Collins

Cambridge IGCSE®

Maths
STUDENT'S BOOK
Also for Cambridge IGCSE® (9­1)

Chris Pearce
 CONTENTS Key
E = Extended

POOR 0000:008000000000060006000000000008000000000050000000000008060080600090000006s0

How to use this book 5 Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation 86

6.1 Inequalities 88
Number
6.2 Sets and Venn diagrams 90
Chapter 1: Number 6 E 63 More about Venn diagrams 94
1.1 Square numbers and cube numbers 8
1.2 Multiples of whole numbers 12 Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 100
13 Factors of whole numbers 71 Ratio 102
13
14 Prime numbers 15 E72 Increases and decreases using ratios 108
1.5 Prime factorisation 73 Speed 110
16
1.6 More about HCF and LCM 74 Rates 113
18
\? Real numbers 7.5 Direct proportion 116
20
7.6 Inverse proportion 117
Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 22
2.1 Equivalent fractions 24 Chapter 8: Estimation and limits of
2.2 Fractions and decimals 26 accuracy 120
E23 Recurring decimals 27 8.1 Rounding whole numbers
24 Percentages, fractions and decimals 30 8.2 Rounding decimals 123
2.5 Calculating a percentage 34 83 Rounding to significant figures 125
2.6 Increasing or decreasing quantities 84 Upper and lower bounds 126
by a percentage 36 E 85 Upper and lower bounds
2.7 One quantity as a percentage of for calculations 128
another 40 Chapter 9: Standard form 132
2.8 Simple interest and compound interest 43
9.1 Standard form 134
29 A formula for compound interest 45 9.2 Calculating with standard form "136
E 2.10 Reverse percentage 47
Chapter 3: The four rules Chapter 10: Applying number and
50
using calculators 140
3.1 Order of operations 52
10.1 Units of measurement 142
3.2 Choosing the correct operation 54
10.2 Converting between metric units 143
33 Finding a fraction of a quantity 55
10.3 Time 145
34 Adding and subtracting fractions 57
10.4 Currency conversions 147
35 Multiplying and dividing fractions 60
10.5 Using a calculator efficiently 149
Chapter 4: Directed numbers 64 Examination questions: Number 151
4.1 Introduction to directed numbers 66
4.2 Everyday use of directed numbers 67 Algebra
4.3 The number line 68 Chapter 11: Algebraic representation
4.4 Adding and subtracting and formulae 160
directed numbers 70 11.1 The language of algebra 162
4.5 Multiplying and dividing 11.2 Substitution into formulae 165
directed numbers 73 11.3 Rearranging formulae 167
Chapter 5: Powers and roots 76 E 11.4 More complicated formulae 169
5.1 Squares and square roots 78
5.2 Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 172
Cubes and cube roots 79
12.1 Simplifying expressions 174
53 More powers and roots 81
12.2 Expanding brackets 178
E 54 Exponential growth and decay 82
2
 12.3 Factorisation 182 Chapter 18: Indices 318
12.4 Multiplying two brackets: 1 184 18.1 Using indices 320
12.5 Multiplying two brackets: 2 187 18.2 Negative indices 322
E 12.6 Expanding three brackets 190 18.3 Multiplying and dividing with indices 324
E 12.7 Quadratic factorisation 192 E 18.4 Fractional indices 327
E 12.8 Algebraic fractions 197
Chapter 19: Proportion 332
Chapter 13: Solutions of equations E 19.1 Direct proportion 334
and inequalities 202 E 19.2 Inverse proportion 339
13.1 Solving linear equations 204
13.2 Setting up equations 210 Chapter 20: Linear programming 342
E 13.3 Solving quadratic equations E 20.1 Graphical inequalities 344
by factorisation 212 E 20.2 More than one inequality 347
E 13.4 Solving quadratic equations by the E 20.3 Linear programming 349
quadratic formula 217 Chapter 21: Functions 352
E 13.5 Solving quadratic equations
E 21.1 Function notation 354
by completing the square 219
E 21.2 Inverse functions 355
13.6 Simultaneous equations 222
E 21.3 Composite functions 357
E 13.7 Linear and non­linear simultaneous
E 21.4 More about composite functions 359
equations 229
E 13.8 Solving inequalities 232 Chapter 22: Differentiation 362
E 22.1 The gradient of a curve
Chapter 14: Graphs in practical
E 22.2 More complex curves 366
236
E 22.3 Turning points 369
14.1 Conversion graphs 238
14.2 Travel graphs Examination questions: Algebra 372
242
E 14.3 Speed­time graphs 246
E 14.4 Curved graphs 251
Chapter 23: Angle properties 382
Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 256 23.1 Angle facts 384
15.1 Drawing straight­line graphs 258 23.2 Parallel lines 386
15.2 The equation y =mx +¢ 261 23.3 Angles in a triangle 390
E 15.3 More about straight­line graphs 265 23.4 Angles in a quadrilateral 392
15.4 Solving equations graphically 267 23.5 Regular polygons 395
15.5 Parallel lines 270 E 23.6 Irregular polygons 398
E 15.6 Points and lines 272 23.7 Tangents and diameters
E 15.7 Perpendicular lines 274 E 23.8 Angles in a circle 402
Chapter 16: Graphs of functions E 23.9 Cyclic quadrilaterals 405
278
16.1 Quadratic graphs E 23.10Alternate segment theorem
280
E 16.2 Turning points on a quadratic graph 285 Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and
16.3 Reciprocal graphs 286 relationships 412
E 16.4 More graphs 288 24.1 Measuring and drawing angles 414
E 16.5 Exponential graphs 292 24.2 Bearings 417
E 16.6 Estimating gradients 296 24.3 Nets 420
Chapter 17: Number sequences 24.4 Congruent shapes 423
300
17.1 Patterns in number sequences E 24.5 Congruent triangles 424
302
17.2 The nth term of a sequence 24.6 Similar shapes 427
304
E 24.7 Areas of similar triangles 430
17.3 General rules from patterns 309
E 24.8 Areas and volumes of similar shapes 433
E 17.4 Further sequences 314
Chapter 25: Geometrical constructions 438 E 303 Reflections: 2 548
25.1 Constructing shapes 440 304 Rotations: 1 550
25.2 Scale drawings 442 E 305 Rotations: 2 553
306 Enlargements: 1 554
Chapter 26: Trigonometry 446
E 30.7 Enlargements: 2 559
26.1 Pythagoras’ theorem 448
E 30.8 Combined transformations 561
26.2 Trigonometric ratios 452
Examination questions: Geometry 564
26.3 Calculating angles 454
26.4 Using sine, cosine and Statistics and probability
tangent functions 455
26.5 Which ratio to use 459 Chapter 31: Statistical representation 576
E 26.6 Applications of trigonometric ratios 462 31.1 Frequency tables 578
E 26.7 Problems in three dimensions 466 31.2 Pictograms 581
E 26.8 Sine and cosine of obtuse angles 468 31.3 Bar charts 583
E 26.9 The sine rule and the cosine rule 470 31.4 Pie charts 587
E 26.10 Using sine to find the area 31.5 Scatter diagrams 591
of a triangle 477 31.6 Histograms 596
E 26.11 Sine, cosine and tangent of any angle 479 E 31.7 Histograms with bars of
unequal width 599
Chapter 27: Mensuration 486
27.1 Perimeter and area of arectangle 488 Chapter 32: Statistical measures 606
32.1 The mode 608
27.2 Area of a triangle 491
32.2 The median 610
27.3 Area of a parallelogram 494
27.4Area of a trapezium 32.3 The mean 612
495
27.5Circumference and area of acircle 32.4 The range 615
498
276 Surface area and volume of a cuboid 501 32.5 Which average to use 618
32.6 Stem­and­leaf diagrams 620
27.7Volume and surface area of a prism 503
32.7 Using frequency tables 624
27.8 Volume and surface area of a cylinder 506
E 32.8 Grouped data 628
27.9 Sectorsand arcs: 1 508
E 27.10 Sectors and arcs: 2 E 32.9 Cumulative frequency diagrams 631
510
27.11 Volume of a pyramid 512 E 32.10Box­and­whisker plots 638
27.12 Volume and surface area of a cone 514 Chapter 33: Probability
27.13 Volume and surface area of a sphere 516 33.1 The probability scale
Chapter 28: Symmetry 518
33.2 Calculating probabilities 3
33.3 Probability that an event
28.1 Lines of symmetry 520 will not happen
28.2 Rotational symmetry 522 33.4 Probability in practice 651
283 Symmetry of special two­dimensional
33.5 Using Venn diagrams 654
shapes 523 33.6 Possibility diagrams 657
E 284 Symmetry of three­dimensional
33.7 Tree diagrams 661
shapes 525
E 33.8 Conditional probability 665
E 285 Symmetry in circles 526
Examination questions: Statistics and
Chapter 29: Vectors 530 probability ’ 672
29.1 Introduction to vectors 532 Examination questions: Mixed type 686
E 29.2 Using vectors 535
| Glossary 692
E 29.3 The magnitude of a vector 540
Answers 704
Chapter 30: Transformations 542 Index 766
30.1 Translations 544
30.2 Reflections: 1 546
How to use this book

Why this chapter matters

This page is at the start of each chapter.
It tells you why the mathematics in the
chapter is important and how it is useful.

Chapter overviews
The overview at the start of each chapter shows what
you will be studying and the key words you need to
know. Syllabus references are included and if you are
doing the Extended curriculum you must also cover the
corresponding Core content, for example, C1.1. and E1.1.

Worked examples
Worked examples take you through questions step by
step and help you understand the topic before you start
the practice questions.

Practice questions and answers

Every chapter has extensive questions to help you
practise the skills you need. You will need to be able
to reason, interpret and communicate mathematically
when solving problems, which are important skills to
acquire.

Colour­coded levels
The colour coded panels at the side of the question
I pages show whether the questions are at core (blue) or
extended level (yellow). The ® on some topic headings
shows that the content in that topic is at extended
level only.

Exam preparation
Each of the four main sections in the book ends with
exam questions from Cambridge International past
papers. These will be useful for revision. Mark schemes,
written by the author, are available in the Teacher's Pack.
 Number
rE ow ­_¥ ­ ­— = _

' 8 opics Key words

:
1 Square numbers and cube square, square number, square root, cube, cube J
numbers number
2 Multiples of
multiple
whole numbers
3 Factors of factor, factor pair, lowest common multiple,
whole numbers highest common factor

Prime numbers prime number

product of prime factors, index (indices), prime

5 Prime factorisation
factorisation

6 More about HCF and LCM

natural number, integer, real number,
rational number, irrational number
natural number, integer, real number,
7 Real numbers
rational number, irrational number, reciprocal

® Identify and use:

natural numbers
­ integers (positive, negative and zero)
—­ prime numbers
— square numbers
­ cube numbers
­ common factors and common multiples
­ rational and irrational numbers (e.g. m, 2)
­ real numbers
­ reciprocals
­ Express any number as a product of its prime factors
­ Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) and highest common factor (HCF) of two
numbers. (C1.1 and E1.1)
| ® Reason, interpret and communicate mathematically when solving problems.

­ | |
we

Ed
 Why this chapter matters
A pattern is an arrangement of repeated parts. You see patterns
every day in clothes, art and home furnishings. Patterns can
also occur in numbers.

There are many mathematical problems that can be solved

using patterns in numbers. Some numbers have fascinating features.
Here is a pattern.

3+5 =8 (5 miles =8km)

5+8 =13(8 miles = 13 km)
8 + 13 = 21 (13 miles = 21 km)
Approximately how many kilometres are there in 21 miles?
Note: ~ means ‘approximately equal to’.
In the boxes are some more patterns. Can you work out the
next line of each pattern?

W Now look at these numbers and see why they are special.
4096 = (4 + 096
81=(8 + 1)
Some patterns have special names.
Can you pair up these patterns and the names?

14,8,12, 16, x | | Prime numbers |

1,4, 9, 16, ... Multiples (of 4) ]

12,3,5,7, ... ] Cube numbers |

1,8, 27,64, ... | Square numbers |

You will look at these in more detail in this chapter.

Below are four sets of numbers. Think about which
number links together all the other numbers in each set.
(The mathematics that you cover in 1.3 ‘Factors of whole numbers’
will help you to work this out!)

10,5, 2, 1
18,9,6, 3, 2,1
25,.5,.1

32,16,8,4,2,1
 1.1 Square numbers and cube
numbers
What is the next number in this sequence?
1,49 16,25, ...
Write each number as:
1x1,2x2,3%x3,4x4,5x%65,...

These factors can be represented by square patterns of dots:

15a 2x2 3x3 4x4 5x5
[J LIN J ® 00 oo 000 ® 0 0 0 0
[ BN J] ® 00 ® 0 00 ® 0 000
® 00 ® oo 00 ® ® 000
® 0 0 0 ® oo 000
® oo 000

From these patterns, you can see that the next pair of factors must be 6 x 6 = 36, therefore 36 is the
next number in the sequence.
Because they form square patterns, the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, ... are called square numbers.

When you multiply any number by itself, the answer is called the square of the number or the
number squared. This is because the answer is a square number. For example:
the square of 5 (or 5 squared) is 5 x 5 = 25

the square of 6 (or 6 squared) is 6 x 6 = 36

There is a short way to write the square of any number.
For example:

5 squared (5 x 5) can be written as 52

13 squared (13 x 13) can be written as 132
So, the sequence of square numbers, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, ..., can be written as:
12,22 32, 42,52 62, ...
The square root of n is the number of which the square is n. This can be written as Vn. For example,
the square root of 16 (4) can be written as 16.
Square numbers have exact square roots, for example:
the square root of 9 is 3: /9 = 3
the square root of 25 is 5: 4/25 = 5
the square root of 100 is 10: J100 = 10

8 1.1 Square numbers and cube numbers

EXERCISE 1A
wv The square number pattern starts:
1 4 9 16 25

Copy and continue the pattern above until you have written down the first 20 square
numbers. You may use your calculator for this.

» Work out the answer to each of these number sentences.

1+3=
1+34+5=

143+5+7=
Look carefully at the pattern of the three number sentences. Then write down the next
three number sentences in the pattern and work them out.

by Find the next three numbers in each of these number patterns. (They are all based on
square numbers.) You may use your calculator.

1 4 9 % 25 36 49 64 81
a2 5 100 17... 26" 804TH 0 550 32 EE sii
b2 8 18 32 s0 72 42 118 [k] Look forthe connection
c3 6 mn 18 27 38 5) 4p qb on
MWiththesquarenumbers
the top line.
do 3 8 15 24 35 49 ¢3 £0
& a Work out the values of both expressions in each pair. You may use your calculator.
324+ 42 and 5?
524122 and 132
724242 and 25?
92440? and 412
b Describe what you notice about your answers to part a. This will help you communicate
mathematically with others.
132 = 169. What is 169?
oo Find v25
Nn Find V81
a Find 121
e Find J400
. 4 and 81 are square numbers with a sum of 85.
Find two different square numbers with a sum of 85.

Chapter 1: Number 9
 The following exercise will give you some practice on multiples, factors, square numbers and
prime numbers.

EXERCISE 1B
® Write out the first three numbers that are multiples of both of the numbers shown.
a 3and4 b 4and5 ¢ 3and5 d 6and?9 e Sand?
*® Here are four numbers.

10 16 35 49

Copy and complete the table by putting each of the numbers in the correct box.

Even number
Multiple of 7

Arrange these four number cards to make a square number.

goon
An alarm flashes every 8 seconds and another alarm flashes every 12 seconds. If both alarms
flash together, how many seconds will it be before they both flash together again?

A bell rings every 6 seconds. Another bell rings every 5 seconds. If they both ring together,
how many seconds will it be before they both ring together again?

From this box, choose one number that fits each

of these descriptions.
12 13 2
a a multiple of 3 and a multiple of 4
b a square number and an odd number 8 15
c a factor of 24 and a factor of 18 17
d a prime number and a factor of 39
e an odd factor of 30 and a multiple of 3
f a number with 5 factors exactly 10
g a multiple of 5 and a factor of 20
h a prime number that is one more than a 14 16
square number

10 1.1 Square numbers and cube numbers

Cube numbers
What is the next number in this sequence?
1,827...

Write each number as:

1x1x1,2x2x2,3%x3x3,...

These factors can be represented by cube patterns of dots:

T1x1x1 2x2x2 3x3x3

EA
wl
i Zi lL © PY

[Y [ey
* oe
[a oly
Ee

From these patterns, you can see that the next pair of factors must be 4 x 4 x 4 = 64, therefore 64 is
the next number in the sequence.
Because they form cubic patterns, the numbers 1, 8, 27, 64, ... are called cube numbers.

When you multiply any number by itself twice, the answer is called the cube of the number or the
number cubed. This is because the answer is a cube number. For example: the cube of 5 (or 5 cubed)

5% 5x5=125.
There is a short way to write the cube of any number.
For example:

5 cubed (5 x 5 x 5) can be written as 53

10 cubed (10 x 10 x 10) can be written as 103

So, the sequence of cube numbers, 1, 8, 27, 64, ..., can be written as:
13,23,33 43, ...
You will learn more about cubes (and cube roots) in Chapter 5.

EXERCISE 1C
nn The cube number pattern starts:

1 8 27 64

Copy and continue the pattern above until you have written down the first 12 cube numbers.
You may use your calculator for this.

Chapter 1: Number 1
 Chapter 1

2 Work out the answer to each of these number sentences.

1+8=

1+48+27=

1+8+27+64=

Look carefully at the pattern of the three number sentences. What kind of numbers are these?

Now write down the next three number sentences in the pattern and work them out.

® Find the next three numbers in each of these number patterns. (They are all based on cube
numbers.) You may use your calculator.
1 8 27 64
a 2 9 28 65
b 0 7 26 63
c 2 16 54 128
d 1000 729 512 343
. a Work out the values of these expressions.
P+53+3
34+734+08
3473413
b Describe what you notice about your answers to part a.
Work out the values of these expressions: 12% + 12 and 93 + 103.
Your answer is Bender's (a character in Futurama) serial number. It is sometimes called the ­
Hardy­Ramanujan number after the Indian mathematician Ramanujan who noticed that this is
the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.

. Work out the values of these expressions: 692 and 69% on your calculator.

What do you notice about the digits in your answers?

1.2 Multiples of whole numbers

When you multiply any whole number by another whole number, the answer is called a multiple of
either of those numbers.
For example, 5 x 7 = 35, which means that 35 is a multiple of
5 and it is also a multiple of 7. Here are some other multiples
of Sand 7:
multiplesof Sare: 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
multiplesof 7are: 7 14 21 28 35 42

12 1.2 Multiples of whole numbers

EXERCISE 1D
® Write out the first five multiples of:
a 3 b 7 c 9 d 1 e 16
Remember: the first multiple is the number itself. Advice and Tips

@ Use your calculator to see which of the numbers below are: There is no point testing
a multiplesof4 b multiples of 7 ¢ multiples of 6. odd numbers for
multiples of even
72 135 102 161 197 132 78 91 216 514 ooo sand.
Find the biggest number that is smaller than 100 and that is:
a a multiple of 2 b a multiple of 3 ¢ a multiple of 4
d a multiple of 5 e a multiple of 7 f a multiple of 6.
‘­ A party of 20 people are getting into taxis. Each taxi holds the same number of passengers.
If all the taxis fill up, how many people could be in each taxi? Give two possible answers.

IC) Here is a list of numbers.

6 8 12 15 18 28

a From the list, write down a multiple of 9.

b From the list, write down a multiple of 7.
¢ From the list, write down a multiple of both 3 and 5.

w® How many numbers between 1 and 100 are multiples of both 6 and 9? List the numbers.

1.3 Factors of whole numbers

AAA AA AA A A AA A EE A AE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE RR ar aI III III I

A factor of a whole number is any whole number that divides into it exactly. So:

the factorsof 20are 1 2 4 5S 10 20

the factorsof 12are 1 2 3 4 6 12

Factor facts
Remember these facts.
* 1is always a factor and so is the number itself.
* When you have found one factor, there is always another factor that goes with it — unless the
factor is multiplied by itself to give the number. For example, look at the number 20:
1x20=20 so 1and 20 are both factors of 20
2x10=20 so 2 and 10 are both factors of 20
4x5=20 so 4 and 5 are both factors of 20.
These are called factor pairs.

Chapter 1: Number 13
 You may need to use your calculator to find the factors of large numbers.

( Zxanple 1
Find the factors of 36.

Look for the factor pairs of 36. These are:

1x36=36 2x18=36 3x12=36 4x9=36 6x6=36

6 is a repeated factor so is counted only once.
So, the factors of 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36.
9

EXERCISE 1E
® What are the factors of each of these numbers?
a 10 b 28 c 18 d 17 e 25
f 40 g 30 h 45 i 24 i 16
nm What is the biggest factor that is less than 100 for each of these numbers?
a 110 b 201 c 145
d 117 e 130 f 240

» Find the largest common factor for each pair of numbers. Advice and Tips
a 2and4 b 6and 10 ¢ 9and 12 ih »
d 15and25 Look for t e largest
e 9and 15 f 12and 21 number that has both
g 4and21 h 25and 30 i 30and50 numbersinits ~~.
j S55and77 multiplication table.
® Find the highest odd number that is a factor of 40 and a factor of 60.

Lowest common multiple

The lowest common multiple (LCM) of two numbers is the smallest number that appears in the
multiplication tables of both numbers.
For example, the LCM of 3 and 5 is 15, the LCM of 2 and 7 is 14 and the LCM of 6 and 9 is 18.

( Exampla 2
Find the LCM of 18 and 24.

Write out the 18 times table: 18, 36, 54,(72), 90, 108, ... .
Write out the 24 times table: 24, 48,72), 96, 120,
You can see that 72 is the smallest (least) number in both (common) tables (multiples).

14 1.3 Factors of whole numbers

Highest. common factor
The highest common factor (HCF) of two numbers is the biggest number that divides exactly into
both of them.
For example, the HCF of 24 and 18 is 6, the HCF of 45 and 36 is 9 and the HCF of 15 and 22 is 1.

r— 3 =
Find the HCF of 28 and 16.

Write out the factors of 28: 1,24) 7, 14, 28

Write out the factors of 16: 1, 8,16
Be can see that 4 is the biggest (highest) number in both (common) lists (factors). 3

EXERCISE 1F
& Find the LCM of each pair of numbers.
a 24 and 56 b 21 and 35
¢ 12and 28 d 28 and 42
e 12and 32 f 18and 27
g 15and 25 h 16 and 36
­ Find the HCF of each pair of numbers.
a 24 and 56 b 21and35
¢ 12and 28 d 28 and 42
e 12and 32 f 18and 27
g 15and 25 h 16 and 36
i 42and27 j 48and 64
k 25and 35 I 36and54
@ The HCF of two numbers is 6.

