draft. Then check out if
i. it is suitable for the intended reader,
ii. it is clear but as brief as possible,
iii. it is logically organised,
iv. any irrelevant material or information has been included,
v. the sentences are short and clear as possible
vi. you have avoided repetition of words or phrases as far as possible,
vii. diagrams and tables are properly used and
viii. the references are properly cited.
It is advisable to have the report read by one or two other persons to identify vague expressions
or incorrect spellings and make necessary adjustments.

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 Search strategy flowchart

Choose a topic, brainstorm, define

Determine keywords synonyms and search

Consult literature search tools to locate materials, e.g. catalogues,

bibliography, search engines

Find background information from textbooks, and encyclopaedias.

Consult periodicals for current information, e.g. refereed journals and
newspapers, and online

Evaluate the information for currency, adequacy, and authority

Take notes, take references down

Organise materials, synthesise and write

Evaluate

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How to cite different types of sources
One Author:
Hockney, David. Secret Knowledge: Recovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters.
New York: Viking Studio, 2001.
Two or Three Authors:
Kress, Gunther, and Theo van Leeuwen. Reading Image: The Grammar of Graphic Design.
London: Routledge, 1996.
Four or More Authors:
After the first name, add et al. (meaning “and other”)
Bellah, Robert N., et al. Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American
Life. Berkeley: University of California, 1985.
Corporate or Group Author:
If the organisation is also the publisher, repeat its name, abbreviated if appropriate.
Nemours Children's Clinic. Diabetes and Me. Wilmington, DE: Nemours, 2001.
No Author Given:
Guide for Authors. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985.
One or More Editors:
Achebe, Chinua, and C. L. Innes, eds. African Short Stories. London: Heinemann, 1985.

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