Introduction

Mathematical analysis studies concepts related in some

way to real numbers, so we must know about the real-number

system. Several methods are used to introduce real numbers.

One method starts with positive integers and uses them to build

a larger system, the positive rationals, their negatives, zero.The

rational, in turn, are then used to construct irrational num-

bers. The rationals and irrationals together constitute the real-

number system.

Although these matters are an imporatant part of foun-

dations, they won’t be described in detail here. Therefore, we

shall take the real numbers themselves as undefined objects sat-

isfying certain axioms from which further properties will be de-

rived. Hence we introduce the ideas of basic topology of real

numbers through some definitions here.

1
 Chapter I

Basic Topology

We begin this chapter with some main concepts of analy-

sis which are used in solving problems. It includes the definitions

of finite, countable and uncountable sets. Further we go thorugh

some important concepts of analysis such as open sets, closed

sets, metric spaces, separable and connected sets.

Let us begin with a definition of function concept.

1.1 Definition

Consider two sets A and B, whose elements maybe any

objects whatsoever, and suppose that with each elemnt x of A

there is associated in some manner, an element of B, which we

denote by f (x). Then f is said to be a function from A to B.

The set A is called the domain of f , and the elements f (x) are

called values of f . The set of all values of f is called range of f .

2
1.2 Definition

If there exists a 1-1 mapping of A onto B, we say that

A and B can be put in 1-1 correspondence, or that A and B

have the same cardinal number, or, briefly, that A and B are

equivalent, and we write A ∼ B. This relation has the prop-

erties ref lexive, symmetric and transitive. Therefore it is an

equivalence relation.

1.3 Definition

For any positive integer n, let Jn be the set whose ele-

ments are the integers 1, 2, . . . ,n ; let J be the set consisting

of all positive integers. For any set A, we say :

(a) A is f inite if A ∼ Jn for some n (the empty set is

also considered to be finite).

(b) A is inf inte if A is not finite.

(c) A is countable if A ∼ J.

(d) A is uncountable if A is neither finite nor countable.

(e) A is at most countable if A is finite or countable.

3
Countable sets are sometimes called enumerable, or denumerable.

For example the set of all integers is countable. For by

arranging the integers as 0, -1, 1, -2, 2,... we give a scheme by

which they can be counted. The last sentence is an imprecise

but highly intuitive way of saying that the function f defined

by
n−1
f (n) = (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
2
−n
f (n) = (n = 2, 4, 6, ...)
2
is a 1-1 correspondence between I and the set of al integers,

where I is the set of positive integers.

The set of all rational numbers is countable. The set

∞
S
of all rational numbers is the union En where En is the set
n=1

of rationals which can be written with denominator n. That is

En = {0/n, −1/n, 1/n, ...}. Now each En is equivalent to the set

of integers and is thus countable. Hence the set of all rationals

is a countable union of countable sets.

4
 Also the set S of intervals with rational end points is

countable.

Every interval [a, b] in R is uncountable. We can prove it

by showing [0, 1] is uncountable. A finite set can not be equiva-

lent to one of its proper subsets. But this is possible for infinite

sets.

1.4 Definition

By a sequence, we mean a function f defined on the set J

of all positive integers. If f (n) = xn , for n ∈ J, it is customary

to denote the sequence f by the symbol xn , or sometimes by

x1 , x2 , x3 , ... The values of f , that is, the elements xn are called

the terms of the sequence. If A is a set and if xn ∈ A for all

n ∈ J, then xn is said to be a sequence in A, or a sequence of

elements of A. The terms of a sequence need not be distinct.

For example consider the sequence { n21+1 } where n =

1, 2, 3, . . It has the terms 1/2, 1/5, 1/10, . . There is a

beautiful relation between sequences and countability. That is

5
the elements of any countable set can be ”arranged in sequence”.

1.5 Definition

A set X, whose elements we shall call points, is said to

be a metric space if with any two points p and q of X there is

associated a real number d(p, q), called the distance from p to

q, such that

(a) d(p, q) > 0 if p 6= q; d(p, p) = 0;

(b) d(p, q) = d(q, p)

(c) d(p, q) ≤ d(p, r) + d(r, q), for any r ∈ X.