The LCM of the same two numbers is 72.

What are the numbers? Explain how you reached you answer.

1.4 Prime numbers

What are the factors of 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13?
Notice that each of these numbers has only two factors: itself and 1. They are all examples of prime
numbers.

Chapter 1: Number 15
 Chapter 1. Tog

50, a prime number is a whole number that has only two factors: itself and 1.
Note: 1 is not a prime number, since it has only one factor ­ itself.

The prime numbers up to 50 are:

2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47

EXERCISE 1G
~ Write down the prime numbers between 20 and 30.

® Write down the only prime number between 90 and 100.

3 Decide which of these numbers are not prime numbers.

462 108 848 365 nN

. When three different prime numbers are multiplied together the answer is 105.
What are the three prime numbers?

. A shopkeeper has 31 identical soap bars.

He is trying to arrange the bars on a shelf in rows, each with the same number of bars.

Is it possible?

Explain your answer.

1.5 Prime factorisation

MAAR AAA AL ALAA AAR AE EE EE EE EE a a rar mmmm™T

Every whole number that is not prime can be written as the product of prime factors. For example:

35=5x%x7
40=2x2x%x2x5
465=3 x5 x 31
5929 =7 x7 x 11 x 11
5 and 7 are the prime factors of 35.

2 and 5 are the prime factors of 40.

You can use indices to write the product more easily. For example:

40=23x5 The small 3 is an index.

5929 = 72 x 112

96=2x2x2x2x2x3=2x3
Writing a number in this way is called prime factorisation.
You can write the numbers in a different order but you can do the factorisation in only one way. So
for 96 there must be five 2s and one 3.

16 1.5 Prime factorisation

¢ I»)
Example 4
Write 630 as a product of prime factors.

Check the prime numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, ...) in turn to find which of them divide into 630.

2 is a factor of 630. 630 + 2=315

Now do the same with 315.

2isnota factor of 315but 3is. 315+ 3=105

3 is a factor of 105. 105+3=35
3 is not a factor of 35 but 5 is. 35+5=7
7 is a prime number, so stop there.
It is more convenient to write the divisions in a column, like this.

2/630
3/315
311035
31 33
7
Now list the prime numbers, including the final 7.
| 0=2x3x3x5x7=2x3x 5x7

EXERCISE 1H
» Work out these numbers.
a 22x 3? b 3x5x7 c 2x53 d 2%x3x17
e 2x3x7x17 f 5x73 g 3?x112 h 23x13?
Write each of these numbers as a product of prime factors.
a 90 b 152 c 64 d 330
e 289 f 800 g 97 h 1001
a» Which of these numbers can be written as the product of exactly two prime factors?
77 124 129 245 221 103

450=2 x 32x 5?
a Use this fact to write 900 as a product of prime factors.
b Write 1800 as a product of prime factors.
¢ Write 1350 as a product of prime factors.

Match each number to the correct product of prime factors.

144 22 x 34
200 2% x 32
324 23 x 52
500 22x 53

Chapter 1: Number 17
 Chapter 1

­ a Find the smallest number that has four different prime factors.
b Find the smallest number that has five different prime factors.
® 1224=23 x 32x 17
Use this fact to write each of these numbers as a product of prime factors.
a 612 b 306 c 408

w Which of these numbers cannot be written as a product of prime factors?

70 \711) 72 (7;3)74 75 1 77 78 79
i. 539=72x 11 847=7 x 112 539 x 847 = 456533

Use these facts to write 456 533 as a product of prime factors.

1.6 More about HCF and L.CM

8 00 000000 rrr irri rrir irra err sire rissseccesninesneessscsnsneenseessssssssse

You can use prime factorisation to find the LCM or the HCF of two or more numbers.

Example 5
a
810=2x3%x5
252=22x32x7

a Find the HCF of 810 and 252. cq

b Find the LCM of 810 and 252.

a To find the HCF, multiply all the prime numbers (including repeats) that occur in both lists.
There is one 2 in both numbers.
There are two 3s in both numbers.
The HCFis 2 x 32= 18
b To find the LCM, multiply all the prime numbers (including repeats) that occur in either list.
You need to multiply two 2s, four 3s, one 5 and one 7.
The LCM is 22 x 34 x 5 x 7 = 11340 F
\&
Why does this work?
You can check that 18 is a common factor: 810 + 18=45=32x5
and: 252+ 18=14=2x7
Since the answers to these divisions have no common factor, 18 is the highest common factor.
You can check that 11340 is a common multiple.

18 1.6 More about HCF and LCM

11340+810=14=2x7
11340 + 252=45=3?x5
Since the answers to these divisions have no common factor, 11340 is the lowest common multiple.

ra 6 }
Find the LCM of 21, 27 and 35.

21=3x7 27=3 35=5x7

Looking at the prime numbers that occur in any of these, you need three 3s, one 5 and one 7.
The MEET ER 3

EXERCISE 11
J) 72=23x3? 162=2x3%
Use these facts to find:
a the HCF of 72 and 162 b the LCM of 72 and 162.
@ 05­3x5x7 25­547
. Use these facts to find:
a the HCF of 105 and 245 b the LCM of 105 and 245.

ow Write 240 as the product of prime factors.

T Write 126 as the product of prime factors.
Nn Find the HCF of 240 and 126.
Qa Find the LCM of 240 and 126.

a Write 72 and 108 as the product of prime factors.

b Find the HCF of 72 and 108.
¢ Find the LCM of 72 and 108.

a Find the HCF of 64 and 144. b Find the LCM of 64 and 144.
a Find the HCF of 132 and 693. b Find the LCM of 132 and 693.

24=23x3 60=22x3x5 36=22x 32

Use these facts to find:
a the HCF of 24, 60 and 36 b the LCM of 24, 60 and 36.

a Find the HCF of 25, 35 and 45. b Find the LCM of 25, 35 and 45.

a Find the HCF of 105, 135 and 375. b Find the LCM of 105, 135 and 375.

Find the HCF of 288, 432 and 648.

oT Write the LCM of 288, 432 and 648 as a product of prime factors.

Chapter 1: Number 19
 Chapter 1

@ : Find the HCF of 63 and 200.

b Find the LCM of 63 and 200.

n In question 1 you found the HCF and LCM of 72 and 162.

a Work out the product of 72 and 162.

b Work out the product of the HCF and the LCM of 72 and 162.
¢ Investigate whether there is a relationship between the product of the HCF and the LCM of
two numbers and the product of the numbers themselves.
d Is there a similar result for the HCF and the LCM of three numbers?

1.7 Real numbers

GE 0000000000000 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000a0

So far you have only been looking at natural numbers, which are whole, positive numbers:
012345...
If you also include negative whole numbers you have the integers:
w=3,­2,­1,0,1,2, 3...
And if you include decimals too you have the real numbers. There are two sorts of real numbers.

Rational numbers are integers or fractions such as ­17, 33, ­8.75 or z

Irrational numbers cannot be written as fractions.
Examples of irrational numbers are v2, V17 and =.
Ifn is a natural number that is not a square number, then Vn is irrational.
The reciprocal of the number n is (n=0)
3

The reciprocal of the fraction B is b

a
The product of a number and its reciprocal is 1

Find the reciprocalof a 28° b 28 ¢ & d 5}

a The reciprocal is 5
b The reciprocal is yy = 3§ = &
¢ The reciprocal is § = 8
d 53 = 2. The reciprocal is # on 4
Notice that in part b you could use a calculator to get 1 + 2.8 = 0.3571 to 4 d.p.
Sa is only an approximate answer. For an exact answer you must use fractions. J

20 1.7 Real numbers

EXERCISE 1)
State whether each of these numbers is an integer or not.
i)
a 100 b 85:6 0\S 359?
(d 7 e V20 £)6.3x10
g 9.27 x7.23 LPNS (1y­~J/88
State whether each of these numbers is rational or irrational.
a 129 © b *® 2 ¢8 1
d yg © e Vio _ f 2.832 7
g 165x213 h +2 7 i 10­n°
Find the reciprocalsof a 300 b 03 ¢ 4] d J6.25
Here are some numbers and their reciprocals. Which are the odd ones out?
25 12 75 05

The reciprocal of x is 0.25. The reciprocal of y is 10.

Work out the value of xy.

Is it possible to find two numbers, A and B, in the following cases? If so, give an example.
a Aand B are not integers, A + B is an integer.
b A and B are not integers, A x B is an integer.
¢ Aand B are integers, A x B is not an integer.

Try to find two irrational numbers that multiply to make an integer. If this is not possible, say so.

Try to find two irrational numbers which add up to an integer. If this is not possible, say so.

Try to find two irrational numbers which add up to a rational number. If this is not possible,
say so.

Check your progress

Core
* | can identify square numbers and their square roots
* | can identify cube numbers
* | can find factors, common factors and the highest common factor
* | can find multiples and the lowest common multiple
* | can identify prime numbers
* | understand the difference between rational and irrational numbers
* | can find the reciprocal of a number

Chapter 1: Number 21
Fractions and percentages

Topics Key words

numerator, denominator, cancel, lowest terms,
­h Equivalent fractions simplest form, proper and improper fraction, JT
mixed number, top heavy

2 Fractions and decimals decimal, fraction

OE

3 Recurring decimals terminating decimal, recurring decimal

4 Percentages, fractions
and decimals percentage, decimal equivalent
=3E

5 Calculating a percentage quantity, multiplier

6 Increasing or decreasing
quantities by a percentage fpeitipiter
. percentage change, percentage increase,
TEs

; I er [Pircentage ae : ccentage. profit,

percentage loss
jie
ME

i 8 Simple interest and simple interest, compound interest, principal, —

compound interest annual rate . 1 4
9 A formula for compound
interest

Reverse percentage EXTENDED unitary method, multiplier

In this chapter you will learn how to:

® uUUse the language and notation of simple vulgar and decimal Write recurring decimals
fractions and percentages in appropriate contexts; recognise as fractions. (E1.5)
equivalence and convert between these forms. (C1.5 and E1.5) Carry out calculations
® Calculate a given percentage of a quantity. (C1.12 and E1.12) involving reverse percent­
® Express one quantity as a percentage of another. (C1.12 and E1.12) ages, for example, finding
® Calculate percentage increase or decrease. (C1.12 and E1.12) the cost price given the
® Use given data to solve problems on personal and small business selling price and the
finance involving earnings, simple interest and compound interest, percentage profit. (1.12)
including discount, profit and loss. (C1.16 and E1.16)
® Use a formula for compound interest. (C1.16 and E1.16)
® Extract data from tables and charts. (C1.16 and E1.16)
 Why this chapter matters
We use percentages and fractions in many situations in our everyday lives.

Why use fractions and percentages?

Because:

* basic percentages and simple fractions are quite easy to understand

* they are a useful way of comparing quantities
» fractions and percentages are used a lot in everyday life.

Who uses them?

Here are some examples of what you might see:
* Shops and businesses
­ Everything at half price in the sales!

Rann ­ Special offer — 10% off!

e . Banks
­ Interest rates on loans 6.25%.
­ Interest rates on savings 2.5%.
TEE

Ld[2] LJ Salespeople
­ Earn 7.5% commission on sales.
Government
­ Half of government workers are over 55.
7
­ Unemployment has fallen by 1%.
* Workers
CEE

—­ My pay rise is 2.3%.

­ My income tax is 20%.

> 48 re WSR
Cat a WN
li

| Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 23

 | chapter 2. Topic J
2.1 Equivalent fractions
AAA AAA A A A EA A A EE EE EE ER RIT IIIT IYI YT TMM

Equivalent fractions are two or more fractions that represent the same part of a whole.
£ ky
Example 1
Complete the following.
3 x8 LC] 2.0
ll By LT bs
a Multiplying the numerator by 4 gives 12. This means 2 is an equivalent fraction to :
b To change the denominator from 5 to 15, you multiply by 3. Do the same thing to the
L numerator, which gives 2 x 3 = 6. So, i= =. Ny

The fraction 2 in Example 1a, is in its lowest terms or simplest form.

This means that the only number that is a factor of both the numerator and denominator is 1.
A fraction in which the numerator (top number) is smaller than the denominator (bottom number)
is called a proper fraction. An example of a proper fraction is :
In an improper fraction the numerator (top number) is bigger than the denominator (bottom
number). An example of an improper fraction is 2 It is sometimes called a top­heavy fraction.
A mixed number is made up of a whole number and a proper fraction. An example of a mixed
number is 13.

r Example 2 =
Convert ! into a mixed number.

= means 14 + 5.

Dividing 14 by 5 gives 2 with a remainder of 4 (5 divides into 14 two times, with : left over).
This means that there are 2 whole ones and : left over.
14 5.5. 4
0 FT 5t5*s
=

Ki 4 J

EXERCISE 2A
i. Copy and complete the following.
2 _x4_0O 1,x3_0 3 ,x5_083
5 x4 20 b 273 12 C875" ®

dE
2 /x@_Wma73,xE_E
am
5 xm_m
f 8 xB 0

24 2.1 Equivalent fractions

a Copy and complete the following.
10_10:5_ @ | 12_12:3_@ ¢ 20_20:4_[F
15 15+5 [© 15 15:3 [HE 28 28+4 [I
12_12:@_ 0 15_15+5_0 § 21_21:0_0
18 W+E IO 25 @:E @ 30 M+ @
Cancel each of these fractions to its simplest form
4 1 & 1 12 1 6 3 3 1
*'s 3 "9¥ 1 8 1 98 37 °*§ 3
5 1 gM 3
F727 9% 3 "328 4 001
20 2 a
13g 3
a Put the fractions in each set in order, with the smallest first.
1 5.2 315 7 21
® 263 b 228 C052
237 111 9 34
43272 ® es f 07s
3 Here are four unit fractions.
LI NS4 NR |
2 3 5
a Which two of these fractions have a sum of L2

Show clearly how you work out your answer.

b Which fraction is the biggest? Explain your answer.

. Change each of these improper fractions into a mixed number.

"3 53 <3
d Ls e 2 f ?
® Change each of these mixed numbers into an improper fraction.
a 31 b 52 ( :

d 52 e az f 52

g 2 h 3 i 7

i 32 k6 | 93
. Check your answers to questions 1 and 2, using the fraction buttons on your calculator.

Which of these improper fractions has the largest value?

27 31 13
4 5 2
Show your working to justify your answer.

o Find a mixed number that is greater than 32 2 but smaller than =

—_—

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 25

 Chapter 2 [

2.2 Fractions and decimals

PO 0 E0000 rrr rrrr rr rr ri ri tienes nsenesseensesesenssenssnessessssnssssses

Changing a decimal into a fraction

To change a decimal into a fraction, use a place­value table.

For example, 0.32 = 32

100
Units , Tenths Hundredths | Thousandths
0 . 3 2

£.

Example 3 od
Express 0.32 as a fraction.

=32
0.32= 75
8
This cancels to 5%

50,032=2%
’ 25
\­ e

Changing a fraction into a decimal

You can change a fraction into a decimal by dividing the numerator by the denominator.

( Example 4 =
Express 2 as a decimal.

2 means 3 + 8. This is a division calculation.

S0,2=3+8=0.375
(Fiz ’
EXERCISE 2B
EN Change each of these decimals to a fraction, cancelling where possible.
a 07 b 0.4 c 05 d 0.03 e 0.06
f 013 g 0.25 h 0.38 i 0.55 j 0.64
Change each of these fractions to a decimal. Where necessary, give your answer correct to
three decimal places.
a b 9
Nn d 5% e
N= Sw vilw — Wi
7 %
­ >
olin Win S|
N 1 ) Ob

26 2.2 Fractions and decimals

 i» Put each set of numbers in order, with the smallest first. Advice and Tips
a 06,03, b £0803 Convert the fractions to
1 7 decimals first.
c¢ 0.35,­, 0.15 d —, 072,071
4 10
3 1
e 0.38, re 0.7 f 0.0801, 20
1 1
9 055,504
.55, =, 0. h 1312123
= 1:2, 1.2

. Two stores sell the same T shirts at the same price of $24.

Store A has a sale and offers : off the price.

Store B has a sale and offers : off the price.

Which shop has the better offer in its sale?

Give a reason for your answer.

. During April it rained on 12 days.

a For what fraction of the month did it rain? Give your answer in its simplest form.
b Give your answer as a decimal.

­ Which is bigger, : or 0.87?

Show your working.

@ which is smaller, 2 or 0.7?

Show your working.

2.3 Recurring decimals El

AAA ALA REE A A A A EE EE EE EE EE EE ER x yy: yr yr: mM

You can change a fraction to a decimal by dividing the numerator by the denominator.
The decimal may work out exactly. For example:
5
3
==5+8=0.625 8

7
Ti _ ­
20=0.35

This is called a terminating decimal.

Alternatively, the decimal may continue. For example:
2 =2+3=0.66666...

2 =5+11=0.454545...
This is called a recurring decimal.

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 27

 There is always a repeating pattern of digits in a recurring decimal. .
Here are some examples.
3 = 0.5555... the 5 repeats.

Z = 0.583333... the 3 repeats.

z =0.3181818... the digit pair 18 repeats.

: =0.857142857 14285... the digit sequence 857 142 repeats.

You use dots over the digits to show the repeating pattern.
2=05
z = 0.583
= =0.318 Note the dots over the 1 and the 8.

8 = 0.857142 You just put dots over the 8 and the

2 ­ the first and last digits.
In the previous section, you learned how to change terminating decimals to fractions.

Changing a recurring decimal to a fraction is more difficult.

7~

Example 5
Write 0.777... as a fraction.

Write: f=0.777...
Multiply both sides by 10: 10f= 7.777... It is easy to multiply the decimal by 10.
Now subtract: 9f=7 10f ­f =9f
7.777...­0.777...=7
Divide by 9: f=1

(7

Example 6
Write 0.416 as a fraction.

Write: f=0.416 66...

Multiply by 10: 10f= 4.1666...

Subtract: 9f=3.75 All the digits after 2 decimal places cancel.

Divide by 9: f=3E=3=3 simplify the fraction.
L So:3 0.416£_5
=3

28 2.3 Recurring decimals

In the last two examples you multiplied by 10 because there was one recurring digit.
What number will you multiply by if there are two recurring digits? Or more than two?
~~
E.

Example 7
Write 0.074 as a fraction.

Write: f= 0.074074...
There are three recurring digits.
Multiply by 1000: 1000f = 74.074074...
Subtract: 999f = 74
Divide by 999: f==% 37 is a factor of 74 and 999.
So: 0.074 = ES
. y
EXERCISE 2C
RH Write each of these fractions as a decimal.

a
1
3 b
3
a c 5
&

. 2 13 9
43 ® 20 JT
3 11
9 36 h3
> a Write 14 as a recurring decimal. b Write 2 as a recurring decimal. 0.4%
0.4¢ .
@® a Write : asadecimal. ) b Write 1 asadecimal. ©. I[
1.1 : |) 23’
¢ Write 3 + 5 as a decimal. L101
d Write 3 ;
as a decimal. 0.06
‘
a Write 0.888... as a fraction. £
.. )
s » Write 0.24 as a fraction. f
ES)
6 Write 0.3666... as a fraction. _

® Write 0.083 as a fraction. |

(L
8 Write 2.4666... as a mixed number. | 3
9 Write = as a recurring decimal. Is ­
13 3 0.13094
10 a Write — as a recurring decimal.
1 0.06
a. ­ . 3 :
b Write 1 as a recurring decimal. 0 19
¢ Use your answers to a and b to predict the values of 3 4. 7
1" 11 nd ­5 as
recurring decimals. Check whether you are correct.

0.1 0.3L 0.63

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 29

 Chapter 2

n ! = 0.142 857
a Write $ as a recurring decimal in a similarway. ) / 57) 4
b Write 3 as a recurring decimal. 0, 42%]
¢ Without doing any more calculations, write 4 2 and : as recurring decimals.
Here is a list of fractions.
11 1 11 1 1
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Which ones are terminating decimals? | | !
g 4 ­ 1 To

b Nis a whole number. Try to find a rule for deciding whether s is a terminating decimal or a
recurring decimal.
1 or S

2.4 Percentages, fractions and

decimals
0000000000000 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000COCCCGCOIOOIOIOIOGROGOISGS

100% means the whole of something. You can express part of the whole as a percentage.
Per cent means ‘out of 100".
So, any percentage can be converted to a fraction with denominator 100.
For example:
ie impli ing to
32% = 100 which can be simplified by cancelling to % 8.
Also, you can convert any percentage to a decimal by dividing the percentage number by 100. This
means moving the digits two places to the right.
For example:
65% = 65 + 100 = 0.65
You can convert any decimal to a percentage by multiplying by 100%.
For example:

0.43 =0.43 x 100% = 43%

You can convert any fraction to a percentage by making the denominator into 100 and taking the
numerator as the percentage.
For example:
2_40 _
"100" 0%
You can also convert fractions to percentages by dividing the numerator by the denominator and
multiplying by 100%.

——

30 2.4 Percentages, fractions and decimals

For example:

2=2+5x100% = 40%
Knowing the percentage and decimal equivalents of the common fractions is extremely useful.
Try to learn them.
: =0.5 = 50% —­
=0.25=25% =0.75=75% = 0.125 = 12.5%
0O|—
1
P|

10­91 = 10% 5=
=0.2=20%
|b
= 0.33... = 331% = 0.66... = 662%
Wl=—hlw WIN

These tables show how to convert from one to the other.

Decimal Fraction
Divide the percentage by 100, for example: | Make the percentage into a fraction with a
52% = 52 + 100 denominator of 100 and simplify by cancelling if
=0.52
possible, for example: 52% = oz ­
13

Convert from decimal to:

Percentage Fraction
Multiply the decimal by 100%, for example: | If the decimal has 1 decimal place put it over the
0.65 = 0.65 x 100% denominator 10.
= 65% If it has 2 decimal places put it over the denominator
100, etc.
Then simplify by cancelling if possible, for example:
65 _13
065=—=—=
100 20

Percentage Decimal
If the denominator is a factor of 100 Divide the numerator by the denominator, for
multiply numerator and denominator example:
to make i. denominator
i 100, then
h the 8 _ 9 + 40 = 0.225
numerator is the percentage, for example: | 40
= == = 15% or convert to a decimal
and change the decimal to a percentage,
for example:
7
~­=7+8
8
= 0.875
= 87.5%

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 31

 yr ™
Example 8
Convert these numbers to decimals. a 78% b 35% c¢ = d =

a 78% =78 +100 | b 35% =35 +100

=0.78 =0.35
c 23425
25 d L=73:40
40
=0.12 = 0.175
J
Ei
Example 9
Convert these numbers to percentages. a 0.85 b 0.125 ¢ x d 2

a 0.85 =0.85 x 100% b 0.125=0.125 x 100%

= 85% =12.5%
7.35
c 20­100 d 3_
§=3+8x100%
=35% = 0.375 x 100%
= 37.5%
& J
a )
Example 10
Convert these numbers to fractions. a 045 b 0.4 ¢ 32% d 15%
45
a 0.45=200 b 04 _A4
=30

20 5
32
c R2%=75 d 15% = 15

Sa LFS
25 20
> J

EXERCISE 2D
® Write each percentage as a fraction in its simplest form.
a 8% b 50% c 25%
d 35% e 90% f 75%
Ey Write each percentage as a decimal.
a 27% b 85% c 13%
d 6% e 80% f 32%

32 2.4 Percentages, fractions and decimals

(3 Write each decimal as a fraction in its simplest form.
a 0.12 b 04 c¢ 0.45
d 0.68 e 0.25 f 0.625

. Write each decimal as a percentage.

a 0.29 b 0.55 c¢ 0.03
d 0.16 e 0.6 f 1.25

5 Write each fraction as a percentage.

7 3 19
$2 bo 20
17 1
45 ¢ 2
. Write each fraction as a decimal.
9 3 19
C
a ­ b 20 25
=1
5 1 fF
*% € 20 8
Convert each test score into a percentage. Give each answer to the nearest whole number.