Any function with these three properties is called a dis-

tance function, or a metric. The distance fucntion is not unique

for a set. It can be defined in many ways. A set can have dif-

ferent metrics defined on it.

The most important examples of metric spaces are the

euclidean spaces R1 , R2 , generally Rk . The distance function in

6
Rk is defined by

d(x, y) = |x − y| (x, y ∈ Rk )

By the segment (or) open interval (a, b) we mean the set

of all real numbers x such that a < x < b. Thats is, in terms of

metric, we can write this as

(a, b) = B(x, )

where x = (a + b)/2 and  = (b − a)/2.

By the interval [a, b] we mean the set of all real numbers

x such that a ≤ x ≤ b.

1.6 Definition

We call a set E ⊂ Rk convex if

λx + (1 − λ)y ∈ E

whenever x ∈ E, y ∈ E, and 0 < λ < 1.

7
 For example, If x ∈ Rk and r > 0, the open ball B with

center at x and radius r is defined to be the set of all y ∈ Rk

such that |y − x| < r. These balls are convex.

1.7 Definition

Let X be a metric space. All points and sets mentioned

below are undersrtood to be elements and subsets of X.

(a) A neighborhood of p is a set Nr (p) consisting of all

q such that d(p, q) < r for some r > 0. The number r is called

the radius of Nr (p).

(b) A point p is a limit point of the set E if every neigh-

bourhood of p contains a point q 6= p such that q ∈ E.

(c) If p ∈ E and p is a limit point of E, then p is called

an isolated point of E.

(d) E is closed if every limit point of E is a point of E.

(e) A point p is an interior point of E if there is a neigh-

bourhood N of p such that N ⊂ E.

8
 (f ) E is open if every point of E is an interior point

of E.

(g) The complement of E is the set all points p ∈ X

such that p ∈
/ E.

(h) E is perf ect if E is closed and if every point of E is

a limit point of E.

(i) E is bounded if there is a real number M and a point

q ∈ X such that d(p, q) < M for all p ∈ E.

(j) E is dense in X if every point of X is a limit point

of E, or a point of E (or both).

Every segment (or) open interval in R is a open set. If

we consider the same in R2 , it is not an open set.

In the plane R2 the set

{(x, y) |x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0}

is closed. A finite set has no limit points.

9
 The set of all complex numbers is a perfect example for

closed, open and perfect set.

1.8 Definition

If X is a metric space, if E ⊂ X, and if E 0 denotes the

set of all limit points of E in X, then, E = E ∪ E 0 .

1.9 Definition

By an open cover of a set E in a metric space X we mean

S
a collection {Gα } of open subsets of X such that E ⊂ Gα .
α

1.10 Definition

A subset K of a metric space X is said to be compact if

every open cover of K contains a f inite subcover.

More explicitly, the requirement is that if {Gα } is an

open cover of K, then there are finitely many indices α1 , ..., αn

such that

K ⊂ Gα1 ∪ ... ∪ Gαn

Any space X containing only finitely many points is nec-

10
essarily compact. Because in this case every open covering of X

is finite. The Real Line R is not compact. It can have open cov-

ering but not the finite subcollection which covers R. Consider

the open intervals of R.

1.11 Definition

Two subsets A and B of a metric space X are said to be

separated if both A ∪ B and A ∪ B are empty, i.e., if no point

of A lies in the closure of B and no point of B lies in the closure

of A.

A set E ⊂ X is said to be connected if E is not a union

of two nonempty separated sets.

For example, The rationals Q is not connected. The

only connected subspaces of Q are the one-point sets. If Y is

a subspace of Q containing two points p, q, one can choose an

irrational number a lying between p and q and write Y as the

11
union of open sets

Y ∩ (−∞, a) and Y ∩ (a, +∞)

Therefore Q is not connected.

1.12 Definition

A metric space is called separable if it contains a count-

able dense subset.

For example R is separable. Since R has the countable

dense subset Q.

1.13 Definition

A collection {Vα } of open subsets of X is said to be a

base for X if for every x ∈ X and every open set G ⊂ X such

that x ∈ G, we have x ∈ Vα ⊂ G. In other words, every open

set in X is the union of a subcollection of {Vα }.

12
1.14 Definition

Let p be a point in the metric space X. p is said to be

a condensation point of a set E ⊂ X if every neighbourhood of

p contains uncountably many points of E.