Subject Result Percentage

Mathematics 38 out of 60
English 29 out of 35
Science 27 out of 70
History 56 out of 90
Technology 58 out of 75
b If all the tests are of the same standard, which was the best result?

. Copy and complete the table.

Percentage Decimal Fraction

34%

0.85

3
40

45%

0.3

2
3

84%

0.45

3
8

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 33

 Chapter 2

2.5 Calculating a percentage

To calculate a percentage of a quantity, you multiply the quantity by the percentage. The percentage
may be expressed as either a fraction or a decimal. When finding percentages without a calculator,
base the calculation on 10% (or 1%) as these are easy to calculate.

8Example 11 yy
Calculate: a 10% of S4kg b 15% of 54 kg.

a 10% is J so = of S4kg =54 kg + 10=5.4kg

b 15% is 10% + 5% = 5.4 kg + 2.7 kg = 8.1 kg

\& J
Using a percentage multiplier
You have already seen that percentages and decimals are equivalent so it is easier, particularly when
using a calculator, to express a percentage as a decimal and use this to do the calculation.
For example, 13% is a multiplier of 0.13, 20% a multiplier of 0.2 (or 0.20) and so on.
4 EL
Example 12
a Calculate 45% of 160 cm. b Find 52% of $460.

a 45% = 0.45

S0 45% of 160 = 0.45 x 160 = 72 cm

b 52% =0.52

So, 0.52 x 460 = 239.2

This gives $239.20.

Remember always to write a money answer with 2 decimal places
« ; J

EXERCISE 2E
vn Write down the multiplier that is equivalent to each percentage.
a 88% b 30% c 25%
d 8% e 115%
a Write down the percentage that is equivalent to each multiplier.
a 0.78 b 04 ; c¢ 0.75
d 0.05 e 11

34 2.5 Calculating a percentage

Ey Calculate each amount.
a 15% of $300 b 6% of $105 ¢ 23% of 560 kg
d 45% of 2.5 kg e 12% of 9 hours f 21% of 180 cm
g 4% of $3 h 35% of8.4m i 95% of $8
j 11% of 308 minutes k 20% of 680 kg | 45% of $360
‘. An estate agent charges 2% commission on every house he sells. How much commission will
he earn on a house that he sells for $120500?

Ly A store had 250 employees. During one week of a flu epidemic, 14% of the store’s employees
were absent.
a What percentage of the employees went into work?
b How many of the employees went into work?

Generally, about 20% of fans at a soccer match are women. For one match there were 42600
fans. How many of these do you think were women?

At a Paris railway station, in one week 350 trains arrived. Of these trains, 5% arrived early and
13% arrived late. How many arrived on time?

A school estimates that 60% of the students will attend

a school play. There are 1500 students in the school.
. The caretaker is told to put out one seat for each person
expected to attend plus an extra 10% of that number in number ohstudents in
case more attend. How many seats does he need to put out? the school.
A school had 850 students and the attendance record in one week was:

Monday 96% Tuesday 98% Wednesday 100% Thursday 94% Friday 88%

How many students were present each day?

Calculate each amount.

a 12.5% of $26 b 6.5% of 34 kg ¢ 26.8% of $2100
d 7.75% of $84 e 16.2% of 265 m f 0.8% of $3000

Air consists of 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen (by volume). A man’s lungs have a capacity of
600 cm?. How much of each gas will he have in his lungs when he has just taken a deep breath?

A factoryestimates that 1.5% of all the garments it produces will have a fault in them. One
week the factory produces 850 garments. How many are likely to have a fault?

An insurance firm sells house insurance. The annual premiums are usually 0.3% of the value
of the house. What will be the annual premium for a house valued at $90000?

Average prices in a shop went up by 3% last year and 3% this year. Did the actual average
price of items this year rise by more, the same amount, or less than last year?

Explain how you decided.

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 35

 Chapter 2 (

2.6 Increasing or decreasing

quantities by a percentage
Increasing by a percentage
There are two methods for increasing a quantity by a percentage.
Method 1

Work out the increase and add it on to the original amount.

Example 13 a
Increase $6 by 5%.

Work out 5% of $6: (5 + 100) x 6 = $0.30

Adie 530 he HRBNOIRA R00

Add the $0.30 to the original amount: + =| $6 $0.30
!
Method 2

Use a multiplier. An increase of 6% is equivalent to the original 100% plus the extra 6%.
This is a total of 106% and is equivalent to the drpRine 1.06.
ji

( Exainple 14 ’ ob 50 ell ws nl
Increase $6.80 by 5%.
» ow _ fe

x 4 . lhe
A 5% increase is a multiplier of 1.05
Be $6.80 increased by 5% is $6.80 x 1.05 = $7.14 3

EXERCISE 2F
a What multiplier is used to increase a quantity by:
a 10% b 3% c 20% d 7% e 12%?
{| 4.04 1,20) 1.09 :
ry Increase each amount by the given percentage. (Use any method you like.)
a $60bya% $L0.24b 12kg by 8%! Ot % as0gbysw 117 5­
d 545m by 10% e $34by 12%} x 0% f $75by 20% Lat
g 340kg by Teo" 1 h 670 cm by 23% i 130gby95% oo Sa
| | Ow ’
i $82 by 75% i 640mby 15% "1 $28 by 8% $3) 74
TLE wa
» Azwan, who! was ona salary of $27 500, was given a pay rise of 7%. What is his new salary?

In 2005 the population of a city was 1565000. By 2010 it had increased by 8%. What was the
population of the city in 2010?

36 2.6 Increasing or decreasing quantities by a percentage

A small firm made the same pay increase of 5% for all its employees.
a Calculate the new pay of each employee listed below. Each of their salaries before
the increase is given.
Caretaker, $16500 Supervisor, $19500
Driver, $17300 Manager, $25300
b Explain why the actual pay increases are different for each employee.

A bank pays 7% interest on the money that each saver keeps in the bank for a year. Allison
keeps $385 in the bank for a year. How much will she have in the bank after the year?

In 1980 the number of cars on the roads of a town was about 102000. Since then it has
increased by 90%. Approximately how many cars are there on the roads of the town now?
QL &b0 rors
An advertisement for a breakfast cereal states that a special­offer packet contains 15% more
cereal for the same price as a normal 500 g packet. How much breakfast cereal is in a special­
offer packet? hag a

A headteacher was proud to point out that, since he had arrived at the school, the number of
students had increased by 35%. How many students are now in the school, if there were 680
when the headteacher started at the school?

At a school concert there are always about 20% more girls than boys. If at one concert there
were 50 boys, how many girls were there? 60

A government adds a sales tax to the price of most goods in shops. One year it is 17.5% on all
electrical equipment.
Calculate the price of the following electrical equipment when sales tax of 17.5% is added.
Equipment Pre­sales tax price
TV set $245
Microwave oven $72
CD player $115
Personal stereo $29.50
A television costs $400 before sales tax at 17.5% is added.

Ifthe rate of sales tax goes up from 17.5% to 20%, how much will the cost of the
television increase? AC
Bookshop BookWorms increased its prices by 5%, then increased them by 3%. Bookshop
Books Galore increased its prices by 3%, then increased them by 5%.

Which shop's prices increased by the greater percentage?

a BookWorms Bw 057 x 10h 10g. 18 /
b Books Galore x 1b Cr ek
©) Both the same
d Cannot tell
Justify your choice.

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 37

 Shop A increased its prices by 4% and then by another 4%. Shop B increased its prices
by 8%.

Which shop's prices increased by the greater percentage?

a Shop A b Shop B ¢ Both the same d Cannot tell
Justify your choice.

­ A hi­fi system was priced at $420 at the start of 2008. At the start of 2009, it was 12% more
expensive. At the start of 2010, it was 15% more expensive than the price at the start of 2009.
What is the price of the hi­fi at the start of 2010?

Decreasing by a percentage
There are two methods for decreasing by a percentage.
Method 1
Work out the decrease and subtract it from the original amount.

4 SEapie 4

Decrease $8 by 1 ­
Work out 4% of $8: (4 + 100) x8=$0.32 ~~ a
(| Sublrall Engine: oon the original amount: $8 $0.32 = $7.68
— p,

Method 2

Use a multiplier. A 7% decrease is equivalent to 7% less than the original 100%, so it represents .
100% ­ 7% = 93% of the original. This is a multiplier of 0.93.

Decrease $8.60 by 5%.

| A decrease of 5% is a multiplier of 0.95. &
So $8.60 decreased by 5% is $8.60 x 0.95 = $8.17
\& Gl ­ J)
EXERCISE 2G
® What multiplier is used to decrease a quantity by:
a 8% b 15% c 25% d 9% e 12%?
ks Decrease each amount by the given percentage. (Use any method you like.) £34 5m
a $10by6% “94 b 25kgby8% 5 oc 236 g by 10% "9 d 350 m by 3%
e $5by2% $4.9 f 45mby 12% 1 bh g 860m by 15% lh 96 gby 13%
i 480cmby25% j 180minutesby35% k 86 kg by 5% I $65by42% 4:
Sb0um M3 wns 81.1 to

38 2.6 Increasing or decreasing quantities by a percentage

A car valued at $6500 last year is now worth 15% less. What is its value now?

A new diet guarantees that you will lose 12% of your mass in the first month. What mass
should the following people have after one month on the diet?
a Gracia, who started at 60 kg
b Pierre, who started at 75 kg
¢ Greta, who started at 52 kg
A motor insurahce firm offers no­claims discounts off the full premium, as follows.
1 year with no claims 15% discount off the full premium
2 years with no claims 25% discount off the full premium
3 years with no claims 45% discount off the full premium
4 years with no claims 60% discount off the full premium
Mr Patel and his family are all offered motor insurance from this firm.
Mr Patel has four years’ no­claims discount and the full premium would be $440.
Mrs Patel has one year’s no­claims discount and the full premium would be $350.
Sandeep has three years’ no­claims discount and the full premium would be $620.
Priyanka has two years’ no­claims discount and the full premium would be $750.
Calculate the actual amount each member of the family has to pay for the motor insurance.

A large factory employed 640 people. It had to streamline its workforce and lose 30% of the
workers. How big is the workforce now? 4/0 op ple

On the last day of term, a school expects to have an absence rate of 6%. If the school
population is 750 students, how many students will the school expect to see on the last day
of term? 205

Most speedometers in cars have an error of about 5% from the true reading. When my
speedometer says | am driving at 70 km/h:
a what is the lowest speed | could be doing [.[. § tynlh
b what is the highest speed | could be doing? 17,2 ©

Kerry wants to buy a sweatshirt ($19), a tracksuit ($26) and some running shoes ($56). If she
joins the store's premium club which costs $25 to join she can get 20% off the cost of the
goods.

Should she join or not? Give figures to support your answer.

A shop advertises garden ornaments at $50 but with 10% off in a sale. It then advertises an
extra 10% off thesale price. 450 vy (0 4. 445 x 0G _ 44n.¢
Show that this is not a decrease in price of 20%. 450 « 0¢­ 340
A computer system was priced at $1000 at the start of 2008. At the start of 2009, it was 10%
cheaper. At the start of 2010, it was 15% cheaper than the price at the start of 2009. What is
the price of the computer system at the start of 2010?

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 39

 Chapter 2

­ Show that a 10% decrease followed by a 10%

increase is equivalent to a 1% decrease overall. Advice and Tips
C1 A biscuit packet normally contains 300 g of biscuit Choose an amount to
and costs $1.40. start with.
There are two special offers.
Offer A: 20% more for the same price

Offer B: Same amount for 20% off the normal price

Which is the better offer?

a Offer A b OfferB ¢ Both the same d Cannot tell
Justify your choice.

2.7 One quantity as a percentage

of another
GE 0000000000 rr rrr N errr rrr rN Ierrier i ssiesesetsnseonnsssstseceneesssssssse
You express one quantity as a percentage of another by setting up the first quantity as a fraction of
the second. You must make sure that the units of each are the same. Then you convert the fraction
into a percentage by multiplying by 100%.

(© ­
Example 17
Express $6 as a percentage of $40.

Set up the fraction and multiply by 100%.

6
— x 100% = 15%
0 y,
e Example 18
2
Express 75 cm as a percentage of 2.5 m.

First, change 2.5 m to 250 cm to get a common unit.

So, the problem now becomes: Express 75 cm as a percentage of 250 cm.
Set up the fraction and multiply by 100%.
75 100% = 30%
250

40 2.7 One quantity as a percentage of another

Percentage change
A percentage change may be a percentage increase or a percentage decrease.
: change x 100
Percentage change =
original amount
Use this to calculate percentage profit or percentage loss in a financial transaction.
—

Jake buys a car i and sells it for $1800. nis Rope ent profit?
ge

Jake's profit is $300, so his percentage profit is:

x 100% =
Ts pea

perentagn os = Bo Eo fit

No ei
Using a multiplier (or decimal)
To use a multiplier, divide the increase by the original quantity and change the resulting decimal to a
percentage.

EXERCISE 2H
a Express each amount as a percentage. Give suitably rounded figures (see page 125)
where necessary.
a $50f$20 75 /» b $40f$6.60 (0.1. c 241kgof520kg 1h 257
d 3hoursof 1day !/ > /­e 25minutesof 1hour 41 (3 f 12mof20m Lb /
g 125g0of600g in 427, h 12 minutes of 2 hours 10° | 1 week ofayear | 4) b
j 1 month of 1 year k 25cmofS55em 45. 4¢', 1 105gof1kg 1) ¢ 7,
ESL
Liam went to school with his pocket money of $2.50. He spent 80 cents at the shop.
What percentage of his pocket money had he spent?

In Greece, there are 3654000 acres of agricultural land. Olives are grown on 237000 acres
of this land. What percentage of the agricultural land is used for olives? k 44 °
During one year, it rained in Detroit on 123 days of the year. What percentage of days
were wet? 1; a

—_

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 41

 . Find the percentage profit on each transaction. Give your answers to one decimal place.

Item Retail price Wholesale price

(selling price) (price the shop paid)
a CD player $89.50 $60
b TVset $345.50 $210
¢ Computer $829.50 $750
Before Anton started to diet, his mass was 95 kg. His mass is now 78 kg. What percentage
of his original mass has he lost? 3. «a °l5

In 2009 a city raised $14870000 in local tax. In 2010 it raised $15597 000 in tax. What was the
percentage increase?

When Ziad's team won the soccer league in 1995, they lost only four of their 42 league games.
What percentage of games did they not lose?

In one year Britain's imports were as follows.

British Commonwealth ~~ $109530000 [pn 0°.
USA $138790000 1;
France $53620000 |, 7,
Other countries $221140000 4 9 3 i
a What percentage of the total imports came from each source? Give your answers to
1 decimal place.
b Add up your answers to part a. What do you notice? Explain your answer.
Add up bo OL 4
Imran an a ia take the same tests. Both tests are out of the same mark.

Whose result has the greater percentage Imran 12 17

increase from test A to test B?
Nadia 14 20
Show your working.

A supermarket advertises its cat food as shown.

A government inspector is checking the claim.

8 out of 10 cat
owners choose
She observes that over one hour, 46 people buy our cat food
cat food and 38 buy the store's own brand.

Based on these figures, is the store’s claim correct?

Aya buys antiques and then sells

It Aya b ht for: A Id for:
them on the internet. em ya boug or ya sold for
g : Vase $105 $84
Find her percentage profit or loss on
each of these items. Radio $72 $90
vo les 207, Doll $15 $41.25
R pred 1S°, Toy train $50 $18

Voom diy pet, loss (4°)

42 2.7 One quantity as a percentage of another
2.8 Simple interest and compound
interest
SP 00000000000 RRRIRRRRNRRNR INR INNNENNNNNNEOROROERIOIOOROOROORROIROERES

Erin has a loan of $500. She agrees to pay 1.6% interest each month.
This is an example of simple interest.
Each month she pays 1.6% of $500 = 0.016 x 500 = $8.
If she pays back the loan after six months she will pay 6 x $8 = $48 in interest.
Banks and building societies usually pay compound interest on savings accounts.
When compound interest is used, the interest earned each year is added to the original
amount (principal) and the new total then earns interest at the annual rate in the following year.
This pattern is then repeated each year while the money is in the account.
The most efficient way to calculate the total amount in the account after several years is to use a multiplier.
­ J
Example 21
Elizabeth invests $408 0 asa
GE,

The amount in the account increases by 6% each year, so the multiplier is 1.06.
After 1 year she will have ~~ $400 x 1.06 =$424
After 2 years she will have $424 x 1.06 = $449.44
After 3 years she will have $449.44 x 1.06 = $476.41 (rounded)
you calculate the differences, you can see that the amount of interest increases each year
If
Sr $25.44 and $26.97).
y/
EXERCISE 21
(ty) Rahul has a loan of 7000 dollars.
He pays 2% per month simple interest.
How much will he pay if he has the loan for three months?

Y Lee lends her friend 30000 dollars. 000 y (°, ­ 4 £60

Her friend agrees to pay simple interest of 6% per year.
How much a ite os after two — y Mad 18600
» Jean has a loan of 2000 dollars.
The rate of simple interest is 8% a year. oot vv §°, LO
He has paid 640 dollars interest. 4640 = NO ­ A
How many years has he had the loan?

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 43

 Rania puts $15000 into a savings account where it earns 4% per annum compound interest.
a What is her investment worth after one year? {1cDbl + lpg */ 4 15 COD
b What is her investment worth after two years? C1760» pa
Maria invests $1200 at 6% compound interest.

Work out the value of the investment after:

a one year $1722 b two years 4 | 14 %. 47 c threeyears.~ T1414

Amar invests $20000 for two years at 8% simple interest.

Mona invests $20000 for two years at 8% compound interest.
a How much does each person earn? 10 6p » £7. ­ LlL00 ¥ 160 1­ 44261
b Who earned more and how much more was it? /o roo + | oy» (op 0)0 204
Mono: $3228 ­ 2200­ 4 12§ )
Luka invests $8000 at 6% compound interest for three years. 422 3% $16 ooo
a How much is his investment worth after three years? $3328
b How much interest has he earned after three years?

Mikael has a loan of $40000.

He pays 1.6% simple interest for six months.

How much interest does he pay altogether?

This table shows the amount of interest paid on a loan of $12000:

Number of years 1 2 3 4
Interest ($) 780 1560 | 2340 3120

a Is this simple interest or compound interest? Simple

b What is the rate of interest per year? ( ¢"/
Daniel earns­15% compound interest on an investment of $12000.
a What will it be worth after one year? {1710
b What will it be worth after two years? 4 1¢ (1,
¢ Show that it will be worth over $20000 after four years.
$12 600 v [159 o 42) ooL
This table shows the values of amounts invested at 3% compound interest for one, two and
five years.

Investment ($5) Value after Value after Value after

1 year (9) 2 years (9) 5 years (9%)

1000 1030 1060.90 1159.27

2500 2575 2898.18
5000 5150 5796.37
a Work out the two numbers missing from the table.
b Work out the interest on an amount of $5000 invested for 5 years.

44 2.8 Simple interest and compound interest

 Chapter 2 2.9

2.9 A formula for compound interest

Look back at Example 21.
Elizabeth invests $400 at 6% compound interest.
After three years the value, in dollars, is:

400 x 1.06 x 1.06 x 1.06 = 476.41

You can write this calculation as 400 x 1.067.

Then you can use the power button on a calculator to work this out efficiently.
Alternatively, you can use a formula for finding the value of an investment. Here is the formula.

where P is the initial investment, r is the annual percentage rate and n is the
| number of years.

The multiplier for a 2.5% increase is 1.025, so the value after four years is:
$5500 x 1.025% = $6070.97
Method 2: use the formula. P=5500,r=2.5and n=4
Value in dollars = 5500 x
25)"
\1 + ——
100
= 5500 x 1.0254
= 6070.97
You can use either of the methods in part a to calculate compound interest.
» Interest in dollars = 6070.97 —­ 5500 = $570.97

EXERCISE 2J
® Elton invests $2000 at 4% per annum compound interest.

Work out the value of his investment after three years.

® Carla invests $4500 at 6% compound interest.

Work out the value of her investment after four years.

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 45

 » Zak invests $4600 at 5% per annum compound interest.
Work out the value of his investment after:
a 2years b 4 years ¢ 6 years.
Carmen invests $2500 at 7.5% per annum compound interest.
a How much is the investment worth after 5 years? b 3659. 07
b How much is it worth after 8 years? | |) 46¢ . C9A

Marco invests $25000 at 5.4% per annum compound interest for three years.
i ~ 9 = 4
How much interest does he receive? bq lL. €

Greta takes out a loan of $3500. The rate of compound interest is 2% per month.
After 6 months she wants to pay off the loan and the interest.
a How much must she pay altogether? $3941, 53
b How much of what she pays is interest? | 1 / Cy «

An investment is earning 10% per annum compound interest.

How long will it take for the investment to double in value? = ‘““*"
A bank offers 6% per annum compound interest on deposits.

This table shows how much a deposit of $5000 will be worth at different times.

Initial Amount after Amount after Amount after Amount after

5000 5300 5618 6691.13 RA. 720

Armand works out the missing number like this.

The interest after 5 years a 69

The interest for the n eX ]

Explain why Armand is not correct.

Then work out the correct value.
Luisa invests $10000 at 5% annual interest.

Work out how much is the investment worth after 10 years if this is:
a simple interest $5000
b compound interest. 46 (y 4¢
Credit cards usually charge monthly compound interest on any unpaid amounts.
Greta has a loan of $1000 on her credit card. ­
There is a 2% monthly charge. +\16%
a Work out the size of Greta’s loan after 12 months if she does not pay off any money.
b Show that this is equivalent to an annual percentage of about 26.8%.