13
 Chapter II

Problems

2.1 Regard Q, the set of all rational numbers, as a metric

space, with d(p, q) = |p − q|. Let E be the set of all p ∈ Q such

that 2 < p2 < 3. Show that E is closed and bounded in Q, but

that E is not compact. Is E open in Q?

Solution :

Given, E = {p ∈ Q|2 < p2 < 3}

√ √ √ √
Let S = ( 2, 3) ∪ ( −3, −2)

=⇒ E = {p ∈ Q|p ∈ S}, that is E = {p ∈ Q ∩ S}.

Clearly E is bounded in Q. Since Q is dense in R, every limit

point of Q is in Q. Hence E is closed in Q.

To Prove : E is not compact

Consider,

{Gα } = {Nr (p) | p ∈ E and (p − r, p + r) ⊂ S}

Surely {Gα } is an open covering of E.

14
 If E is compact, then there must be finitely many indices

α1 , α2 , ..., αn such that

E ⊂ ∪i Gαi , (i = 1, 2, ..., n)

For every Gαi = Nri (pi ), take p = max pi ,

(i = 1, 2, ..., n).
√
=⇒ p is the nearest point to 3.
√
But Nr (p) lies in E, =⇒ [p + r, 3) can not be covered.

Since Q is dense in R, a contradiction.

=⇒ E is not compact.

Is E open in Q?

Take any p ∈ Q. Then there exist a neighbourhood N (p) of p

contained in E. ( Take r small enough where Nr (p) = N (p) and

Q is dense in R)

=⇒ Every point in N (p) is also in Q. Hence E is open.

2.2 Let E be the set of all x ∈ [0, 1] whose decimal ex-

pansion contains only the digits 4 and 7. Is E countable? Is E

15
dense in [0, 1]? Is E compact? Is E perfect?

Solution :

an
Given, E = { ∞
P
n=1 : an = 4 or an = 7}
10n

Claim : E is uncountable

Suppose E is countable, We list E as follows,

x1 = 0.a11 a12 ...a1n ...

x1 = 0.a21 a22 ...a2n ...

. . .

. . .

xk = 0.ak1 ak2 ...akn ...

. . .

. . .

Now let x =
0.x1 x2 ...xn ...


4 if ann = 7


Where xn =


7 if ann = 4



=⇒ x ∈
/ E, a contradiction. Hence E is uncountable.

16
Claim : E is not dense in [0, 1]

E ∩ (0.47̄, 0.74̄) = Φ. Hence E is not dense in [0,1]

Claim : E is compact.

Clearly E is bounded.

To Prove : If p is limit point of E then p ∈ E.

Suppose not, Then,

p = 0.p1 p2 ...pn ...

Since p ∈
/ E , There exist a smallest k such that pk 6= 4 and

pk 6= 7. When pk = 0, 1, 2, 3 select the smallest l such that

pl = 7 if possible. (If l does not exist, then p < 0.4̄ . Then

there exist a neighbourhood of p such that it contains no

points E, a contradiction) Thus,

0.p1 p2 ...pl−1 4pl+1 ...pk−1 7̄ < p < 0.p1 p2 ...pk−1 4̄

=⇒ The neighbourhood of p which does not contain any points

of E, a contradiction.

When pk = 5, 6 0.p1 p2 ...pk−1 47̄ < p < 0.p1 p2 ...pk−1 74̄

Again a neighbourhood of p which does not contain any points

17
 of E, a contradiction. When pk = 8, 9 it is similar.

Hence E is closed. =⇒ E is compact.

Claim : E is perfect

To Prove : Every p ∈ E is a limit point of E.

Let p ∈ E. Then p = 0.p1 p2 ...pn ...

Let xk = 
0.y1 y2 ...yn ...


pk if k 6= n








Where yn = 4 if pn = 7







7 if pn = 4



Then |xk − p| −→ 0 as k −→ ∞

Also xk 6= p ∀ k. Hence p is limit point of E.

E is perfect.

2.3 Is there a nonempty perfect set in R1 which contains

no rational number?

Solution :

Let {x1 , x2 , ...xk , ...} be an enumeration of rationals.

18
Let U1 = (a1 , b1 ) be an open interval with irrational end points

conataining x1 , that is x1 ∈ (a1 , b1 ). Let i2 be the smallest index

i such that xi ∈
/ U1 .

Let U2 = (a2 , b2 ) be an open interval with irrational end points

such that xi2 ∈ U2 , that is xi2 ∈ (a2 , b2 ) and U1 ∩ U2 = Φ.

Continuing in this way, Supposing that U1 , U2 , ..., Un have been

constructed. Let in+1 be the least index such that

xin+1 ∈
/ U1 ∪ U2 ∪ ... ∪ Un

and let Un+1 = (an+1 , bn+1 ) be an interval with irrational end

points containing xin+1 such that Un+1 is disjoint from

U1 ∪ U2 ∪ ... ∪ Un . Now

X∞
E=( Un )c
n=1

is a nonempty perfect set containing no rational point. It is

closed, since it is the complement of open sets.

19
Claim : E is perfect

If x ∈ E were an isolated point of E then for some , the

intervals,(x − , x + ) must not intersect E and thus will each

lie the complement of E. But If I is an interval contained in E c ,

then I must lie entirely inside some Un . Because the Un0 s are

disjoint open intervals. Thus (x − , x) ⊂ Un and (x, x + ) ⊂ Um

for some m, n. It follows that x = bn = am , which is contrary to

the construction of the sets Un and Um . Hence E is perfect.

2.4 (a) If A and B disjoint closed sets in some met-

ric space X, prove that they are separated.

(b) Prove the same for disjoint open sets.

(c) Fix p ∈ X, δ > 0, define A to be the set of all q ∈ X for

which d(p, q) < δ, define B similarly, with > in place of <.

Prove that A and B are separated.

(d) Prove that every connected metric space with atleast two

points is uncountable.

20
Solution :

(a) Given A and B are disjoint closed sets. =⇒ A ∩ B = Φ.

Since A and B are closed A = A and B = B.

=⇒ A ∩ B = Φ, A ∩ B = Φ

. Hence A and B are separated sets.

(b) Let A and B be two disjoint open sets. Suppose A ∩ B is

nonempty, Then There exist a p such that p ∈ A ∩ B.

=⇒ p ∈ A and p ∈ B

. For p ∈ A, there exist a neighbourhood of p contained in A.

Since A is open. For p ∈ B = B ∪ B 0 , If p ∈ B then p ∈ A and

p ∈ B then

=⇒ p ∈ A ∩ B,

a contradiction.

If p ∈ B 0 , then p is a limit point of B. Thus every neighbour-

21
hood of p contains a point q 6= p such that q ∈ B. Take a

neighbourhood Nr (p) containing a point q 6= p such that q ∈ B.

Note that Nr (p) ⊂ A. Thus q ∈ A, a contradiction. Hence A∩B

is empty. Also B ∩ A is empty. Hence A and B are separated.

(c) Given p ∈ X, δ > 0. The sets are

A = {q ∈ X | d(p, q) < δ}

B = {q ∈ X | d(p, q) > δ}

Suppose A ∩ B is not empty, there exist a x ∈ A ∩ B. It implies

that x ∈ A and x ∈ B = B ∪ B 0 . Since x ∈ A =⇒ d(p, x) <

δ. If x ∈ B =⇒ d(p, x) > δ, a contradiction. Then the only

possibility is x is limit point of B.

Take a neighbourhood Nr (x) of x contains y with y ∈ B where

δ − d(x, p)
r= . Clearly d(y, p) > δ.
2

22
But

d(y, p) ≤ d(y, x) + d(x, p)

≤ r + d(x, p)

δ − d(x, p)
< + d(x, p)
2
δ + d(x, p)
<
2
δ+δ
<
2

< δ,

a contradiction. Hence our assumption is wrong.

(d) Let x, y ∈ X and let d(x, y) = d > 0. Then for every

d0 ∈ (o, d) there must be a point z such that d(x, z) = δ. If not

the sets A and B are separated by (c). Hence there is a subset of

X that can be placed in 1-1 correspondence with interval [0,d].

Since [0, d] is uncountable =⇒ X is uncountable.

23
2.5 Are closures and interiors of connected sets always

connected?