46 2.9 A formula for compound interest 6ty +

«178
11
2.10 Reverse percentage [El
Reverse percentage questions involve working backwards from the final amount to find the
original amount when you know, or can work out, the final amount as a percentage of the
original amount.

Method 1: The unitary method

The unitary method has three steps.
Step 1: Equate the final percentage to the final value.
Step 2: Use this to calculate the value of 1%.

Step 3: Multiply by 100 to work out 100% (the original value).

£.

Example 23
The price of a car increased by 6% to $9116. Work out the price before the. increase.
a me Eo rrr ­ 18 asa www me a
106% represents $9116. po­ i oF ofa

Divide by 106.
1% represents $9116 + 106
Multiply by 100.

100% represents original price: $9116 + 106 x 100 = $8600

So the price before the increase was $8600.

\

Method 2: The multiplier method

The multiplier method involves fewer steps.
Step 1: Write down the multiplier.
Step 2: Divide the final value by the multiplier to give the original value.

­
Example 24
In a sale the price of a freezer is reduced by 12%. The sale price is $220.
What was the price before the sale?

A decrease of 12% gives a multiplier of 0.88.

Dividing the sale price by the multiplier gives $220 + 0.88 = $250.

So the price before the sale was $250.

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 47

 EXERCISE 2K
a Find what 100% represents in these situations.
a 40% represents 3209 £()() a b 14% represents35m [5D ww
¢ 45% represents27 cm (0 con d 4% represents $123 4 203) ¢
e 2.5% represents $5 ¢ 160 f 8.5% represents $34 <I /{ (0
On a tiring army training session, only 28 youngsters survived the whole day. This represented
35% of the original group. How large was the original group?
$0
Sales tax is added to goods and services. With sales tax at 17.5%, what is the pre­sales tax price
of the following priced goods? 40.93
Tshirt © $9.87 Y¥%ights $1.41 shorts $611 46 7
Sweater $12.62 Trainers 25 " Boots $38.07 $22.4
310.14
Hugo spends $200 a month on food. This represents 24% of his monthly take­home pay.
How much is his monthly take­home pay? 495
Zara's weekly pay is increased by 5% to $315. What was + ey pay before the increase?
0b
The number of workers in a factory fell by 5% to 228. How many workers were there
originally? 4 240

In a sale the price of a TV is reduced to 500 dollars. This is a 7% reduction on the original
price. What was the original price? 9 Kh 4)
If 38% of plastic bottles in a production line are blue and the remaining 7750 plastic bottles
are brown, how many plastic bottles are blue? £17500
| received $385 back from the government, which represented the 17.5% purchase tax on a
piece of equipment. How much did | pay for this equipment in on first place?

A company is in financial trouble. The workers are asked to a a 10% pay cut. 4 A406
Tomas works out that his pay will be $1296 per month. How much is his pay now?
Manza buys a car and sells it for $2940. He made a profit of 20%.
What was the cost price of the car? 3 24 <D
When a suit is sold in a shop the selling price is $171 and the profit is 80%.

What was the cost price? ~~ 4

Tebor buys a chair. He sells it for $63 in an auction and makes a loss of 55%.

What did he pay for the chair? ~~ $140

A woman's salary increased by 5% in one year. Her new salary was $19845.

How much was the increase? 9 34¢

48 2.10 Reverse percentage

 2.10
After an 8% increase, the monthly salary of a chef was $1431. What was the original monthly
salary? q1%2%

Cassie invested some money at 4% interest per annum for two years. After two years, she
had $1406.08 in the bank. How much did she invest originally? 41200

A teacher asked her class to work out the original price of a cooker for which, after a
12% increase, the price was 291.20 dollars.

This is Lee's answer: 12% of 291.20 = 34.94 dollars

Original price = 291.2 ­ 34.94 = 256.26 = 260 dollars

When the teacher read out the answer Lee ticked his work as correct.

What errors has he made? HR wode 101.10 10°7­ wot 1207,

Check your progress

Core
* | can write simple vulgar and decimal fractions in context, and convert between ing forms
I can calculate a given percentage of a quantity
I know how to express one quantity as a percentage of another
| can calculate percentage increases and decreases
| understand personal and small business finance, including earnings, simple and compound
interest, discounts, profits and losses, and can use data to solve related problems
I can use formulae for compound interest

Extended
* | can use fractions to represent recurring decimals
* | can make calculations involving reverse percentages

Chapter 2: Fractions and percentages 49

 The four rules

\ Topics Level Key words

1 Order of operations operation, brackets, order

| 2 Choosing the correct

operation

3 Finding a fraction of quantity, fraction

a quantity

4 Adding and subtracting proper fraction, improper fraction, lowest terms,

fractions simplest form, denominator, mixed number,
‘equivalent fraction
5 Multiplying and dividing
fractions numerator, reciprocal

In this chapter you will learn how to:

® Use the four rules for calculation with whole numbers, decimals, vulgar fractions and
mixed numbers. (C1.8 and E1.8)
® Apply operations in the correct order, including the use of brackets. (C1.8 and E1.8)
 | ~~
Why this chapter matters
Most jobs will require you to use some mathematics every day. Having good number skills will
help you to be more successful in your job.
E
The mathematics used in jobs ranges from simple calculations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, to more complex calculations involving negative numbers and
approximation. You will need to select the right mathematics for the job.
a
Jobs using mathematics
How many jobs can you think of that require some mathematics?
Here are a few ideas. :
Engineer ­
What measurements
do | need to take?
i h How much of each
Pilot How muc
— type of material will
fuel do | need? be needed?
Accountant ­ How
much profit have RE
they made? .

Delivery driver —­
al
Doctor —­ How What is the best
Cashier ­ much medicine should
What coins do | need | prescribe?
to give as change? What
is the best price to sell
my goods at?

Sports commentator —
How many minutes are left
in the game? What is his
batting average?

X
~ What quantity of
flour should | order?

If you already know what job you would like to do, think of what .
mathematics you might need for it. 3

Chapter 3: The four rules

 3.1 Order of operations
(BEE 00000 rrr rN rrr iri ier rretiet i esittnentenninsconcnensssensnensnssssesns

Suppose you have to work out the answer to 4 + 5 x 2. You may say the answer is 18, but the correct
answer is 14.
There is an order of operations which you must follow when working out calculations like this. The x
is always done before the +.
In4 +5 x 2 this gives 4 + 10 = 14.
Now suppose you have to work out the answer to (3 + 2) x (9 ­ 5). The correct answer is 20.
You have probably realised that the parts in the brackets have to be done first, giving 5 x 4 = 20.
So, how do you work out a problem such as 9 + 3 + 4 x 2?
To answer questions like this, you must follow the BIDMAS (or BODMAS) rule. This tells you the order
in which you must do the operations.
B Brackets B Brackets
I Indices (powers) O pOwers
D Division D Division
M Multiplication M Multiplication
A Addition A Addition
S Subtraction S Subtraction
For example, to work out 9 + 3 +4 x 2:
First divide: 9+3=3 giving 3+4x2
Then multiply: 4x2=8 giving 3+8
Then add: 3+8=1
And to work out 60 ­ 5 x 32 + (4 x 2):
First, work out the brackets: (4x2)=8 giving 60­5x3%+8
Then the index (power): 3%=9 giving 60­5x9+8
Then multiply: 5x9=45 giving 60­45+8
Then add: 60 + 8 =68 giving 68­45
Finally, subtract: 68 ­45=23

EXERCISE 3A
A Work out each of these.
a 2x3+5= b 6+3+4= oC 5+7­2=
d 4x6+2= e 2x8­5= f 3x4+1=
g 3x4­1= h 3x4+1= i 12+2+6=
j 12:6+2= k 345x2= I 12­3x3=

52 3.1 Order of operations

a Work these out. Remember: first work out the bracket.
a 2x(3+5= b 6+(2+1)=
c 5+7)­2= d 5+(7­2)=
e 3x(4+2)= f 3x(4+2)=
g 2x(8­5)= h 3x(@+1)=
i 3x(@4­1)= ji 3x@+1)=
k 12:(2+2)= I (12+2)+2=
Copy each of these and then put brackets in, where necessary, to make the answer true.
a 3x4+1=15 b6+2+1=4
Cc 6+2+1=2 d 4+4+4=5
e 4+4+4=2 f 16­4+3=4
g 3x4+1=13 h 6­6+3=14
i 20­10+2=5 j 20­10+2=15
k 3x5+5=30 | 6x4+2=36
m15­5x2=20 n 4x7­2=20
0 12+3+3=2 p 12+3+3=7
q 24+8­2=1 r 24+8­2=4
Ravi says that 5 + 6 x 7 is equal to 77.

Is he correct?

Explain your answer.

Three different dice give scores of 2, 3, 5. Add +, x, + or — signs to make each

calculation work.
a2 3 5=n b2 3 5=16
€c 2 3 5=17 d5 3 2=4
e5 3 2=13 fS 3 2=30
Which is smaller:

4+5x30r(4+5)x3?

Show your working.

Here is a list of numbers, some signs and one pair of brackets.

2 5 6 18 ­ x = ( )

Use all of them to make a correct calculation.

Here is a list of numbers, some signs and one pair of brackets.

3 4 5 8 ­ + = ( )
Use all of them to make a correct calculation.

Chapter 3: The four rules 53

 Chapter 3

3.2 Choosing the correct operation

00 000000000000 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000.

When a problem is given in words you will need to decide the correct operation to use. Should you
add, subtract, multiply or divide?
al ­

Example 1 5
A party of 613 children and 59 adults are going on a day out to a theme park.
a How many coaches, each holding 53 people, will be needed?
b One adult gets into the theme park free for every 15 children. How many adults will have to
pay to get in?

a Altogether there are 613 + 59 = 672 people.

So the number of coaches needed is 672 + 53 (number of seats on each coach)
=12.67... Sede.
) |

13 coaches are need ed ( 2 will not be e ough)

b This is also a division, 613 + 15 =40.86 ... ­—

40 adults will get in free. : a A LR
59 ­ 40 = 19 will have to pay.
\­ 4
EXERCISE 3B
a There are 48 cans of soup in a crate. A shop had a delivery of 125 crates of soup.
a How many cans of soup were in this delivery?
b The shop is running a promotion on soup. If you buy five cans you get one free. Each can
costs 39 cents. How much will it cost to get 32 cans of soup?

im A school has 12 classes, each of which has 24 students.

a How many students are there at the school?
b The student­teacher ratio is 18 to 1. That means there is one teacher for every 18 students.
How many teachers are there at the school?
A football club is organising travel for an away game. 1300 adults and 500 children want to go.
Each coach holds 48 people and costs $320 to hire.
Tickets to the match cost $18 for adults and $10 for children.
a How many coaches will be needed?
b The club is charging adults $26 and children $14 for travel and a ticket. How much profit
does the club make out of the trip?
­ A large letter costs 39 cents to post and a small letter costs 30 cents. How many dollars will it
cost to send 20 large and 90 small letters?

54 3.2 Choosing the correct operation

» Kirsty collects small models of animals. Each one costs 45 cents. She saves enough to buy
23 models but when she goes to the shop she finds that the price has gone up to 55 cents.
How many can she buy now?

® Michaela wanted to save up for a bike that costs $250. She baby­sits each week for 6 hours
for $2.75 an hour, and does a Saturday job that pays $27.50. She saves three­quarters of her
weekly earnings. How many weeks will it take her to save enough to buy the bike?

The magazine Teen Dance comes out every month. In a newsagent’s shop the magazine costs
$2.45. The annual (yearly) subscription for the magazine is $21. How much cheaper is each
magazine when it is bought on subscription?

Paula buys a sofa. She pays a deposit of 10% of the cash price and then 36 monthly payments
of $12.50. In total she pays $495. How much was the cash price of the sofa?

There are 125 people at a wedding. They need to get to the reception.

52 people are going by coach and the rest are travelling in cars. Each car can take up to five people.

What is the least number of cars needed to take everyone to the reception?

Gustav's car does 8 kilometres to each litre of fuel. He does 12600 kilometres a year of which
4600 is on company business.

Fuel costs 95 cents per litre,

Insurance and servicing costs $800 a year.

Gustav's company gives him an allowance of 40 cents for each kilometre he drives on
company business. .

How much does Gustav pay towards running his car each year?

3.3 Finding a fraction of a quantity

CAAA LAA A A RA A A RAE A EA EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EF EE FE FR EN FREER

To do this, you simply multiply the fraction by the quantity, for example, 1 of 30 is the same as 1x30.
Remember: In mathematics ‘of’ is interpreted as x.
For example, two lots of three is the same as 2 x 3.
Ve ­
Example 2 "ha 2
Find 3 of $196. © 1% ­)
Ju" find } by dividing by 4. Then find 2 by multiplying your answer by 3.
196 + 4.=49 then 49 x 3 = 147 —
E, answer is $147.

Chapter 3: The four rules 55

 EXERCISE 3C
Calculate each amount.
3 2
a 5 of 30 b 3 of 35

3 7
[4 33 ofof 4 48 d =z.
0 of 40

Calculate each of these quantities.

a 2 of $2400 b z of 320 grams

5 3
<3 of 256 kilograms d 23 of $174

e 2 of 78 litres f 2of 120 minutes

In each case, find out which is the larger number.

2 5 3 7
a 5 of 60 or Sof 40 b 3 °f 280 or 5 0f 290

2 4 5
[4 30f78orzof 70 d g of 72 or 1­­ of 60

A director receives i of his firm's profits. The firm made a profit of $45600 in one year. How
much did the director receive?

A woman left $84 000 in her will.

She left 3 of the money to charity.

How much did she leave to charity?

Two­thirds of a person’s mass is water. Paul has a mass of 78 kg. How much of his body mass is
water?

a Information from the first census in Singapore showed that # of the population were
Indian. The total population was 10 700. How many people were Indian?
b By 1990 the population of Singapore had grown to 3 002 800. Only 1¢ of this population
were Indian. How many Indians were living in Singapore in 1990?
Marc normally earns $500 a week. One week he is given a bonus of 15 of his wage.
a Find J}; of $500.
b How much does Marc earn altogether for this week?
The price of a new TV costing $360 is reduced by } in a sale.
a Find } of $360.
b How much does the TV cost in the sale?

56 3.3 Finding a fraction of a quantity

 » A car is advertised at Lion Autos at $9000 including extras but with a special offer of
one­fifth off this price.
The same car is advertised at Tiger Motors for $6000 but the extras add one­quarter
this price. ’

Which garage is the cheaper?

nn A jar of coffee normally contains 200 g and costs $2.

There are two special offers on a jar of coffee.

Offer A: } extra for the same price.

Offer B: Same mass for 3 of the original price.

Which offer is better value?

3.4 Adding and subtracting fractions

AAA RAR AE EE EE EE EE EE EEE yx x xy: Ir

When you add two fractions with the same denominator, you get one of the following:
* a proper fraction that cannot be simplified, for example:
TRS
—_— —= —

a
* a proper fraction that can be simplified to its lowest terms or simplest form, for example:
1.3 4 1
=+

* an improper fraction that cannot be simplified, so it is converted to a mixed number,

for example:

When you subtract one fraction from another with the same denominator, you get one of the
following:
* a proper fraction that cannot be simplified, for example:
3 1.2
555
* a proper fraction that can be simplified, for example:
7 1_6_3
0 10 10° 5
Notice that = and 2 are equivalent fractions. They represent the same quantity.
Note: You must always simplify fractions by cancelling if possible.

Chapter 3: The four rules 57

 Pha i £ ! : ­ Pass ")
Bxample 3 pe ­
Find 143
­­

These fractions do not have the same denominator.

However 1 =2 50 you can write: :

| :
(3 3tei "= 2 ­ ­
\ _/

EXERCISE 3D
® Copy and complete each of these additions.
3,2 5,2 3.1 3,3
ed bo*s “5%; d3+3
® Copy and complete each of these subtractions.
4_1 5_4 7_3 9_2
2377 b­2­3 METIRET TRE
Copy and complete each of these additions.

24d
28's 3 4
ETRE 2,4
© 9%
1.1
d 3*3
. Copy and complete each of these subtractions.
2.3 7_3 5.1 9.1
88 10°10 ©%7% 4 30770
Copy and complete each of these additions. Use equivalent fractions to make the
denominators the same. Show your working.
1.7 1.5 3.3 3.7
2% b3+*3 ©a%s d 5*%
1.7 1.5 5 2 3.1
© 2's f3+s 9673 h2*2
Copy and complete each of these additions. Show your working.
3.7 3.3 2 3 7.9
28's b2+*2 *57H 4 36%
Copy and complete each of these subtractions. Use equivalent fractions to make the
denominators the same. Show your working.

eg
3 ep
rE
TERN
You can only add or subtract fractions with different denominators after you have converted them to
equivalent fractions with the same denominator.

58 3.4 Adding and subtracting fractions

 ­ ——
\
( Bsam ple 4 rN 3
aFind 241
Fndlel Find 23­13
by Find 22 2 |
you can change both fractions to equivalent fractions with a denominator
the lowest common multiple of 3 and 5.
then becomes:
2x5, 1x3_10 3
Ix5 S53 15 15
oy13
|)
15 3 5
b Split the calculation into 2 +3)­(1+3)
This then becomes:

=2­143­2
Note that you can change both fractions to equivalent fractions with
a denominator of 12.
PEL
=l+un
cor
­ 1k

>

EXERCISE 3E
® Complete these calculations. Show your working.
1.1 1 1 1 1
£373 53 “5%
2.1 3.1 1 1
43% © a's f3+s
1 1 1 1 ol
$273 h 27s "5770
7 3 5 3 5 1
I 872 Rs i ' $72
5 1 1 4 1 3
™i27a "3% © a's
7 1 3 8 11 5
®§a 9571s “ 12%8
7 3 4 2 5S 4
* 1% 10 t 972 Y&
9. Complete these calculations. Show your working.
a 25+
1 3
b 60t
3
5%
4 1
[4 3;
1
31
d 8% 7 cad
20 2 38
e B+, f 1.59
3

Chapter 3: The four rules 59

 Chapter 3

3 7 5 7 5 7 3.5
9 T6712 h 6*%6"8 F 0*8%6
1 7 a 5 3 5
Vb 3*3%07 1s k 317 12
® In a class of children, three­quarters are Chinese, one­fifth are Malay and the rest are Indian.
What fraction of the class are Indian?

a In a class election, half of the people voted for Aminah, one­third voted for Reshma and
the rest voted for Peter. What fraction of the class voted for Peter?
b One of the following is the number of people in the class.
25 28 30 32
How many people are in the class?

3.5 Multiplying and dividing

fractions
AAAA ALLE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE Rr I I mmm IIT I

What is 2 of 2? The diagram shows the answer is 2

: ro
In mathematics, a as write 2 of 2 as 3 x 4
So you know that 3*2"%

To multiply fractions, you multiply the numerators together and you multiply the denominators
together.

Sometimes you can simplify by cancelling before you multiply.

[~

Example 6 v
Find 3.5
2x3 .

3.5.3.5
89 8 g @isafactorof3and9)
­5 (5=1x5) of
| A @e=sx)y . >
To multiply mixed numbers, first change them to improper fractions.

60 3.5 Multiplying and dividing fractions

apie 7 :
WN
Find brie

8.51.7.5
bratsmp Te

3
8

\
“45
8 3

EXERCISE 3F
@ Work these out, leaving each answer in its simplest form. Show your working.
1.1 1.2 3. 1 3.1
2273 oF b 2™2 “31's
2 4 1.3 1.6 3.2
¢3%% t3%5 "9 h 2%5
i 2,3 j 1.8
3 4 2 5
2 Work these out, leaving ik answer in its simplest form. Show your working.
5.3 5 8_6
"3%" » 0°33 4 9%7s
6_21 g 35
® 7%30 14" 36
One­quarter of Lee's stamp collection was given to him by his sister. Unfortunately
two­thirds of these were torn. What fraction of his collection was given to him by his
sister and were not torn?
­. Bilal eats one­quarter of a cake, and then half of what is left. How much cake is left uneaten?

. Work these out, giving each answer as a mixed number where possible. Show your working.
1.1 2. 41 1 . Jx 1=|
a 15%3 b ewig [4 a d br
3
a 3x1 1 1
f 12*5
1 2
h 71 x4

. Which is larger, 3 of 2] or Z of 6]?

Dividing fractions
Look at the problem 3 + 3. This is like asking, ‘How many 3s are there in 3?’

Look at the diagram.

Chapter 3: The four rules 61

 Each of the three whole shapes is divided into quarters. What is the total number of quarters divided
by 3?
Can you see that you could fit the four shapes on the right­hand side of the = sign into the three
shapes on the left­hand side?
4 3.
i.e. ss wd

or 3_3,4_.3x4_12_
3¢gndnce 3 ai Thal
So, to divide by a fraction, you turn the fraction upside down (finding its reciprocal), and then
multiply.

EXERCISE 3G
an Work these out, giving your answer as a mixed number where possible. Show your working.
a its b 2.2 c 242 d 242
e 5+1] f 6413 9 net h 3413
i = + 33 i 32 +2}

A grain merchant has only thirteen and a half tonnes in stock. He has several customers who
are all ordering three­quarters of a tonne. How many customers can he supply?

For a party, Zahar made twelve and a half litres of lemonade. His glasses could each
hold % of a litre. How many of the glasses could he fill from the twelve and a half litres
of lemonade?

How many strips of ribbon, each three and a half centimetres long, can | cut from a roll of
ribbon that is fifty­two and a half centimetres­long?

Joe's stride is three­quarters of a metre long. How many strides does he take to walk the
length of a bus twelve metres long?

62 3.5 Multiplying and dividing fractions

. Work these out, giving your answers as a mixed number where possible.
2 1 _16
a 25%25%3s b 3g1 x2 1 x473
|
[4 ax yxig 18 15.
d %*6%% .2

e (xd) (3x3) = (3x3)

5 5/"\6 6 a4 f (Bx3)«
5 3
(11x
4 "aJ
@ a ” x ..=2 . Find the missing mixed number.

b 1­%..=2 Find the missing fraction.

N|—

Check your progress

Core
* |can add, subtract multiply and divide with whole numbers, decimals and fractions
* | can add, subtract multiply and divide with mixed numbers and improper fractions
* | understand the correct order of operations and the use of brackets
* | can find fractions of a quantity

Chapter 3: The four rules 63

Chapter 4

Directed numbers

Introduction to directed
Siaaiiase negative, positive, directed numbers

Everyday use of directed

numbers profit, loss

Thee number
number lin
line
number line, less than, more than, greater
than

Adding and subtracting

directed numbers
Multiplying and dividing
directed numbers

In this chapter you will learn how to:

® Use directed numbers in practical situations. (C1.4 and E1.4)

® Add, subtract, multiply and divide directed numbers. (C1.4 and E1.4)
 Why this chapter matters
Life is full of pairs: up and down, hot and cold, left and right, light and dark, rough and smooth,
to name a few. One important pairing in maths is positive and negative.

So far you have worked mostly with positive numbers, carrying out calculations with them and
using them in real­life problems. But negative numbers are also important, both in maths and
everyday life. Positive and negative numbers are called directed numbers. You can think of the +
and ­ showing which direction they move from 0. This is important in many situations:

= . J
A negative number on a bank . On the Celsius temperature scale zero is known as ‘freezing
statement will show how much gE point’. In many places temperatures fall below freezing point.
money you have spent above You use negative numbers to represent these temperatures.
what you have in your bank
account.

25.935" 04 LegtoszxezO
22085.
i405 On

| Jet pilots experience

g­forces when their 5 ­ 9
= ­4 When a bigger number is
aircraft accelerates or
taken from a smaller one, the
decelerates quickly.
result is a negative number.
Negative g­forces can
be felt when an object
accelerates downwards
very quickly and they
are represented by
negative numbers.

numbers are Sea level can be given

Bs used to represent the value ‘zero’.
floors below Mountains are described
ground level. as being ‘above sea
level’ and ocean floors
as ‘below sea level’.
This means that depths
under the sea are given
using negative numbers.

As you can see, negative numbers are just as important as positive numbers and you will
encounter them in your everyday life.
 4.1 Introduction to directed
numbers

Negative numbers are numbers below zero. You meet negative numbers when the temperature falls
below freezing (0°C).
The diagram below shows a thermometer with negative temperatures. The temperature is ­3°C. This
means the temperature is three degrees below zero.
COLE ER up rrrpereprreperengini
­15 ­10 ­5 0 5 10 15

The number line below shows positive and negative numbers.

Ll 1 LJ 1 | T LJ Li 1 1 1 LJ Ll Ll 1

<7 =6 5 ­=4 3 2 1 WIE 2 3 4 5 6 7

negative positive

Positive and negative numbers together are called directed numbers.

EXERCISE 4A
i Write down the temperature shown by each thermometer.
od LLL CLE CL) CL EE Ey LE CE EL LL RR As
6­0 =4­3­2­101 2:3 4.8 &
b Se LL EE CE EE CE EE Cr EC oe po ee 111111
6­5­4­3­2­101 28 45 6&3
@­
6­5­4­3­2­101 2 3 4 5 6

Q = CL EC CE CC CE EC CC CE ECCCCE TD
$6­5­4­3­2­1 01 23 45 6

e == LLL LLL LL Cr Ly CC Ly ry Lay

6­5 ­4­3­2­1 01 2 3 4 5 6

a How many degrees lower is the

temperature in Edinburgh than in London?
Edinburgh ­3°C b How many degrees higher is the
temperature in London than in Cardiff?

London +8°C
Cardiff ­1°C

66 4.1 Introduction to directed numbers

 @® The instructions on a bottle of de­icer say that it will stop water freezing down to ­12°C.
The temperature is ­4 °C.

How many more degrees does the temperature need to fall before the de­icer stops working?

‘. The temperature in a room is 16°C

The temperature in a freezer is ­22 °C

How many degrees less than room temperature is the freezer?

5 Here are the temperatures at midday on January 215 in 5 cities.

City Dubai Helsinki Moscow New York Tokyo

Temperature 24°C ­10°C ­8°C 2G pals
a Find the smallest difference between the temperatures of these cities.
b Find the largest difference between the temperatures.

4.2 Everyday use of directed

numbers
There are many other situations
where directed numbers are MEGA BANK PLC
used. Here are three examples. “Your money is safe in our pockets"

* When +15 m means 15 Statement 1001

metres above sea level, Date Description Paid out Paid in Balance
then ­15 m means 15 metres
$89.75
below sea level. 14 Jan 2010 Water bill $158.62 4 ­$68.87
17 Jan 2010 Transfer oi $80.00 $11.13 You owe
* When +2 h means 2 hours 25 Jan 2010 Phone bill $33.94 = ­$22.81 the bank
after midday, then ­2 h $22.81.
means 2 hours before
Money has been paid
midday. into your account.
1
* When +$60 means a profit Money has been paid
of $60, then ­$60 means a out of your account.
loss of $60.
You also meet negative numbers
on graphs, and you may already
have plotted coordinates
with negative numbers.
On bank statements and bills a
negative number means you owe
money. A positive number means
they owe you money.

Chapter 4: Directed numbers 67

 Chapter 4 o]

EXERCISE 4B
Copy and complete each statement.

RY If +85 means a profit of five dollars, then ...... means a loss of five dollars.

™ If +200 m means 200 metres above sea level, then ...... means 200 metres below sea level.

If ­100 m means one hundred metres below sea level, then +100 m means one hundred metres
— sea level.

If +5 h means 5 hours after midday, then ...... means 5 hours before midday.

If +2°C means two degrees above freezing point, then ...... means two degrees below freezing
point.

If +70 km means 70 kilometres north of the equator, then ...... means 70 kilometres south of
the equator.
If 10 minutes before midnight is represented by ­10 minutes, then five minutes after midnight
is represented by ...... .

If a car moving forwards at 10 kilometres per hour is represented by +10 km/h, then a car
moving backwards at 5 kilometres per hour is represented by ...... i

In an office building, the third floor above ground level is represented by +3. So, the second
floor below ground level is represented by ...... .

The temperature on three days in Moscow was ­7 °C, ­5°C and ­11 °C.
a Which temperature is the lowest?
b What is the difference in temperature between the coldest and the warmest days?
A thermostat is set at 16°C.

The temperature in a room at 1.00 am is ­2°C.

The temperature rises two degrees every 6 minutes.

At what time is the temperature on the thermostat reached?

4.3 The number line

Look at the number line.
LJ Ll 1 T L 1 Ll T Ll T 1 L] 1 T ll

7 ­6 ­5 ­4 3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3 4 5 & 7
negative positive

Notice that the negative numbers are to the left of 0 and the positive numbers are to the
right of 0.
Numbers to the right of any number on the number line are always bigger than that number.

_——

68 4.3 The number line

Numbers to the left of any number on the number line are always smaller than that number.
So, for example, you can see from a number line that:

2 is smaller than 5 because 2 is to the left of 5.

You can write this as 2 <5.

­3 is smaller than 2 because ­3 is to the left of 2.

You can write this as ­3 < 2.

7 is bigger than 3 because 7 is to the right of 3.

You can write this as 7 > 3.

­1is bigger than ­4 because ­1 is to the right of ­4.

You can write this as ­1 > ­4.

Reminder: The inequality signs:

< means ‘is less than’

> means ‘is greater than’ or ‘is more than’

EXERCISE 4C
(CY Copy each statement and put the correct symbol (< or >) in each space.
Ta... 3 bal... 2 € Hoi ­1 d 5... ­4
m1... ­6 f 3... 0 g 2... ~1 h 2... ­3
i 5...­6 ji 3....4 k ­7.....=5 J J |
2 T T T T T of

]
EN nN &~ p­ Nee:

1 3 1 3 3
a an 2 2 ww 0 Cc ­=..... a

1 1 3 1
d ri 3 e 1... p f 2 1

a v AJ AJ LJ LJ LJ LJ AJ LJ A] 5 a

­5 ­2 0 1 3 5
b T T T T T T T T ¥ T

­20 ­10 0 S 15
C LJ LJ Ll LJ T Ld LJ Ll T Ll i

­B ­4 0 2 [<]
d T T T T T T T T T T

­30 ­10 0 10 20

0) Here are some temperatures.

2°C ­2°C ­4°C 6°C

Copy and complete the weather report, using these temperatures.

—_—

Chapter 4: Directed numbers 69

 Chapter 4 }

The hottest place today is Eastbourne with a temperature of

————. while in Barnsley a ground frost has left the temperature
just below zero at ____. In Bristol it is even colder at ____. Finally,
in Tenby the temperature is just above freezing at ____.

» In each case find, if possible, an integer N with the property that

a N>­3andN<2 b N<­3andN>2
¢ N>­3andN>2 d N<­3andN<2

4.4 Adding and subtracting

directed numbers
Adding and subtracting positive numbers
These two operations can be illustrated on a thermometer scale.
* Adding a positive number moves the marker up the thermometer scale.
For example, ­2 +6 >
­2+6=4 +

* Subtracting a positive number moves the marker down the thermometer scale.
For example, ­5
3­5=­2 ­2 <3
ot
­10 ­5 0 5 3s
,

Example 1
i.
The temperature at midnight was 2°C but then it fell by five degrees. What was the new
temperature?

Falling five degrees means the calculation is 2 ­ 5, which is equal to ­3. So,
the new temperature is ­3°C.
­3 2
v v : oC
Fmt IF lsd RE J
­10 =5 0 5
& J

70 4.4 Adding and subtracting directed numbers

 EXERCISE 4D
» Find the answer to each of these.
a 2°­4°= b 4°­7°= c 3°­5°= d 1°­4°=
e 6°­8°= f 5°­8°= g ­2+5= h ­1+4=
i ­4+3= j ­6+5= k ­3+5= I ­5+2=
m­1­3= n ­2­4= o ­5­1= p 3­4=
qQ 2­7= r 1­5= s 3+7= t 5­6=
u ­2­3= Vv 2­6= w­8+3= xX 4­9=

@ At 5 am the temperature in Lisbon was ­4°C. At 11 am the temperature was 3°C.

a By how many degrees did the temperature rise?
b The temperature in Madrid was two degrees lower than in Lisbon at 5 am.
What was the temperature in Madrid at 5 am?

» Here are five numbers.

4 7 8 2 5
a Use two of the numbers to make a calculation with an answer of ­6.
b ‘Use three of the numbers to make a calculation with an answer of ­1.
¢ Use four of the numbers to make a calculation with an answer of ­18.
d Use all five of the numbers to make a calculation with an answer of ­12.

«® A submarine is 600 metres below sea level.

A radar system can detect submarines down to 300 metres below sea level.

To avoid detection safely, the submarine captain keeps the submarine 50 metres below the
level of detection.

How many metres can the submarine climb to be safe from detection?

Adding and subtracting negative numbers

To subtract a negative number ...
... treat the —­ as +
For example: 4­(­2)=4+2=6
To add a negative number ...

... treat the + — as ­

For example: 3+ (­5)=3­5=­2

Using your calculator

Calculations involving negative numbers can be done by using the ((­)] key.

— —

Chapter 4: Directed numbers 1

 Example 2
Work out ­6 — ­2.

rE EBE
&™ answer should be 4.

EXERCISE 4E
@ Write down the answer to each calculation then check your answers on a calculator.
a ­3­5= ­¢ b ­2­8= | c ­5­6= ­1l d 6­9=
e 5­3= 1 f 3­8= ­5 g ­4+5= | h 3+7=/
i ­2+9=] j 6+­2= ­¢ k ­1+­4= 1, | 8+­3=—
mS5­­6= || n 3­­3=( 0 6­­2= | Pp 3­­5=¢
qQ ­5­­3=­7 r <2­­1= ~| S$ ­4­5= ­Q t 2­7=_g
What is the difference between the temperatures in each pair?
a 4°Cand­6°C b ­2°Cand­9°C ¢ ­3°Cand 6°C
Find what you have to add to 5 to get:
a7 b 2 c 0
d ­2 e ­5 f ­15
Find what you have to subtract from 4 to get:
a 2 b 0 c 5
d 9 e 15 f ­4
Find what you have to add to ­5 to get:
a 8 b ­3

c 0 d ­1

e 6 f 7

Find what you have to subtract from ­3 to get:

a7 b 2

c ­1 d ­7

e ­10 f 1

You have these cards.

‘EoZnomEm
72 4.4 Adding and subtracting directed numbers
 Chapter 4

a Which card should you choose to make the answer to this sum as large as possible? What

NP
is the answer?

b Which card should you choose to make the answer to part a as small as possible? What is
the answer?
¢ Which card should you choose to make the answer to this subtraction as large as possible?

LN I
What is the answer?

d Which card should you choose to make the answer to part c¢ as small as possible? What is
the answer?
The thermometer in a car is inaccurate by up to two degrees.

An ice alert warning comes on at 3°C, according to the thermometer temperature.

If the actual temperature is 2°C, will the alert come on?

Explain how you decide.

Two integers have a sum of 5.

One of the numbers is negative.

The other number is even.
What are the two numbers when the negative number is as large as possible?

4.5 Multiplying and dividing

directed numbers
AAA A AAA AA ER EEE EE EE yy: , mM TT

The rules for multiplying and dividing two directed numbers are very easy.
* When the signs of the two numbers are the same, the answer is positive.
* When the signs of the two numbers are different, the answer is negative.
Here are some examples.

2x4=8 12+­3=­4 ­2x­3=6 ­12+­3=4

A common error is to confuse, for example, ­32 and (­3)2.

­32=­3x3=­9
but:

(­3)=­3x­3=49.
So, this means that if a variable is introduced, for example, a = ­5, the calculation would be:
a? =­5x­5=425

Chapter 4: Directed numbers 73

 Example 3
a=­2and b=­6
Work out these numbers.
a a b a+ c b­a? d (a­bP
a a =­2x­2=+4
b a +k =+4+­6x­6=4+36=40
c VP­a? =36­4=32
d (a­b)? =(­2­­62=(­2+6)2=(4)2=16
\

EXERCISE 4F
& Write down the answers.
a ­3x5­15 b­2x7 ­14 ¢ ­4x6 J, d ­2x­3 6 e ­7x­2 I
f ­12+­6 7? g ­16+8 ­) h 24:­3 ­§{ i 16:+­4 1 j ­6+­2 |]
k 4x­6 ­741 5x2 ­Ip mM6x­3 ­1§ n ­2x­8 IL 0 ­9x­4 1.
P24:­6 ­/,q 12+­1 |) r ­36+9 ­4 s ­14:­2 1 t 100:4 05
u ­2x­9 |g
Write down the answers.
a ­3+­6 b ­2x­8 Cc 2+­5 d 8x­4 e ­36+­2
f 3x­6 g ­3­­9 h 48 +­12 i ­5x­4 ji 7­­9
k ­40+­5 I ­40+­8 m 4­­9 n 5­18 o 72+­9
p ­7­­7 q 8­­8 r 6x­7
What number do you multiply by ­3 to get each number?
ab b ­90 c ­45 d 81 e 21
What number do you divide ­36 by to get each number?
a ­9 b 4 c 12 d ­6 e 9

Evaluate these.
a ­6+@­7) ­1 b ­3­(­9­­3) 3 c 8+(2­9) |
Evaluate these.
a 4x(­8+­2) b ­8­(3x­2) c ­1x(8­­4)
What do you get if you divide ­48 by each number?
a ­2 b ­8 c 12 d 24

wn Write down six different multiplications that give the answer ­12.

® Write down six different divisions that give the answer ­4.

74 4.5 Multiplying and dividing directed numbers

 ­ Put these calculations in order from lowest to highest.
­5x4 ­20+2 ­16 + ­4 3x­6

" x=­2, y=­3 and z = ­4. Work out these numbers.

a b y+2 NE a d (x­y)?
= Copy and complete this multiplication table.

x |­19] 3 [­4
5 10]­15] 10
2­4] ¢|­8
­6 | 12 | 1g | 14

Check your progress

Core
* | can use directed numbers in practical situations
* | can put directed numbers in order by magnitude
4 * | can add and subtract positive and negative integers
* | can multiply and divide positive and negative integers
iw4
|

Chapter 4: Directed numbers 75

 Powers and roots
Topics Key words

Squares and
square roots square, square root

2 Cubes and cube roots cube, cube root

3 More powers and roots power

) 4 Exponential growth
and decay exponential growth, exponential decay

__ |
BN In this chapter you will learn how to:

Calculate: Use exponential growth and decay in

relation to population and finance. (£1.17)
® squares
® square roots
® cubes and cube roots
© other powers and roots of numbers.
(C1.3 and E1.3)
Why this chapter matters
The squares and square roots of numbers are important tools in mathematics and mathematicians
have helped us to use them by inventing notation.

We often need to multiply a number by itself one or more

times, for example, when finding the area of a square or
the volume of a cube.

You have seen in Chapter 1 how you can write 5? instead of

5 x 5. You can also show 5 x 5 x 5 by using 53. This short cut
is called index notation (see Chapter 18).

The notation for the square root of a number (e.g. V25) is

even more convenient. Without this, you would have to
write ‘the number which multiplies by itself to make 25’.
The sign for the cube root of numbers is ¢ .

The root signs are especially convenient when the roots are
hard to work out and difficult to express accurately. Square
numbers such as 4, 9, 16 and 25 have whole numbers as
their square roots but most numbers have fractions. If the
fractions are expressed as decimals they are sometimes
recurring (that is, they never end) which means that they
can never be written down accurately.

The notation we now use was only introduced in the

sixteenth century (CE). One of the first people to use it
in print was a German mathematician called Christoph
Rudolff. The notation was simple and easy to understand —
and was soon widely used.

Ways of working out square roots have been developed by

mathematicians over the centuries. This Babylonian tablet
showing how to calculate the square root of two is 2500
years ago.

Notation can be used in calculations to represent the

square roots of numbers without actually having to work
them out or write them down. This makes it possible to
carry out more sophisticated and accurate calculations.

Chapter 5: Powers and roots 77

 Chapter 5

5.1 Squares and square roots

You know that 6 x 6 = 36.
This can also be written as 62, which you say as ‘six squared".
Another way to describe this is to say: ‘6 is the square root of 36.
You can write the square root of 36 as V36.
In fact 36 has two square roots.
6x6=36
and ­6 x ­6 = 36
So the square roots of 36 are 6 and —6 or Y36 and ­V36.
You can square decimals as well as whole numbers.
2.52=6.2550 6.25 = 2.5.
Most calculators have a ‘square’ button [fi] and a ‘square root’ button E88. Check that you know
how to use them.
The calculator will show the positive square root, e.g. V36.

EXERCISE 5A
® Find the value of each expression.
a 7? b 10? c 1.22 d 25%
e 162 f 202 g 3.12 h 4.5?
i (3p j (­8)2 k 0.52 I (­0.5)2
® Write down the two square roots of each number.
a9 b 100 c 121 d 1.44
e 400 f 12.25 g 1 h 10000
> Find these square roots.
a V25 b V36 ¢ V100 d Vag
e V64 f v2.25 g V30.25 h v1.44
i Va00 j V0.25
Write down the value of each of these. You will need to use your calculator for some of them.
Look for the [5] key.
a 9 b V1600 c 10? d V19
e 62 f 225 g 72 h V14a
i 52 j vas
s Write down each square root. You will need to use your calculator.
a V576 b V961 ¢ V2025 d V1600
e 14489 f 10201 g V12.96 h 42.25
i V193.21 j Vag2.84

78 5.1 Squares and square roots

­ Put these in order, starting with the smallest value.

3? V90 V50 a
® a Explain how you know that V40 is between 6 and 7.
b Use your calculator to find V40. Write down all the decimal places on your display.

® Between which two consecutive whole numbers does the square root of 20 lie?

» Find two consecutive integers between which each of these square roots lies.
a V68 b V96 c V155 d V250

12) 66
­ Use these number cards to make the calculation below correct.

mn A square wall in a kitchen is being tiled.

Altogether it needs 225 square tiles.

How many tiles are there in each row?

5.2 Cubes and cube roots

You can show that 6 x 6 x 6 = 216.
216 is ‘six cubed’. A cube of a number is formed when you multiply the number by itself and then by
itself again. You can write this as 6°.
6 x 6 x 6 = 63 or six cubed’
Another way to describe this is to say: ‘6 is the cube root of 216".
The symbol for a cube root is ¥ so the cube root of 216 can also be written as 1216.
Many calculators have a button for cubes [fi] and cube roots [[fJ}. Check that you know how to
use them.

TEN

Example 1
Find the cube roots of 64 and ­64.

4x4x4=64s0 (64=4
~4x­4x­84=­6450V­64=­4
Notice that 64 and ­64 have just one cube root each. J

Chapter 5: Powers and roots 79

 EXERCISE 5B
» Work out these cubes.
a 23 b 33 c 8
d 10% e 1.13 f 25%
g (3) h (­5)} i 20%
j 41 k (­4.1)
a Find these cube roots.
a 8 b 125
¢ 3729 d 9
e 127 f 327
g {1000 h 33375
i ¥91125 i 02s
­ 43 = 64 and 5 = 125 so 100 is between 4 and 5.

Find two consecutive integers between which these cube roots lie.
a 3200 b 1300
¢ {500 d 3­500

Gs Here are four numbers.

2 32 V1 729
Which is the odd one out and why?

(3 Find two different positive integers, A and B, such that A? = B3.

. Put these numbers in order, smallest first.

2.53 V225 42 32000

@ Copy and complete this table.

Number Square Cube

100

64
1"

81

. Write these numbers in order with the smallest first.

V0.8 {0.8 0.82 0.8%

80 5.2 Cubes and cube roots

 |
5.3 More powers and roots
$0 0000000000000 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 0000000000

22=2x2x2=8isapower of 2.
You can work out other powers of 2.
2=2x2%x2x2=16 This is 2 to the power 4 °
L =2x2x2x2x2x2=64 This is 2 to the power 6
You can have powers of any number.

3tothe power 4=3*=3x3x3x3=81

~ Stothepower7=5"=3x3x3x3=78125
here are also corresponding roots.
2*=16andso 416 =2 The fourth root of 16 is 2
3*=81andso ¥81=3 The fourth root of 81 is 3
57 =78125andso {78125 =5 The seventh root of 78125 is 5
Your calculator probably has buttons to find powers and roots like these. Check that you know how
usethem.

EXERCISE 5C
i) Work out
a 3° b 7* c 106 d 4%
| @ Work out
a 24­4 b 35­53 c 3­63
@ Evaluate
4. a4
a 3x25 b 35­24 ¢ 2°43
­ Showthat 1 +2 +22+234+24=25­1

Chapter 5: Powers and roots 81

 Chapter 5 pic 4

Find
a 625 b 14641 c Y2187 d 3/3200 000
Find the value of
a 32x10! b 46561 + 42096
Write these expressions in order of size, smallest first.
3? xW1024 Yea xY125 2*xY8 414641 x Yea

Find the value of

a 4+ Hie b 5° + 31000
Evaluate

a 52+ ¥27 b Y2401+ 22

Find the value of n if
a 4"=64 b 37 =6561 ¢ 57=3125
Find the value of n if
a Y27=3 b ¢81=3 ¢ ¢6561=3
n?®=125 Find the value of
a nb b n?