Solution :

The closure of a connected set is connected. Indeed If

E is connected and E ⊆ F ⊆ E. Then F is connected. For

suppose F = G ∪ H where G and H are separated, nonempty

sets. The set E can not be entirely contained in G.( It it were,

since H is nonempty, H could contain limit point of E. Hence a

limit point og G, contrary to hypothesis). For the same reason

E can not be contained entirely in H . Hence G1 = E ∩ G,

H1 = E ∩ H are nonempty separated sets E = G1 ∪ H1 and E

is not connected.

The interior of a connected set may fail to be connected.

24
2.6 Let A and B be separated subsets of some Rk , sup-

pose a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and define

p(t) = (1 − t)a + tb

for t ∈ R1 . Put A0 = p−1 (A), B0 = p−1 (B). [Thus t ∈ A0 if and

only if p(t) ∈ A.]

(a) Prove that A0 and B0 are separated subsets of R1 .

(b) Prove that there exists t0 ∈ (0, 1)such that p(t0 ) ∈

/ A ∪ B.

(c) Prove that every convex subset of Rk is connected.

Solution :

Claim : A0 ∩ B0 is empty.

If not, take x ∈ A0 ∩ B0 .

=⇒ x ∈ A0 and x ∈ B0 . x ∈ B0 or x is a limit point of B0 .

x ∈ B0 ,

=⇒ x ∈ A0 ∩ B0 ,

that is, p(x) ∈ A ∩ B, a contradiction since A, B are separated.

25
 Claim: x is a limit point of B0 =⇒ p(x) is a limit point

of B.

Take any neighborhood Nr of p(x), and p(t) lies in B for small

enough t. More precisely,

r r
x− <t<x+
|b − a| |b − a|

r r
Since x is a limit point of B0 , and (x − ,x+ ) is a
|b − a| |b − a|
neighborhood N of x, thus N contains a point y 6= x such that

y ∈ B0 , that is, p(y) ∈ B. Also, p(y) ∈ Nr . Therefore, p(x) is a

limit point of B. Hence p(x) ∈ A ∩ B, a contradiction since A

and B are separated. Hence A0 ∩ B0 is empty, that is, A0 and

B0 are separated subsets of R1 .

(b) Suppose not, For every t0 ∈ (0, 1), neither p(t0 ) ∈ A

nor p(t0 ) ∈ B (since A and B are separated). Also, p(t0 ) ∈ A∪B

for all t0 ∈ (0, 1).

Hence (0, 1) = (A0 , B0 ) , a contradiction.

26
(c) Let S be a convex subset of Rk . If S is not connected,

then S is a union of two nonempty separated sets A and B. By

(b), there exists t0 ∈ (0, 1) such that p(t0 ) ∈

/ A ∪ B. But S is

convex, p(t0 ) must lie in A ∪ B, a contradiction. Hence S is

connected.

2.7 A metric space is called separable if it contains a

countable dense subset. Show that Rk is separable

Solution :

Consider the set S, the set of points which have only

rational coordinates. For any point x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xk ) ∈ Rk , we

can find a rational sequence

rij −→ xj f or j = 1, ..., k

Since Q is dense in R1 . Thus,

ri = (ri1 , ri2 , ..., rik ) −→ x, ri ∈ S ∀ i

27
Hence S is dense in Rk . Also, S is countable, that is, S is a

countable dense subset in Rk , Rk is separable.

2.8 Prove that every separable metric space has a count-

able base.

Solution :

Let X be a separable metric space, and S be a countable

dense subset of X.

Let a collection {Vα } = { all neighborhoods with rational radius

and center in S }.

Claim : Vα is a base for X.

For every x ∈ X and every open set G ⊂ X such

that x ∈ G, there exists a neighborhood Nr (p) of p such that

Nr (p) ⊂ G since x is an interior point of G. Since S is dense

in X, there exists {sn } −→ x. Take a rational number rn such

that rn < r/2, and {Vα } 3 Nrn (sn ) ⊂ Nr (p) for enough large n.

Hence we have x ∈ Vα ⊂ G for some α. =⇒ {Vα } is a base for X.

28
2.9 Let X be a metric space in which every infinite sub-

set has a limit point. Prove that X is separable.