2* = 4Y where x and y are positive integers.

a Find a possible pair of values for x and y
b Can you find a different possible pair of values for x and y?

The number 2'° is called 1K (or just K in computing).

Write as a number:
a 1K b K2 c JK d 3K e '%K

5.4 Exponential growth

and decay am
The number of visitors to a wildlife reserve in January is 600.

The number of visitors doubles every month.

In February the number of visitors is 600 x 2 = 1200

In March the number of visitors is 1200 x 2 = 2400

In April the number of visitors is 2400 x 2 = 4800

The number is multiplied by 2 from one month to the next.

—

82 5.4 Exponential growth and decay

The numbers for the four months can be written as a sequence.

600, 600 x 2, 600 x 22, 600 x 23

This is an example of exponential growth.

cost of food increases by 10% each year.

e cost of a basket of food now is $85.
a Work out the cost after one year.
b Work out the cost after two years.
¢ Work out the cost after three years.

a The multiplier to increase a number by 10% is 1.1 100% + 10% = 110% = 1.1
The cost after one year is $85 x 1.1 = $93.50.
b The cost after two years is $85 x 1.12 or $93.50 x 1.1 = $102.85.
€ The cost after three years is $85 x 1.1% or $102.85 x 1.1 = $113.14.

Raj buys a car for $56 000.

The value of his car decreases by 25% each year.
The multiplier for a decrease of 25% is 0.75.
100% ­ 25% = 75% = 0.75
The value of the car after one year is $56 000 x 0.75 = $42 000

The value of the car after two years is $42000 x 0.75 = $31500
The value of the car after three years is $31500 x 0.75 = $23625

This is an example of exponential decay. This is the result when the multiplier from one number to
the next is less than one.

EXERCISE 5D
KE The number of bacteria on a plate is 5 million.

a The number doubles every hour. How many bacteria are there after:
i one hour ii two hours iii three hours?
b Repeat part a, assuming that the number of bacteria now triples every hour.
2 There are 4000 people in a new town.
The population increases by 50% each year.

Work out what the population will be in:

a one year b two years ¢ three years d four years.

Chapter 5: Powers and roots 83

 a There are 12000 fish in a lake.
Because of pollution, the number of fish halves every
year.

Work out the number of fish after:

a one year
b three years
c¢ five years.

The pollution in the lake in question 3 has been

calculated wrongly. The number of fish is actually reduced by 60% each year.

Work out the number of fish after:

a one year b three years ¢ five years.
The population of a country is 20.0 million.
The population increases by 9% every 10 years.
Copy and complete this table. Round the numbers to one decimal place.

Number of years 10 20 30

Now suppose the population in question 5 reduces by 9% every year. Copy and complete the
table in Question 5.

Anna has savings of $5000 in her account.

The value of her savings increases by 6% each year.
a How much will the savings be worth after four years?
b How long will it take until the savings are worth $7000?

Sami earns $80000 per year.

He has been promised a pay rise of 25% each year.
a How much will he be earning after one year?
b How much will he be earning after four years?

The value of a flat is $150000.

The value increases by 20% each year.
Remi says, ‘The value will double in five years
to $300000 because 5 x 20% is 100%."
Show that Remi is not correct. Then work out
the correct value.

84 5.4 Exponential growth and decay

10 Carla saves $10 in January.

She says, ‘Each month | shall save twice as much as | saved the month before.’
a How much will she save in February?
b How much will she save in December?

”n There are 4000 elephants in a reserve.

The numbers are reducing by a third each year.

a Work out the number of elephants after
three years.
b Work out the number of elephants after
six years.

2 In 2013 the population of Indonesia was 250 million.

The population was increasing by 1.2% per year.

Use these figures to estimate the population in 2020.

3 In Brazil in the early 1990s prices were increasing by 80% each month.

Suppose the price of a loaf of bread is $10.

a Work out the price after one month.
b Work out the price after two months.
¢ Work out the price after six months.
d Work out the price after a year.

Check your progress

Core
* | can calculate with squares and square roots of numbers
* | can calculate with cubes and cube roots
* | can calculate with other powers and roots

Extended
* | can use exponential growth and decay in relation to population and finance

Chapter 5: Powers and roots 85

 Ordering and set notation

| Topics Level Key words

| ­

N
)
| 1 Inequalities CORE equals, greater than, less than

. 2 Sets and Venn diagrams CORE set, element, universal set, complement,
g union, intersection, Venn diagram
Ee 3 More about Venn
> diagrams xtenDeD subset, empty set, proper subset

a _­ TN A.
—

Cw WEr
­ EY ~ ­—

| In this chapter you will learn how to:

og ‘
* J
i ® Order quantities by magnitude and ® Define sets, e.g.
demonstrate familiarity with the symbols: A= {x: x is a natural number}
" =, #, >, <, 2, =, (C1.6 and E1.6) B={(x, y): y= mx +c}
C={xa<x<bh)
® Notate elements in a set, e.g. D={a bec ..}) (E12)
Complement of set A A’ ® Notate elements in a set, e.g.:
¢ Union of A and 8 AUB Number of elements in set A #(A)
Intersectionof AandB AN B.(C1.2) "...is an element of..." €
“...isnot an elementof...” &
The empty set D
A is a subset of B ACB
­ A is a proper subset of 8 ACB
A is not a subset of B ACB
A is not a proper subset
! of B A¢ B (E12) | i.
 Why this chapter matters
Sets are collections of objects. Set notation gives us a way of
seeing the logical connection between sets. The mathematics
of sets is very useful in designing computer circuits and
electronic components.
You have probably heard of Alice in Wonderland. Did you
know that the author, Lewis Carroll, was actually a lecturer ­
in mathematics at the University of Oxford, England, in the a
nineteenth century? His real name was Charles Dodgson.
He also wrote a mathematics
Here is a problem from it.
book called Symbolic Logic. r
1. All humming birds are richly coloured. pr
2. No large birds can live on honey.
3. Birds that do not live on honey are dull in colour.

What conclusion follows?

Symbolic Logic was about how to write sentences in symbols

so that conclusions could be seen more easily. You can use set
notation and Venn diagrams to do this and you will learn about
them in this chapter.
Venn diagrams were invented by the logician John Venn and may
be the only mathematical invention to be celebrated in a stained
glass window!

Symbolic logic has a very

modern application in the A Venn diagram in glass
design of computer circuits and
the construction of electronic
components. When engineers
talk about NAND and NOR gates
they are using ideas that were
first developed in the nineteenth
century for very different purposes.

Sod
Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation
 Chapter 6

6.1 Inequalities
0 0
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000600s

You need to know the meaning of these symbols:

equals Advice and Tips

¥ does not equal The arrow tips in < or >
> is greater than signs point towards the
: smaller numbers
< is less than
Vv is equal to or greater than
is equal to or less than.

EXERCISE 6A
@® Here are three symbols: < = >.
Put the correct symbol between the numbers in each pair.
8 '35..315 b 180cm...2m
€ 5x7..6x6 d Skm ... 5000m
e 3of27..20f 12 f 42.8
g 10x10...8x 12 h V64...32
13)
Here are three fractions: 357
Use them to fill in the gaps below to list them in order, smallest first.
wore Crna

88 6.1 Inequalities
 EY d is the number scored when a normal six­sided dice is thrown.
­
List the possible values of d in each case.
ry a d=4 b d<3
c d>5 d d<5
e 2=sd<4 f 3<d<6
g 1=sd<4 h 5<d=<6
. The table shows whether babies of a particular age are underweight or overweight.

Are babies of these masses underweight, overweight or normal?

K| a 6.3kg b 9.3kg
¢ 78kg d 85kg

\ Mass < 6.5 kg Underweight

6.5 kg < mass < 8.5 kg | Normal
Mass > 8.5 kg Overweight

eis an even number and 20 =< ¢ < 30 and e # 24. List the possible values of e.

bag of balls each ball has a number n where 1 < » =< 49.
What is the largest number on a ball?
b The number on the first ball is a multiple of 5 and » > 40.
What are the possible values of n?
¢ The number on the second ball is a multiple of 3 and n =< 10.
What are the possible values of n?
d For the third ball 15 < n = 20.
J What are the possible values of n?

@® True or false? State which in each case.

FF sie 9

TUT ­3<­5
Nn 1.99<2
QQ 2<V5<3
0 20% =< 300
­ 200 minutes = 3 hours

Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation 89

 Chapter 6

. List all the possible values for an integer x in the following cases.
a 5<x<9 b 26=x=<28
¢c ­8<x=­4 d ­2sx<2
e 17<x<18 f 325=sx<335
i» Nis an integer. What can you say about N in the following cases?
a N2=64 b N}=64
c NP <­64 d N?2<­64

6.2 Sets and Venn diagrams

GE rrr rrr rrr rrrrrrrrrrrrrrririireietenessessssosnssenenseseesssssssnssses
The factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 20.

The factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5 and 15.

You can show them in a Venn diagram.

7 8 Fo

16 1
17 12
8 19 14 13

T and F are sets.

The items in a set are called elements.
You can list the elements of a set inside curly brackets, like this:
T={1,24,5,10,20}and F={1, 3, 5, 15}
Or you can describe them:
T={x: xis a factor of 20} or just T = {factors of 20}
F={x: x is a factor of 15} or just F = {factors of 15}
Numbers 1 and 5 are in both sets. This is called the intersection of T and F.
To show this, write TN F = (1, 5}, which can be read as ‘T intersection F’.
There are eight numbers in T or F or both. This is called the union of T and F.
To show this, write TU F ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20}, which can be read as ‘T union F'
In this case you are interested in the integers between 1 and 20. Nothing else can be a factor of 15
and 20.

20 6.2 Sets and Venn diagrams

id
Put all the possible elements in a rectangle called the universal set, ¢
£={1,23,..., 19, 20}
n(A) is the number of elements in A.

Son(T)=6,n(F)=4,n(FU T)=8 and n(§) = 20

4 "
Example 3 :
£€={1,2,3,...,16}) A={x:xisa multiple of 2} B = {x : x is a multiple of 3}
a Show the sets in a Venn diagram.
b List the elements of A N B.
¢ Find n(A U B).

a The diagram needs two overlapping circles to show the sets.

b These are the elements where the two sets overlap.

AN B={6, 12}.

¢ These are elements of A or 8 or both.

n(AU B) = 11.
>/

EXERCISE 6B
® A B

Di wp): 6 iv (AUR) = 3
ir w(t) 1S
é 7) NU ww 2 15 .
8
7 9

a Listtheelementsof: i A WB iiAng 1 To Jody

b Find: i n(A) ii n(A UB) iii n(). LS )
¢ Describe the elements of &. yo A ,

Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation 91

 X Y a) w(x) J
13" ni)

Mon (xay)­ 2
vn (yuu). (0
) P,a,. by m,n,

a find in(X) iin) d@iinXnY) ivaxuy) =O

b Write down an element in X but notin Y.
¢ Write down an element that is not in X and notin Y.

10

Ng

£€={1,2,3,...,12} T={multiplesof3} 0 = {odd numbers}

Place the elements in the Venn diagram.

*® &= {positive integers} A = {multiples of 2} B = {multiples of 3}

a Is100in Aor B? A
b Find the smallest elementof ANB.
nabefre 2] ly ]
¢ Describe the elements of A N B.
® £ = {letters in the word ‘Singapore’}

X = {letters in the word ‘Paris’} Y = {letters in the word ‘Spain’}

bY —

Show the sets in a Venn diagram.

­® This Venn diagram shows three sets: A, B and C.
R i NN

a Findtheelementsof iA iB iiiANB iWvANC vANBNC

92 6.2 Sets and Venn diagrams

 b Find i n(C) ii n(AU B) iii n(AU CQ) iv n(AUBUCQ)
¢ Describe the elements of &.
N
¢)i Bn 1 { le ty

XA. | gal
wo Yawat. [12%

£ = {natural number = 24} Y = {factors of 24}

a List the elements of iX iy Ye hy 1.5, 10k I L
"y b Describe the elementsof iX diy «| 1 ~ fort
¢ Find the elements of iYynz iixXxnz igixnynz
d Find i n(Y) ii n(Yyu 2) iii n(XUYU2) \ | CE
Q IN ­ L A

i w t { Of (

A 8 c
4
2
2 12
6
8

13 14

a Find the elements of iANB iBNC i§iANC

b Find i n(A) ii n(AU B) iii n(BU C) iv n(g) vnlAUBUOCQ)

| 1&0 | l | VV ) |S

a Find the elementsof i H ho G iii FNG ivHNG

b Find in(FNG) iinFnH) ~~ 00°
| [
E£) £ = {positive integers) T = {multiples of 3}

F = {multiples of 5} S = {multiples of 7}
Find the smallest element of
a TNF bTNSs cFNS dTNFNS

Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation 93

 Chapter 6

" £€ = {positive integers < 30) A = {factors of 24} £.4,4,¢,¢

B ={factorsof 28} . ' P= {prime numbers} <1)
Find a n(A) b n(P) cCANB dPNB
q C1 | ] 4) )

a Find the elements of

iXUY @(XUYZ §iYUZ ivXu(rn2)
b Findn((Xu2)nY)

@ r­0.234567 s=@a6810 T=01,471013)

Find the elements of : 0 R
V2, 9600 §, TO
a RUT b SUT '¢c RUSSNT d RNSUT
A ys .
1.10.12

6.3 More about Venn diagrams &

Ce ttn ttre r tree rrrrr rrr rrereserrereneerrsesssesssseesssnsnessssenesssssss
­

E={integerx:1=x=<12} A={23,4,56} B={x:xisanoddnumber}

A B

10

You need to know the meaning of these symbols:

€ is a member of
& is not a member of.
2EAbut2¢&ofB. 7€AUBbut7¢ ANB.
The set of elements not in A is called the complement of A. The symbol for this is A’
A'={1,7,8,9, 10, 11, 12} (AUB) =1{8, 10, 12}

——

94 6.3 More about Venn diagrams

 £{x:xis a letter of the alphabet} C={a,n,g,l,e} D={tri angle}
In this diagram, all the elements of C are also in D.
say that C is a subset of D. To show this, you can use the symbol C, which means ‘is a subset of".
‘You
Write it like this:
cch
flLe gic Candftra inch
The symbol Z means ‘is not a subset of’.

fcattgzcC
={7,8,9}
at are the subsets of £7 You can list them. 7 . e dif for Ce ov A E . rl

, {8} and {9} are subsets with one element. C and C is like the
difference between < and
{7, 9} and {8, 9} are subsets with two elements. =< for numbers.

is also a subset of itself. £ C E.

~ Sometimes we call the other ones proper subsets and use the symbol C.
{7}, Eand (7,9) C Ebut EZ E

Finally there is the empty set or &, the set with no elements.
{x: xis an integer and 9 < x < 10} = @ because there are no integers between 9 and 10.
The empty set is a subset of any other set. In particular @ C E.

1 Example 4 A
| &={integerx: 1 =x=20} A ={x: x is a factor of 20}
B = {x : x is a multiple of 4} C={x: xis a square number}

a Draw a Venn diagram to show the sets.

b Find i ANB iin(C) iiBNBE
¢c xEAandx&Bandx€ C
‘What is x?

Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation 95

 a The Venn diagram needs 3 circles to show three sets.

b i The elements in B and not in A are {8, 12, 16}.

ii The number of elements not in Cis 16.
ili No element isin both 8 and the complement of 8, and so B' N B =.
¢ The element in A and C but notin Bis 1.
Ne, al
3
BELLA EY an
Example 5
A, B and C are three sets.
ACBandBNC=Q

gy babii diagram.
Hehween
igen the ws ogg Yorn

Le is a possible diagram.

96 6.3 More about Venn diagrams

| 14
.
List the a ie a
a A’ b [AS (au By d ANB e ANB
| \ A

32
® For the hl in question 1, put the LPP sign, € or &, in each of these statements.
a 6..8' b 7..A c 8...(ANn BY
d 9...AUB e 9...AUB f 9..(AUB)

>
3 4
. a ‘Match each expression with the correct diagram.
ixny ii (Xnyy ili xXuy
iv(XUY) vx ny vi XxX ny
b Which pairs of expressions in part a are equivalent?
. A, Band C are sets.

ACC BCC ANB=Q

a Show the relationship between the sets in a Venn diagram.
b Whatis(AU B) UC?
5 A and B are sets with a finite number of elements.
n(A) + n(B) =n(A U B)

Explainwhy AN B=

6 £ = {positive integers} T = {multiples of 2}

P = {prime numbers} F = {multiples of 4}

a xXETNP Whatisx?
b Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the sets.
¢ Describe the elements of T°.

Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation 97

 Make a copy of the diagram. Use the information below to put elements in the diagram.
a 2gA 2€8B 2€C
b3€6ANC 3€8
Cc 5&A SEB 5&C
d 7¢ A 7€(@BUCQ)
e Ne(Aus)y Nec
A B

Decide which statements are true, and which are false. Correct the ones that are false.
a CCB b ANC=@ ¢ CuB=C
d BNC=8 e ANC=0 f CUA =D
A={x,y):x=2} B={x,y):y=3}
a Show A N Bon a coordinate grid.
b Show A’N B’ on the same grid.

C={lx,):x=3} D={(x,y):y=­3} E={(x,y):x+y=<6}

a Show CN DN Eon a coordinate grid.
b Write down the coordinate of a point on the y­axis in the region CN DN E.

£= {polygons} S= {squares} Q ={quadrilaterals} T= {triangles}

a Show the sets on a Venn diagram.
b R={regular polygons}. WhatisR Nn 7?

98 6.3 More about Venn diagrams

 £ = {real numbers} N = {natural numbers}
$ = {square numbers} P = {prime numbers}
a Show the sets on a Venn diagram.
b Whatis SNP?
¢ Find the smallest element in NN (PU 5)".

wcX XcY YNZ=0

simplify the following expressions. a WNY b WUY ¢ X'NZ d Z’UY

+ | can order quantities and use the symbols #, >, <, = and =
| can use Venn diagrams to show sets
* | can identify sets by defining or listing the elements
* | can correctly use the notation n(A) for the number of elements in a set, £ for the universal set,
A Nn B for the intersection and A U B for the union

ualities to define the elements of a i :

se Venn diagrams with more than two sets
can use the symbols €, &, A’ for a complement, & for the empty set, C and C

Chapter 6: Ordering and set notation 99

Topics Level Key words

Ratio [core | ratio, cancel, simplest form, map scale

Increases and decreases

using ratios ED increase, decrease

Speed [core | average, speed, distance, time

­. |
or unitary method, direct proportion,
Direct proportion [core | 1 FRE value

Inverse proportion [core | inverse proportion

sa

In this chapter you will learn how to:

ET NE SECON ame | ~
® Demonstrate an understanding of: Increase and decrease a quantity by a
­ ratio given ratio. (E1.11)

­ direct and inverse proportion.

(C1.11 and E1.11)
® Use common measures of rate. (C1.11 and
E1.11)
® Use ratio and scales in practical situations.
(C1.11 and E1.11)
® Calculate average speed. (C1.11 and E1.11)
Why this chapter matters
We use ratio, proportion and speed in our everyday lives to help us
compare two or more pieces of information.
Ratio and proportions are often used to compare sizes; speed is
used to compare distances with the time taken to travel them.

Speed A 100­m sprinter

When is a speed fast?
On 16 August 2009 Usain Bolt set a new world record for the 100­m
sprint of 9.58 seconds. This is an average speed of 37.6 km/h. =
The sailfish is the fastest fish and can swim at
ia Sailfish
The cheetah is the fastest land animal and can
travel at 121 km/h.

The fastest bird is the swift which can travel at

170 km/h,

Ratio and proportion facts Swift Cheetah

* Russia is the largest country.
* Vatican City is the smallest country.
* The area of Russia is nearly 39 million times the area of Vatican City.
* Monaco has the most people per square mile.
* Mongolia has the least people per square mile.
* The number of people per square mile in Monaco to the number of people in Mongolia is in
the ratio 10800: 1.
* Japan has the highest life expectancy (WHO, 2016).
* Sierra Leone has the lowest life expectancy (WHO, 2016).
On average people in Japan live over twice as long as people in Sierra Leone (WHO, 2016).
 7.1 Ratio
dd A
>

A ratio is a way of comparing the sizes of two or more quantities.

A ratio can be expressed in a number of ways. For example, if Tasnim is five years old and Ziad is 20
years old, the ratio of their ages is:

Tasnim’s age : Ziad's age

which is: 5:20
"which simplifies to: 1:4 (dividing both sides by 5)
A ratio is usually given in one of these three ways.

Tasnim’s age : Ziad'sage or 5:20 or 1:4

Tasnim’s age to Ziad's age or 5to 20 or 1to4
Tasnim’s age a 5S af 1
Ziad's age 20 4

Common units
When working with a ratio involving different units, always convert them to the same units.
A ratio can be simplified only when the units of each quantity are the same, because the ratio
itself has no units. Once the units are the same, the ratio can be simplified or cancelled like a
fraction.
For example, you must convert the ratio of 125 g to 2 kg to the ratio of 125 g to 2000 g, so that you
can simplify it.

125: 2000
Divide both sides by 25: 5:80
Divide both sides by 5: 1:16 The ratio 125 : 2000 can be simplified to 1: 16.

102 7.1 Ratio

 Ratios as fractions
You can express ratio in its simplest form as portions of a quantity by expressing the whole numbers
in the ratio as fractions with the same denominator (bottom number).
N
simi 2
A garden is divided into lawn and shrubs in the ratio 3: 2.
What fraction of the garden is covered by: a lawn b shrubs?
You find the denominator (bottom number) of the fraction by adding the numbers in the ratio
(that is, 2 + 3 =5).

a The lawn covers of the garden.

Rk" The shrubs cover ¢ of the garden.

EXERCISE 7A
@ Express each of these ratios in its simplest form.
a 6:18 b 5:20
c 16:24 d 24:12
e 20:50 vr 12.:30
' g 25:40 h 150:30
a Write each of these ratios of quantities in its simplest form. (Remember that you must always
N express both parts in a common unit before you simplify.)
40 minutes : 5 minutes
oT 3kg:250¢9

nN 50 minutes to 1 hour
a 1 hour to 1 day
oo 12cm to 2.5 mm
= 1.25kg : 500 g

QQ
75 cents : $2
h 400 m: 2 km
@ A length of wood is cut into two pieces in the ratio 3 : 7. What fraction of the original length
is the longer piece?

. Tareq and Hassan find a bag of marbles that they share between them in the ratio of their
ages. Tareq is 10 years old and Hassan is 15 years old. What fraction of the marbles did
Tareq get?

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 103

 w® Mona and Petra share a pizza in the ratio 2 : 3. They eat it all.
a What fraction of the pizza did Mona eat?
b What fraction of the pizza did Petra eat?
­ A camp site allocates space to caravans and tents in the ratio 7 : 3. What fraction of the total
space is given to:
a the caravans
b the tents?
In a safari park at feeding time, the elephants, the lions and the chimpanzees are given food
in the ratio 10 to 7 to 3. What fraction of the total food is given to:

a the elephants
b the lions
¢ the chimpanzees?

ow Paula wins three­quarters of her tennis matches. She loses the rest.

What is the ratio of wins to losses?

Dividing amounts in a given ratio

To divide an amount in a given ratio, you first look at the ratio to see how many parts there are
altogether.
For example, the ratio 4 : 3 has 4 parts and 3 parts giving 7 parts altogether.

7 parts is the whole amount.

1 part can then be found by dividing the whole amount by 7.

3 parts and 4 parts can then be calculated from 1 part.

Co RB
Example 3
Divide $28 in the ratio 4: 3

4 + 3 =7 parts altogether.
So 7 parts = $28.
Dividing by 7:
1part=$4
4 parts=4 x $4 = $16 and 3 parts = 3 x $4 = $12
| sos28 divided in the ratio 4: 3 is $16 : $12 : y

104 7.1 Ratio

 Map scales
Map scales are often given as ratios in the form 1: n.
‘ "3
. Example 4
A map of New Zealand has a scale of 1: 900 000.

The distance on the map from Auckland to Hamilton is 11.5 centimetres.

What is the actual distance?

1 cm on the map = 900 000 centimetres on the ground.

= 9000 metres (100 centimetres = 1 metre)
= 9 kilometres (1000 metres = 1 kilometre).
The distance is 11.5 x 9 kilometres
= 103.5 kilometres.
+ J

EXERCISE 7B
EY Divide each according to the given ratio.
a 400gintheratio2:3 b 280kgintheratio2:5
¢ S500intheratio3:7 d 1km inthe ratio 19:1
e Shoursintheratio7:5 f $100intheratio2:3:5
g $240intheratio3:5: 12 h 600gintheratio1:5:6
i $5intheratio7:10:8 j 200kgintheratio15:9:1
The ratio of female to male members of a sports club is 7 : 3. The total number of members of
the group is 250.
a How many members are female? |15
>

b What percentage of members are male? 7,0 /.

A store sells small and large TV sets.
The ratio of small : large is 2 : 3.
The total stock is 70 sets.
a How many small sets are in stock? JY
b How many large sets are in stock? 4]
When a supermarket checked a total of 357 confectionery products for sugar content, they
found the ratio of products without sugar to those with sugar was 1: 16.
How many of those products contained no sugar? J \

—_—

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 105

 . Joshua, Aicha and Mariam invest $10 000 in a company.

The ratio of the amounts they invest is:

Joshua : Aicha : Mariam =5:7:8 } 2500
1d
How much does each of them invest? A EO
Mo quov
Rewrite each of these scales as a ratio in the form 1: n.
1: 4 ppovo 4: 121900
a lamtod km b 4cmto5km \
¢ 2emtoSkm
|: 250000.
d 4cmto km °° o Scmto1km' /000Lf 25ecmtolkm |. IB owe
g 8cmtoS5km h 10cmto 1 km i Scmto3km ­
1. 61% 1: 1D bp 1. 6D OO
A map has a scale of 1 cm to 10 km. Advice and Tips
a Rewrite the scale as a ratio in its simplest form. | {000 161 km = 1000 m
b What is the actual length of a lake that is 4.7 cm = 100 000 cm
long on the map? 4.3: 1p0b000
¢ How long will a road be on the map if its actual length is 8 km?
A map has a scale of 2 cm to 5 km. “12 ow kw: ( Bow
a Rewrite the scale as a ratio in its simplest form.
b How long is a path that measures 0.8 cm on the map?
¢ How long should a 12 km road be on the map?

The scale of a map is 5 cm to 1 km.

a Rewrite the scale as a ratio in the form 1: a.
b How long is a wall that is shown as 2.7 cm on the map?
¢ The distance between two points is 8 km; how far will this be on the map?
You can simplify a ratio by changing it into the form 1: n. For example, 5 : 7 can be
rewritten as:
5.7
sig=1:14

Rewrite each of these ratios in the form 1: n.

a 5:8 b 4:13 c 8:9
d 25:36 e 5:27 f 12:18
g 5S hours: 1 day h 4 hours: 1 week i £f4:£5
Mia wants a map of the island of Sicily.

Sicily is 113 km from north to south and 134 km from west to east.

Choose the most sensible scale from this list

a 1:2500 b 1:25000 ~¢ 1:250000
d 1:2500000
Give a reason for your answer.

106 7.1 Ratio

Calculating with ratios when only part of the information
is known
£

Example 5
Two business partners, Lubna and Adama, divided their total profit in the ratio 3:5.
Lubna received $2100. How much did Adama get?

Lubna’s $2100 was 3 of the total profit. (Check that you know why.)
3 of the total profit = $2100 + 3 = $700
So Adama's share, which was 2, amounted to $700 x 5 = $3500.

1Example 6 3
A fruit
drink is made by mixing orange squash with water in the ratio 2 : 3.
How much water needs to be added to 5 litres of orange squash to make the drink?

Dividing by 2

1 part is 2.5 litres

3 parts = 2.5 litres x 3 = 7.5 litres
So 7.5 litres of water is needed to make the drink.

EXERCISE 7C
Sean, aged 15, and Ricki, aged 10, shared some sweets in the same ratio as their ages. Sean
had 48 sweets.
a Simplify the ratio of their ages.
b How many sweets did Ricki have?
¢ How many sweets did they share altogether?

A blend of tea is made by mixing Lapsang with Assam in the ratio 3 : 5. | have a lot of Assam
tea but only 600 g of Lapsang. How much Assam do | need to make the blend using all the
Lapsang?

The ratio of male to female spectators at a hockey game is 4 : 5. 4500 men watched the match.
What was the total attendance at the game?

A teacher always arranged the content of each of his lessons as ‘teaching’ and ‘practising
learnt skills’ in the ratio 2 : 3.
a If a lesson lasted 35 minutes, how much teaching would he do?
b If he decided to teach for 30 minutes, how long would the lesson need to be?

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 107

 Chapter 7

s A ‘good’ children’s book has pictures and text in the ratio 17 : 8. In a book | have just looked
at, the pictures occupy 23 pages.
a Approximately how many pages of text should this book have to be a ‘good’ children’s book?
b What percentage of a ‘good’ children’s book will be text?

. Three business partners, Ren, Shota and Fatima, put money into a business in the ratio 3:4: 5.
They shared any profits in the same ratio. Last year, Fatima received $3400 from the profits.
How much did Ren and Shota receive last year?

@® a lqra is making a drink from lemonade, orange and ginger ale in the ratio 40:9: 1.
If Igra has only 4.5 litres of orange, how much of the other two ingredients does she need
to make the drink?
b Another drink made from lemonade, orange and ginger ale uses the ratio 10:2: 1.
Which drink has a larger proportion of ginger ale, Igra’s or this one? Show how you work
out your answer.

7.2 Increases and decreases

using ratios EN
Sometimes increases and decreases can be expressed in terms of ratios.
Suppose a recipe for six people requires 450 g of flour.
How much is needed for 10 people?
You need to increase 450 g in the ratio 10: 6 =5 : 3.
Think of 450 as 3 parts and you need to find 5 parts.
You need to find § of 450 g.
450 x 2 =750 g
If the recipe was to be changed to feed four people you would need to decrease the amount of flour
intheratio4:6=2:3.
You need to find % of 450 g.
450 x2=300g
EXERCISE 7D
a Increase 200 in each ratio.
a 3:1 b 3:2 c 10:1 d 7:4 e 6:5 . f 11:10
F Decrease 80 in each ratio
a 1:4 b 3:4 c 1:10 d 7:10 e 1:5 f 4:5

108 7.2 Increases and decreases using ratios

A projector enlarges an image in the ratio 20: 1.
a What will be the size of an enlargement of a picture that is 8 cm by 6 cm?
b What will be the size of the image if the ratio is changed to 15 : 2?

A photocopier enlarges a photograph in the ratio 5 : 4.

a What is the size of the enlargement of a photograph that is 10 cm by 12 cm?

b When the setting of the photocopier is changed, the size of the enlargement is 15 cm by
18 cm. Write the setting as a ratio, as simply as possible.

A photograph measures 12 cm by 20 cm.

It is made smaller in the ratio 3: 4.

a What are the dimensions of the new photograph?

b The new photograph is again made smaller in the ratio 3 : 4. What are the
dimensions now?

$5000 is invested and after a year the value has increased in the ratio 3 : 2.
a What is the value of the investment now?
b What is the percentage increase over one year?

The value of the investment continues to grow and in the second year it increases in the
ratio 5: 4.
¢ What is the value after two years?
d What is the percentage increase in the second year?
e What is the overall percentage increase over two years?
f Show that the overall increase could be written as a ratio as 15 : 8.

Prices are going up in the ratio 6 : 5.

a Show that this is a 20% increase.

b Write a 10% increase as a ratio.
¢ Write a 10% decrease as a ratio.

There is a group of boys and girls waiting for school buses. 25 girls get on the first bus.
The ratio of boys to girls at the stop is now 3 : 2. 15 boys get on the second bus. There are
now the same number of boys and girls at the bus stop. How many students altogether were
originally at the bus stop?

A jar contains 100 cm? of a mixture of oil and water in the ratio 1 : 4. Enough oil is added to
make the ratio of oil to water 1: 2. How much water must be added to make the ratio of oil
to water 1: 2?

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 109

 7.3 Speed
The relationship between speed, time and distance can be expressed in three ways:
speed = distance distance = speed x time time = distance
time speed
In problems relating to speed, you usually mean average speed, as it would be unusual to maintain
one exact speed for the whole of a journey.
This diagram will help you remember the relationships between distance (D), time (T) and speed (5S).

D
D=SxT $= T=
~§I0 (Ze)

Units for speed include km/h (kilometres per hour, or ‘the number of kilometres travelled in an hour’ )
and m/s (metres per second).

é I)
Example 7
Paula drove a distance of 270 kilometres in 5 hours. What was her average speed?

op distance she drove _ 270

Paula's average spee = 54 kilometres per hour (km/h)
time she took 5
\¢ J
( =)
Example 8 :
Renata crove from her home to Frankfurt in 3} hours at an average speed of 60 kh, .
How far is it from Renata’s home to Frankfurt?

Since:
distance = speed x time
the distance from Renata’s home to Frankfurt is given by:
60 x 3.5 = 210 kilometres
Te You need to change the time to a decimal number and use 3.5 (not 3.30).
\—
E

7
Example 9
Maria is going to drive to Rome, a distance of 190 kilometres. She estimates that she will drive
at an average speed of 50 km/h. How long will it take her?

Maria's time = distance she covers _ 190

—=38 hours
her average speed 50
Change the 0.8 hour to minutes by multiplying by 60, to give 48 minutes.
5 the time taken for Maria's journey will be 3 hours 48 minutes. >

110 7.3 Speed

Remember: When you calculate a time and get a decimal answer, as in Example 9, do not
mistake the decimal part for minutes. You must either:

leave the time as a decimal number and give the unit as hours, or
* change the decimal part to minutes by multiplying it by 60 (1 hour = 60 minutes) and give the
answer in hours and minutes.

EXERCISE 7E
A cyclist travels a distance of 90 kilometres in 5 hours. Advice and Tips
What was her average speed?
Remember to convert
How far along a road would you travel if you drove at time to a decimal if you
110 km/h for 4 hours? are using a calculator, for
example, 8 hours 30
| can drive from my home to see my aunt in about 6 hours. minutes is 8.5 hours.
The distance is 315 kilometres.
What is my average speed?

The distance from Leeds to London is 350 kilometres.

The train travels at an average speed of 150 km/h.
If | catch the 9.30 am train in London, at what time should
| expect to arrive in Leeds?

How long will an athlete take to run 2000 metres at an

average speed of 4 metres per second?

Copy and complete this table.

D elled > . A peed

a | 150 km 2 hours
b | 260 km 40 km/h
c 5 hours 35 km/h
d 3 hours 80 km/h
e | 544 km 8 hours 30 minutes
f 3 hours 15 minutes 100 km/h
g | 215km 50 km/h

Eliot drove a distance of 660 kilometres, in 7 hours 45 minutes.

a Change the time 7 hours 45 minutes to a decimal.
b What was the average speed of the journey? Round your answer to 1 decimal place.
Johan drives home from his son's house in 2 hours 15 minutes. He says that he drives at an
average speed of 70 km/h.
a Change the 2 hours 15 minutes to a decimal.
b How far is it from Johan ‘s home to his son’s house?

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate

 » The distance between Paris and Le Mans is 200 km. The express train between Paris and Le
Mans travels at an average speed of 160 km/h.
a Calculate the time taken for the journey from Paris to Le Mans, giving your answer as
a decimal number of hours.
b Change your answer to part a to hours and minutes.
The distance between two cities is 420 kilometres.
a What is the average speed of a journey from one to the other if it takes 8 hours 45
minutes?
b If Sam covered the distance at an average speed of 63 km/h, how long would it take him?
A train travels at 50 km/h for 2 hours, then slows down to
do the last 30 minutes of its journey at 40 km/h. Advice and Tips
a What is the total distance of this journey? Remember that there are
b What is the average speed of the train over the whole 3600 seconds in an hour
journey? and 1000 metres in a
kilometre. So to change
Suni runs and walks the 6 kilometres from home to work from km/h to m/s multiply
each day. She runs the first 4 kilometres at a speed of by 1000 and divide by
16 km/h, then walks the next 2 kilometres at a steady
8 km/h.
a How long does it take Suni to get to work?
b What is her average speed?

Change these speeds to metres per second.

a 36 km/h b 12 km/h ¢ 60 km/h
d 150km/h e 75km/h
Change these speeds to kilometres per hour.
a 25m/s b 12m/s Cc 4m/s
d 30m/s e 0.5m/s
A train travels at an average speed of 18 m/s.
Advice and Tips
a Express its average speed in km/h.
To convert a decimal
b Find the approximate time the train would take to travel fraction of an hour to
500 m. minutes, just multiply
¢ The train set off at 7.30 on a 40 km journey. by 60.
At approximately what time will it reach its destination?
A cyclist is travelling at an average speed of 24 km/h.
a What is this speed in metres per second?
b What distance does he travel in 2 hours 45 minutes?
¢ How long does it take him to travel 2 km?
d How far does he travel in 20 seconds?

« How much longer does it take to travel 100 kilometres at 65 km/h than at 70 km/h?

112 7.3 Speed

 ~ When you travel at a constant speed, then speed = distance/time
~The ratio distance : speed is constant and this ratio is the speed.
There are other examples like this.
The density of a substance is defined as density = mass/volume
For a particular substance, the ratio mass : volume is constant and this ratio is the density.
If the mass is in g and the volume is in cm? then the density is in g/cm?3.

­
Example 10
a The mass of a piece of gold is 2.4 g and the volume is 0.12 cm3.
Work out the density of gold.

Second method:

Use the formula density = Tolors m

20 = 1.6
volume d v
1.6
Volume ce
= 0 0.08 cm 3

A triangle like the one for speed can help.

\ J
A box is on a table.

The weight of the box is the force due to gravity. This exerts pressure on the table.

The pressure is given by the formula pressure = force

rea
The force is the weight of the box. The area is the base of the box in contact with the table.

If the force is in Newtons (N) and the area is in m? then the pressure is in N/m2.

N/m? are usually called Pascals (Pa).

| Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 113

 A container in the shape of a cuboid is standing on the ground.
The weight of the container is 5000 N
The area of the base of the container is 4 m?
a Find the pressure of the container on the ground.
b The end of the container has an area of 2 m?
Find the pressure if the container is turned over to stand on its end.

a The weight is the force on the ground.

pressure = force = x0. 1250 Pa

b This time pressure = force _ 5000 _ 5500 pa

——
area 2
The area is halved; the pressure is doubled.

EXERCISE 7F
® A plant is growing at a rate of 0.5 cm/day.
a How much will it grow in a week?
b How long will it take to grow 10 cm?

wv Water is flowing out of a tap at a rate of 3 litres/minute.

a How much will flow out in 5 minutes?
b How many seconds will it take for one litre to flow out?

» The mass of a silver plate is 420 g and the volume is 40 cm3.

a Calculate the density of silver in g/cm?3.
b A second plate has a mass of 525 g.

Calculate the volume in ¢cm3.

@® Rainforest in one area is being cleared at a rate of 50 m?/day.

How long will it take to clear 80 000 m2?

114 7.4 Rates

@ The sea level in a particular country has risen by 50 cm in 1000 years.

a Find the rate of increase in mm/year.

Assume that this rate does not change.

b How many millimetres will the sea level rise in the next 25 years?
¢ How long will it take for the sea level to rise by 20 mm?

. The density of copper is 9 gm/cm?3.

a Calculate the volume of 40 g of copper.

b Calculate the mass of 40 cm? of copper.

¢ A piece of metal has a mass of 75.1g and a volume of 9.4cm?3,

Can the metal be copper? Give a reason for your answer.

@ Find the pressure in the following cases:

a A force of 750 N acts on an area of 12 m?

b A force of 3000 N acts on an area of 12 m?
¢ A force of 750 N acts on an area of 4 m?

A car maker claims that the fuel consumption rate for a particular car is
10.6 litres/100 km.

a How much fuel will it use to travel 300 km?

b How much fuel will it use to travel 50 km?
¢ What is the fuel consumption in litres/10 km?

d What is the fuel consumption in litres/kilometre?

e How far can it travel on 100 litres of fuel?

‘> A car's average CO, (carbon dioxide) emission rate is 145 g per km.
a How many kilograms of CO, will be emitted if the car travels 100 km?
b A driver estimates that he will drive the car 20 000 km in a year. How much CO, will be
emitted in that time?
¢ Estimate the driver's average rate of CO, emission in kilograms/day.

n A balloon is in the shape of a sphere.

It is inflated to a radius of 12 cm.

The pressure of the air inside the balloon is 0.4 N/cm?

The formula for the surface area of a sphere of radius r is 4nr2. Find the force exerted on the
surface of the balloon, in Newtons.

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 115

 7.5 Direct proportion
GG 00000000000 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000s

Suppose you buy 12 items that each cost the same. The total amount you spend is 12 times the cost of
one item.
So the total cost is in direct proportion to the number of items bought. The cost of a single item (the
unit cost) is the constant factor that links the two quantities.
Direct proportion is not only concerned with costs. Any two related quantities can be in direct
proportion to each other.
The best way to solve all problems involving direct proportion is to start by finding the single unit
value. This method is called the unitary method, because it refers to a single unit value. Work
through Examples 10 and 11 to see how it is done.
Remember: Before solving a direct proportion problem, think about it carefully to make sure that
you know how to find the required single unit value.
­ ~
Example 12
If eight pens cost $2.64, what is the cost of five pens?

First, find the cost of one pen. This is $2.64 + 8 = $0.33

So, the cost of five pens is $0.33 x 5 = $1.65
\& 5
&

To)
Example 13
Eight loaves of bread will make packed lunches for 18 people. How many packed lunches can be
made from 20 loaves? E

First, find how many lunches one loaf will make.

One loaf will make 18 + 8 = 2.25 lunches.

So, 20 loaves will make 2.25 x 20 = 45 lunches.

EXERCISE 7G
LY) If 30 matches have a total mass of 45 g, what would be the total mass of 40 matches?

Eight men can chop down 18 trees in a day. How many trees can 20 men chop down in a day?

­ Find the cost of 48 eggs when 15 eggs can be bought for $2.10.

Seventy maths textbooks cost a total of $875. Advice and Tips

a How much will 25 of the same maths textbooks cost? Remember to work out
b How many of these maths textbooks can you buy the value of one unit
for $100? each time. Always check
that answers are sensible.

116 7.5 Direct proportion

® A lorry uses 80 litres of fuel on a trip of 280 kilometres.
a How much fuel would the same lorry use on a trip of 196 kilometres?
b How far would the lorry travel on a full tank of 100 litres of fuel?

During the winter, | find that 200 kg of coal keeps my fire burning for 12 weeks.
a If | want a fire all through the winter (18 weeks), how much coal will | need to buy?
b Last year | bought 150 kg of coal. For how many weeks did | have a fire?

. It takes a photocopier 16 seconds to produce 12 copies. How long will it take to produce
30 copies?

» A recipe for 12 biscuits uses:

200 g margarine 400 g sugar

500 g flour 300 g ground rice

a What quantities are needed for:
i 6 biscuits ii 9 biscuits iii 15 biscuits?
b What is the maximum number of biscuits | could make if | had just 1 kg of each ingredient?

­ Pieter the baker sells bread rolls in packs of 6 for $2.30.

* Paulo the baker sells bread rolls in packs of 10 for $3.50.
I have $10 to spend on bread rolls.

If | want to buy as many bread rolls as possible from one shop, which shop should | use?
Show your working.

7.6 Inverse proportion

AAA ER REE AE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EY RR xy: yr: "mr

As your speed increases, the time you take to travel a fixed distance decreases. This is an example of
inverse proportion.

iq : ——"
Example 14
At an average speed of 6 km/h a walk takes 5 hours.
How long would it take at an average speed of 8 km/h?
| Bs
The total distance is 6 x 5 = 30 kilometres.
At 8 km/h the time taken to travel 30 kilometres is:

= 3 hours 45 minutes. au

a time taken for the journey falls as the speed rises so it is in inverse proportion to the speed.

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 117

 Example 15
When a teacher shares out some sweets among 12 students, each student gets 10 sweets.
How many will each get if there are 20 students?

The total number of sweets is 10 x 12 = 120.

20 students share 120 sweets, each student gets 120 + 20 = 6 sweets.
If

Because there are more students, each one gets fewer sweets.
3 The number of sweets each student gets is in inverse proportion to the number of students.
4

EXERCISE 7H
@® A car travelling at 30 km/h takes 40 minutes to complete a journey.

How long would it take if it travelled at 60 km/h?

EY Leo has some books that are 2 cm wide and he can fit 40 on a shelf.

How many books 5 cm wide could fit on the same shelf?

ER Chairs are available at three prices: $30, $40 and $60.

Lejla can afford to buy 24 at $60 each.

a How many can she afford to buy at $40 each?
b How many can she afford to buy at $30 each?
Some friends are sharing the cost of a taxi.
If there are three friends it will cost them $18 each.
How much will it cost if there are five friends?

Eight people can pick all the grapes in a vineyard in ten days.
a How long will it take five people?
b How many people are needed to pick them all in four days?

Average speed (km/h) 20 30 | 40

Time in hours and minutes 2 hours 30 minutes

The number of people that can be safely carried in a lift depends on their average mass. A lift
will safely carry 8 people with an average mass of 75 kg.
a How many people with an average mass of 100 kg can safely travel in the lift?
b How many children with an average mass of 40 kg can safely travel in the lift?