Solution :

We observe that the process of constructing xj did not

terminate. The result would be an infinite set of points

xj , j = 1, 2, ... such that d(xi , xj ) ≥ δ for i 6= j. It would

then follow that for any x ∈ X the open ball Bδ/2 (x) contains

atmost one point of the infinite set, hence no point could be a

limit point of this set. This contradicts the hypothesis. Hence

X is totally bounded. That is for each δ > 0 there is a finite set

x1 , x2 , ..., xNδ such that

X = ∪Bδ (xj )

Let xn1 , ..., xnn be such that X = ∪j B1/n (xnj ) n = 1, 2, ...

29
We claim that {xnj : 1 ≤ j ≤ nn } is a countable dense sub-

set of X.

If x ∈ X and δ > 0 then x ∈ B1/n (xnj ) for some xnj and for

1
some n > δ hence d(x, xnj ) < δ. It means that {xnj } is dense in

X.

2.10 Prove that every compact metric space K has a

countable base, and that K is therefore separable.

Solution :

For every positive integer n, there are finitely many

1
neighborhood of radius n whose union covers K (since K is

compact). Collect all of them, say {Vα }, and it forms a count-

able collection.

Claim : {Vα } is a base.

For every x ∈ X and every open set G ⊂ X, there exists Nr (x)

such that Nr (x) ⊂ G, since x is an interior point of G. Hence

x ∈ Nm (p) ∈ {Vα } for some p where m = [2/r] + 1. For every

30
y ∈ Nm (p), we have

d(y, x) ≤ d(y, p) + d(p, x) < m + m = 2m < r

Hence Nm (p) ⊂ G, that is, Vα ⊂ G for some α, and therefore

{Vα } is a countable base of K. Next, collect all of the center of

Vα , say D.

Claim : D is dense in K (D is countable).

For all p ∈ K and any  > 0 we can find Nn (xn ) ∈ {Vα } where

n = [1/] + 1. Note that xn ∈ D for all n and d(p, xn ) −→ 0 as

n −→ ∞. Hence D is dense in K.

2.11 Let X be a metric space in which every infinite

subsets has a limit point. Prove that X is compact.

Solution : —

By problems 8 and 9, X has a countable base. It fol-

lows that every open cover of X has a countable subcover {Gn },

31
n = 1, 2, 3, ..... If no finite subcollection of {Gn } covers X, then

the complement Fn of G1 ∪ G2 ∪ ... ∪ Gn is nonempty for each n,

but ∩Fn is empty. If E is a set contains a point from each Fn ,

consider a limit point of E. Note that Fk ⊃ Fk+1 ⊃ ... and Fn is

closed for all n, thus p lies in Fk for all k. Hence p lies in ∩Fn ,

but ∩Fn is empty, a contradiction.

2.12 Suppose E ⊂ Rk , E is uncountable, and let P be

the set of all condensation points of E. Prove that P is perfect

and that at most countably many points of E are not in P . In

other words, show that P c ∩ E is at most countable.

Solution :

Let {Vn } be a countable base of Rk , let W be the union

of those Vn for which E ∩ Vn is at most countable.

Claim : P = W c

Suppose x ∈ P . (x is a condensation point of E). If x ∈ Vn

for some n, then E ∩ Vn is uncountable since Vn is open. Thus

32
x ∈ W c . (If x ∈ W , then there exists Vn such that x ∈ Vn and

E ∩ Vn is uncountable, a contradiction). Therefore P ⊂ W c .

Conversely, suppose x ∈ W c , x ∈
/ Vn for any n such that

E ∩ Vn is countable. Take any neighborhood N (x) of x. Take

x ∈ Vn ⊂ N (x), and E ∩ Vn is uncountable. Thus E ∩ N (x)

is also uncountable, x is a condensation point of E. Thus

W c ⊂ P . Therefore P = W c . Note that W is countable, and

thus W ⊂ W ∩E = P c ∩E is at most countable. To show that P

is perfect, it is enough to show that P contains no isolated point.

(since P is closed). If p is an isolated point of P , then there ex-

ists a neighborhood N of p such that N ∩ E = Φ. p is not a

condensation point of E, a contradiction. Therefore P is perfect.

2.13 Prove that every closed set in a separable metric

space is the union of a (possible empty) perfect set and a set

which is at most countable.

33
Solution :

Let X be a separable metric space, let E be a closed set

on X. Suppose E is uncountable. (If E is countable, there is

nothing to prove.) Let P be the set of all condensation points

of E. Since X has a countable base, P is perfect, and P c ∩ E

is at most countable by Problem 12. Since E is closed,P ⊂ E.

Also, P c ∩ E = E − P . Hence E = P ∪ (E − P ).

2.14 Prove that every open set in R1 is the union of

an at most countable collection of disjoint segments.

Solution :

Since O is open, for each x in O, there is a y > x such

that (x, y) ⊂ O. Let

b = sup{y : (x, y) ⊂ O},

a = inf {z : (z, x) ⊂ O}

34
Then a < x < b, and Ix = (a, b) is an open interval containing

x. Now Ix ⊂ O, for if w ∈ Ix , say x < w < b, we have by the

definition of b a number y > w such that (x, y) ⊂ O, and so

w ∈ O. Moreover, b ∈
/ O, for if b ∈ O, then for some  > 0 we

have (b − , b + ) ⊂ O , whence (x, b + ) ⊂ O, contradicting

the definition of b. Similarly, a ∈

/ O. Consider the collection of

open intervals {Ix }, x ∈ O. Since each x ∈ O is contained in Ix ,

and each Ix ⊂ O, we have

O = ∪Ix

Let (a, b) and (c, d) be two intervals in this collection with a

point in common. Then we must have c < b and a < d. Since

c ∈
/ O, it does not belong to (a, b) and we have c ≤ a. Since

a ∈
/ O and hence not to (c, d), we have a ≤ c. Thus a = c.

Similarly, b = d, and (a, b) = (c, d). Thus two different intervals

in the collection {Ix } must be disjoint. Thus O is the union

35
of the disjoint collection {Ix } of open intervals, and it remains

only to show that this collection is countable. But each open

interval contains a rational number since Q is dense in R. Since

we have a collection of disjoint open intervals, each open interval

contains a different rational number, and the collection can be

put in one-to-one correspondence with a subset of the rationals.

Thus it is a countable collection.

2.15 If Rk = ∪Fn , where each Fn is a closed subset

of Rk , then at least one Fn has a nonempty interior.

Solution :

Let Gn be a dense open subset of Rk for n = 1, 2, 3, ....

To Prove : ∩∞ k
1 Gn intersects any nonempty open subset of R is

not empty.

Let G0 is a nonempty open subset of Rk . Since G1 is dense and

G0 is nonempty, G0 ∩ G1 6= Φ. Suppose x1 ∈ G0 ∩ G1 . Since

G0 and G1 are open, G0 ∩ G1 is also open, that is, there exist

36
a neighborhood V1 such that V1 ⊂ G0 ∩ G1 . Next, since G2 is

a dense open set and V1 is a nonempty open set, V1 ∩ G2 6= Φ.

Thus, we can find a nonempty open set V2 such that V2 ⊂ V1 ∩G2 .

Suppose We have get n nonempty open sets V1 , V2 , ..., Vn such

that V1 ⊂ G0 ∩ G1 and V i+1 ⊂ Gn+1 ∩ Vi for all i = 1, 2, ...,

n - 1. Since Gn+1 is a dense open set and Vn is a nonempty

open set, Vn ∩ Gn+1 is a nonempty open set. Thus we can find

a nonempty open set Vn+1 , such that Vn+1 ⊂ Vn ∩ Gn+1 . By

induction, I can form a sequence of open sets {Vn : n ∈ Z + }

such that V1 ⊂ G0 ∩ G1 and Vi+1 ⊂ Gi+1 ∩ Vi ∀n ∈ Z + . Since V1

is bounded and V1 ⊃ V2 , ..., Vn , ..., ⊃, .. by Theorem 2.39

∩∞
n=1 Vn 6= Φ

Since V1 ⊂ G0 ∩G1 and Vn+1 ⊂ Gn+1 , G0 ∩(∩∞

n=1 Gn ) 6= Φ. Hence

the proof.

37
 References

1. Walter Rudin, Principles of Mathematical Analysis, Third

Edition, McGraw-Hill International Book Company, New York,

1976.

2. James R. Munkres, Topology, Second Edition, PHI Learning

Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2009.

3. Richard R Goldberg, Methods of Real Analysis, Oxford and

IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1970.

4. Tom M Apostol, Mathematical Analysis, Addison-Wesley

Publishing Company, London, 1974.

38