118 7.6 Inverse proportion

 Two people travel 150 kilometres in a car.

Paying for the petrol costs each person $12.

Work out the cost if five people travel 250 kilometres.

k your progress
Core
| can understand and use ratios
| can solve numerical problems involving direct proportion
| can solve numerical problems involving indirect proportion
| can calculate average speed
| can use common measures of rates including density and pressure

Chapter 7: Ratio, proportion and rate 119

 Estimation and limits of accuracy
Topics Level Key words

i 1 Rounding whole numbers [core | approximation, rounded up, rounded down ­

2 Rounding decimals [core | ‘round, digit, decimal place

3 Rounding to significant :

4 Upper ahd lower beads upper bound, lower bound, limits of :

accuracy
5 |
alia bounds upper bound, lower bound .

In this chapter you will learn how to:

­ )
­ ® Make estimates of numbers, quantities Obtain appropriate upper and lower °
and lengths. (C1.9 and E1.9) bounds to solutions of simple problems r
® Give approximations to specified numbers (e.g. the calculation of the perimeter or
of significant figures and decimal places the area of a rectangle) given data to a
and round off answers to reasonable specified accuracy. (E1.10)
| accuracy in the context of a given
problem. (C1.9 and E1.9)
® Give appropriate upper and lower bounds
for data given to a specified accuracy (e.g.
| measured lengths). (C1.10 and E1.10)
a
b

i
­

Vo
LE
 a Ra »
| Why this chapter matters

How accurate are we?

In real life it is not always sensible to use exact values. Sometimes it would be impossible to have
BE
Bl exact measurements. People often round values without realising it. Rounding is done so that
values are sensible."

gi

»­

sit exactly 23 km to Utrecht and Does this box contain exactly

| exactly 54 km to Amsterdam? 750 g of rice when full?

————
=

| Was her time exactly 13.4 seconds? Does the school have oo 1500
8= 8 students?

E Imagine if people tried to use exact values all the time. Would life seem strange?

<
>

­ ha Chapter 8: Estimation and limits of accuracy 121 :

 Chapter 8 . Topic 1

8.1 Rounding whole numbers

You use rounded information, or approximations
all the time. Look at the examples on the right. Each
actual figure is either above or below the approximation
shown here.
How do you round numbers up or down?
you want to round a number to the nearest multiple of
If
ten, you round it up if itends in 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, and round
pe
it down if it ends in 1, 2, 3 or 4. For example:

* 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29 are rounded up to 30.

40 minutes to get
* 24,23, 22 and 21 are rounded down to 20. to school,

So a box with approximately 30 mints could contain any

number from 25 to 34.
You can round numbers to the nearest multiple of
10, 100, 1000 and so on. The number of runners
(23 000) in the report on the marathon is rounded to the
nearest 1000:

* the smallest number of people actually running would be 22 500 (22 500­22 999 are rounded
up to 23 000)
* the largest number of people running would be 23 499 (23 500 would be rounded up to 24 000).
So, there could actually be from 22500 to 23499 people in the marathon.

EXERCISE 8A
© Round each of these numbers to the nearest 10.
a 24 b 57 c 78 d 54 e 96
¥ 2 g 88 h 66 i 14 i 26

@® Round each of these numbers to the nearest 100.

a 240 b 570 c 780 d 504 e 967
f 112 g 645 h 358 i 998 j 1050

3 Round each of these numbers to the nearest 1000.

a 2400 b 5700 c 7806 d 5040 e 9670
f 1120 g 6450 h 3499 i 9098 j 1500

­. Welcome to Welcome to
Elsecar
Population 1200 Population 600

122 8.1 Rounding whole numbers

 Which of these sentences could be true and which must be false?
a There are 789 people living in Elsecar. b There are 1278 people living in Hoyland.
¢ There are 550 people living in Jump. d There are 843 people living in Elsecar.
e There are 1205 people living in Hoyland. f There are 650 people living in Jump.

El These are the average attendance figures in four football leagues in 2008­9:
England Premier League 35600
Germany Bundesliga 42 565
Italy Serie A 25 303
Spain La Liga 29 124
a Which were the highest and lowest?
b Round each number to the nearest thousand.
¢ The figure for Ligue 1 in France was 25 000 to the nearest thousand. What were the largest
and smallest actual values for Ligue 1?

. Matthew and Vincenza are playing a game with whole numbers.

a What is the smallest number Matthew could be thinking of?

I am inki of a
thinking | am thinking of a
number. Rounded different number that is
DB. to the nearest 10 smaller than Matthew's.
it is 380. Rounded to the nearest
100 it is 400.

b Matthew's number is the smallest possible. How many possible values are there for
Vincenza's number?
@® The number of adults attending a comedy show is 80 to the nearest 10. The number of
children attending is 50 to the nearest 10.
Katya says that 130 adults and children attended the comedy show. Give an example to show
that she may not be correct.

8.2 Rounding decimals

Decimal places
When a number is written in decimal form, the digits to the right of the decimal point are called
decimal places. For example:
79.4 is written ‘with one decimal place’
6.83 is written ‘with two decimal places’
0.526 is written ‘with three decimal places’.

Chapter 8: Estimation and limits of accuracy 123

 To round a decimal number to a particular number of decimal places, take these steps.
* Count along the decimal places from the decimal point and look at the first digit to be removed.
* When the value of this digit is less than five, just remove the unwanted places.
* When the value of this digit is five or more, add 1 onto the digit in the last decimal place then
remove the unwanted places.
Here are some examples.
5.852 rounds to 5.85 to two decimal places
7.156 rounds to 7.16 to two decimal places
0.274 rounds to 0.3 to one decimal place
15.3518 rounds to 15.4 to one decimal place

EXERCISE 8B
i Round each number to one decimal place. Advice and Tips
a 48 b 379 c 216 d 825 1. “ras ivy
e 3.673 f 46.935 g 23.883 h 9.549
i 11.08 j 33.509
® Round each number to two decimal places.
a 5.783 b 2.358 c 0.977 d 33.085 e 6.007
f 23.5652 g 91.7895 h 7.995 i 2.3076 j 23.9158
i % Round each of these to the number of decimal places (dp) indicated.
a 4.568 (1dp) b 0.0832 (2 dp) c 4571593(3dp) d 94.8531 (2 dp)
e 602.099(1dp) f 671.7629 (2 dp) g 7.1124 (1 dp) h 6.903 54 (3 dp)
i 13.7809(2dp) j 0.07511 (1dp)
EY Round each of these to the nearest whole number.
a 7.82 b 3.19 c 7.55 d 6.172 e 3.961
f 7.388 g 1.514 h 46.78 i 23.19 j 96.45

Anna puts the following items in her shopping basket: bread $3.20, meat $8.95,
cheese $6.16 and butter $3.90.
By rounding each price to the nearest dollar, work out an estimate of the total cost of the items.

KK Which of these are correct roundings of the number 3.456?

3 3.0 34 3.40 3.45 3.46 3.47 35 3.50

® When a number is rounded to three decimal places the answer is 4.728.

Which of these could be the number?

4M 4.7275 4.7282 4.73

124 8.2 Rounding decimals

 Chapter 8 . 1

2 8.3 Rounding to significant figures

You will often use significant figures (sf) when you want to approximate a number with a lot of
digits in it. You frequently use this technique with calculator answers.
A calculator gives V800 as 28.284 271 25...
Rounded to four sf thisis 28.28
three sfitis 28.3
two sf it is 28
one sfitis 30
The steps taken to round a number to a given number of significant figures are very similar to those
3 used for rounding to a given number of decimal places.
* Count the digits from the left. If you are rounding to 2 sf, count two digits, for 3 sf count three digits,
and so on. When the original number is less than 1, start counting from the first non­zero digit.
| * Look at the next digit to the right. When the value of this next digit is less than 5, leave the digit
) you counted to the same. However, if the value of this next digit is equal to or greater than 5,
add 1 to the digit you counted to.
|
~~ * _ Ignore all the other digits, but put in enough zeros to keep the number the right size (value).
For example, look at this table, which shows some numbers rounded to one, two and three
N= significant figures, respectively.

Ege ­ Number Rounded to 1 sf Rounded to 2 sf Rounded to 3 sf

45 281 50 000 45 000 45 300
3 568.54 600 570 569
7.3782 7 74 7.38
8054 8000 8100 8050
| 99.8721 100 100 99.9
| 0.7002 0.7 0.70 0.700

EXERCISE 8C
| a Round each number to 1 significant figure.
a 46313 b 57123 c¢ 30569 d 94558 e 85299
f 0.5388 g 0.2823 h 0.005 84 i 0.04785 j 0.000876
k 9.9 | 895 m 90.78 n 199 o 999.99
a Round each number to 2 significant figures.
a 56147 b 26813 c 796M d 30578 e 14009
| f 1.689 g 4.0854 h 2.658 i 8.0089 j 41.564
k 0.8006 | 0.458 m 0.0658 n 0.9996 o 0.009 82

Chapter 8: Estimation and limits of accuracy 125

 Chapter 8 }

» Round each of these to the number of significant figures (sf) indicated.

a 57402 (1sf) b 5288 (2 sf) c 89.67 (3 sf)
d 105.6 (2 sf) e 8.69 (1sf) f 1.087 (2sf)
g 0.261 (1 sf) h 0.732 (1 sf) i 0.42 (15sf)
j 0.758 (1 sf) k 0.185 (1 sf) I 0.682 (1 sf)
­ What are the lowest and the highest numbers of sweets that may be in these jars?

What are the least and the greatest numbers of people that live in these towns?

Satora population 800 (to 1 significant figure)

Nimral population 1200 (to 2 significant figures)

Korput population 165 000 (to 3 significant figures)

There are 500 fish in a pond, correct to 1 sf. What is the least possible number of
fish that could be taken from the pond so that there are 400 fish in the pond,
correct to 1 sf?

&® Rani says that the population of Bikran is 132 000 to the nearest thousand. Vashti says
that the population of Bikran is 130 000. Explain why Vashti could also be correct.

8.4 Upper and lower bounds

BO rrr rrr rrr re tlle el tel Nl relies renitsessNcesessessnesessssssscssssses

Any recorded measurements have usually been rounded.

The true value will be somewhere between the lower bound and the upper bound.
The lower and upper bounds are sometimes known as the limits of accuracy.
A journey of D kilometres that is measured as 26 kilometres to the nearest kilometre could be
anything between 25.5 and 26.5 kilometres:
25.5 would round up to 26.
26.5 would round up to 27 but anything less would round down to 26.
This means that 26.5 is the upper bound and 25.5 is the lower bound of D.
You can write 25.5 < D < 26.5 which means that D is greater than or equal to 25.5 but less
than 26.5.

126 8.4 Upper and lower bounds

 hi
Example 1
A stick of wood measures 32 cm, to the nearest centimetre.
What are the lower and upper bounds of the actual length of the stick?

The lower bound is 31.5 cm as this is the lowest value that rounds to 32 cm to the nearest
centimetre.

The upper bound is 32.5 cm as anything lower rounds to 32 cm to the nearest centimetre.
32.5 cm would round to 33 cm.
You can write:
31.5 = length of stick in cm < 32.5
phe the use of < for the upper bound.
ea

f Example 2
A time of 53.7 seconds is accurate to 1 decimal place.

What are the upper and lower bounds for the time? E
e lower bound is 53.65 seconds and the upper bound is 53.75 seconds.
.65 =< time in seconds < 53.75

a A length measured as 7 cm to the nearest cm.

ou A mass measured as 120 g to the nearest 10 g.
A length measured as 3400 km to the nearest 100 km.
an A speed measured as 50 km/h to the nearest km/h.
0 An amount given as $6 to the nearest dollar.
= A length given as 16.8 cm to the nearest tenth of a centimetre.
A mass measured as 16 kg to the nearest kg.
TQ A football crowd of 14 500 to the nearest 100.
i Adistance given as 55 km to the nearest km.
j Adistance given as 55 km to the nearest 5 km.
[Y Write down the upper and lower bounds for each of these values, which are rounded to the
given degree of accuracy. Use inequalities to show your answer.
For example, part a should be 5.5 < length in cm < 6.5.
a 6 cm (1 significant figure) b 17 kg (2 significant figures)
¢ 32 min (2 significant figures) d 238 km (3 significant figures)
e 7.3m (1 decimal place) f 25.8 kg (1 decimal place)

: Chapter 8: Estimation and limits of accuracy 127

 Chapter 8

g 3.4 h (1 decimal place) h 87 g (2 significant figures)

i 4.23 mm (2 decimal places) i 2.19 kg (2 decimal places)
k 12.67 minutes (2 decimal places) I 25 m (2 significant figures)
m 40 cm (1 significant figure) 600 g (2 significant figures)
0 30 minutes (1 significant figure) 1000 m (2 significant figures)
q 4.0 m (1 decimal place) 7.04 kg (2 decimal places)
s 12.0 s (1 decimal place) 7.00 m (2 decimal places)
Write down the lower and upper bounds of each of these values, which are rounded to the
accuracy stated.
a 8m (1 significant figure) b 26 kg (2 significant figures)
¢ 25 minutes (2 significant figures) d 85 g (2 ssignificant figures)
e 2.40 m (2 decimal places) f 0.2 kg (1 decimal place)
g 0.06 s (2 decimal places) h 300 g (1 significant figure)
i 0.7 m (1 decimal place) j 366 d (3 significant figures)
k 170 weeks (2 significant figures) | 210 g (2 significant figures)
A chain is 30 m long, to the nearest metre.

A chain is needed to fasten a boat to a harbour wall. The distance to the wall is also 30 m, to
the nearest metre.
Which statement is definitely true? Explain your decision.
A: The chain will be long enough.
B: The chain will not be long enough.
C: It is impossible to tell whether or not the chain is long enough.
A bag contains 2.5 kg of soil, to the nearest 100 g.
What is the least amount of soil in the bag?
Give your answer in kilograms and grams.

Chang has 40 identical marbles. Each marble has a mass of 65 g (to the nearest gram).
a What is the greatest possible mass of one marble?
b What is the least possible mass of one marble?
¢ What is the greatest possible mass of all the marbles?
d What is the least possible mass of all the marbles?

8.5 Upper and lower bounds

for calculations EIN
When rounded values are used for a calculation, you can find upper and lower bounds for the result
of the calculation.

128 8.5 Upper and lower bounds for calculations

 Example 3 LE
The dimensions of this rectangle are given to the nearest centimetre.

Find the lower bound for the perimeter and the upper bound
for the area.

The upper and lower bounds for the sides are:

26.5 =< length in cm < 27.5

20.5 = width incm < 21.5

Perimeter = 2 x (length + width)

The lower bound will be found from the lower bounds of the length and width.

Lower bound of perimeter = 2 x (26.5 + 20.5) = 94 cm.

Area = length x width

The upper bound will be found from the upper bounds of the length and width.
ahi bound of area = 27.5 x 21.5 = 591.25 cm? J

| =)
Example 4
A car travels 125 km (to the nearest km) and uses 16.1 litres of fuel (correct to one decimal place).

Find the upper and lower bounds of the fuel consumption in km/litre.

124.5 = distance in kilometres < 125.5

16.05 =< fuel in litres < 16.15

The fuel consumption is distance + fuel used.

To find the upper bound of this, use:
upper bound of the distance + lower bound of the fuel used

upper bound is 125.5 + 16.05 = 7.8193......

To find the lower bound of fuel consumption, use:

lower bound of distance + upper bound of fuel used:

=124.5 + 16.15 =7.7089......

50 7.709 = fuel consumption in km/litre < 7.819 when the answers are rounded to three decimal
places.
J
When solving a problem, write down the upper and lower bounds for the values given and then
decide which to use to find the solution.

Chapter 8: Estimation and limits of accuracy 129

 EXERCISE 8E
Boxes have a mass of 7 kg, to the nearest kilogram.

What are the upper and lower bounds for the total mass of 10 of these boxes?

Books each have a mass of 1200 g, to the nearest 100 g.

a What is the greatest possible mass of 10 books?
Give your answer in kilograms.
b A trolley can safely hold up to 25 kg of books.
­ How many books can safely be put on the trolley?

Jasmine says, ‘My mass is 45 kilos.” Yolander says, ‘My mass is 53 kilos.’ Both are measured to
the nearest kilogram.

What is the greatest possible difference between their masses?

Show how you worked out your answer.

For each of these rectangles, find the upper and lower bounds for the perimeter.
The measurements are shown to the level of accuracy indicated in brackets.
a 5am x 9 cm (nearest cm) |
b 4.5 cm x 8.4 cm (1 decimal place)
¢ 7.8.cm x 18 cm (2 significant figures)

Calculate the upper and lower bounds for the areas of each rectangle in question 4.

A cinema screen is measured as 6 m by 15 m, to the nearest metre. Calculate the upper and
lower bounds for the area of the screen.

The measurements, to the nearest centimetre, of a box are given as 10 cm x 7 cm x 4 cm.

Calculate the upper and lower bounds for the volume of the box.

Mr Sparks is an electrician. He has a 50­m roll of cable, correct to the nearest metre.

He uses 10 m on each job, to the nearest metre.

If he does four jobs, what is the maximum amount of cable he could have left?

Jon and Matt are exactly 7 kilometres apart. They are walking towards each other.

Jon is walking at 4 km/h and Matt is walking at 2 km/h.

Both speeds are given to the nearest kilometre per hour.
Without doing any time calculations, decide whether it is possible for them to meet in 1 hour.
Justify your answer.

The area of a rectangular field is given as 350 m?, to the nearest 10 m2. One length is given as
16 m, to the nearest metre. Find the upper and lower bounds for the other length of the field.

130 8.5 Upper and lower bounds for calculations

 A stopwatch records the time for the winner of a 100­metre race as 14.7 seconds, measured
to the nearest one­tenth of a second.
a What are the upper and lower bounds of the winner's time?
b The length of the 100­metre track is correct to the nearest 1 m. What are the upper and
lower bounds of the lengths of the track?
¢ What is the greatest possible average speed of the winner, with a time of 14.7 seconds in
the 100­metre race?

2 A model car travels 40 m, measured to one significant figure, at a speed of 2 m/s, measured
to one significant figure. Find the upper and lower bounds of the time taken.

3 The population of Japan is 127 000 000 to the nearest million.

The area of Japan is 378 000 km? to the nearest 1000 km?2.

The population density for any country is the total population divided by the area.

Find the upper and lower bounds for the population density of Japan in people/km?2. Round
your answers to two decimal places.

An engineer testing a car's CO, (carbon dioxide) emissions measures 26 kg of CO, when itis
driven 150 km.

The mass is given to the nearest kilogram.

The distance is given to the nearest kilometre.

Find the upper and lower bounds for the CO, emissions in grams/kilometre. Round your
answers to one decimal place.

k your progress
re
| can make estimates of numbers, quantities and lengths
| can give estimates to a given number of decimal places
| can give estimates to a given number of significant figures
I can round off answers to a reasonable level of accuracy in the context of a problem

I can give upper and lower bounds for data given to a specified accuracy

ed
| can give upper and lower bounds for the results of calculations with data given to a specified

C——

s Chapter 8: Estimation and limits of accuracy 131

Chapter 9

Standard form

In this chapter you will learn how to:

® Use the standard form A x 10” when n is a positive or negative integer and 1 = A < 10.
(C1.7 and E1.7)
Very large and very small numbers can often be difficult to read. Scientists use standard form as a
shorthand way of representing numbers.

The planets
Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun (and is very hot).
It orbits 60 million km (6 x 107 km) away from the Sun.

Venus rotates the opposite way to the other planets and

has a diameter of 12 100 km (1.21 x 10* km).
Earth takes 365 days to orbit the Sun and 24 hours
to complete a rotation.
Mars has the largest volcano in the solar system. It is
almost 600 km across and rises 24 km above the surface.
This is five times bigger than the biggest volcano on Earth.
Jupiter is made of gas. It has no solid land so
visiting it is not recommended! It has a huge storm
which rages across its surface. This is about 8 km
high, 40 000 km long and 14 000 km wide. It looks
like a red spot and is called ‘the Great Red Spot".

Saturn is the largest planet in the solar system.

It is about 120 000 km across (1.2 x 10° km) and
1400 million km from the Sun (1.4 x 10° km).
Uranus takes 84 days to orbit the Sun.

Neptune is similar to Jupiter in that it is a gas planet and

has violent storms. Winds can blow at up to 2000 km per
hour, so a cloud can circle Neptune in about 16 hours.
Pluto is the furthest planet from the Sun. Some
astronomers dispute whether it can be classed
as a planet. The average surface temperature on
Pluto is about ­230 °C.
The mass of an electron is about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 91 kg.
This is written 9.11073! kg.
The mass of the Earth is about 5 970 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg.
This is written 5.97 x 102% kg.
 9.1 Standard form
Powers of ten:
100 = 10 x 10 = 102
1000 = 10 x 10 x 10 = 103

Extending this idea:

10000 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 10?
100 000 = 10°
1 000 000 = 108

and so on.
The power of 10 is called the index.
Standard form is a way of writing very large and very small numbers using powers of 10. In this form,
a number is given a value between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10. That is,
A x 10" where 1 = A < 10, and n is a whole number.

Follow through these examples to see how numbers are written in standard form.
52= 52x 10=5.2 x 10
73 = 73x10=7.3 x 10'
625= 6.25 x 100 = 6.25 x 102 The numbers in bold are in standard form.
389= 3.89 x 100 = 3.89 x 10?
3147 = 3.147 x 1000 = 3.147 x 10°

When writing a number in this way, you must always follow two rules.
* The first part must be a number between 1 and 10 (1 is allowed but 10 isn't).
* The second part must be a whole­number (negative or positive) power of 10. Note that you
would not normally write the power 1.

Standard form on a calculator

A number such as 123 000 000 000 is obviously difficult to key into a calculator. Instead, you enter it
in standard form (assuming you are using a scientific calculator):
123 000 000 000 = 1.23 x 10"

The key strokes to enter this into your calculator could be something like this:

(1]e]2]3 0] 1]
Your calculator display will display the number either as an ordinary number, if there is enough
space, or in standard form. Make sure you know how to use standard form on your calculator.
Some calculators may use a different symbol for [10°] for example,

134 9.1 Standard form

Standard form of numbers less than 1
You will need to use a negative index for numbers between 0 and 1:
0.1 = 10"!

0.01 =10"?
0.001 =10"3

0.0001 = 10­4

0.000729 = 7.29 x 0.0001

=7.29 x 10% in standard form
hese numbers are written in standard form. Make sure that you understand how they
re formed.
04=4x10" b 0.05=5x10"2 c¢ 0.007=7x10"3
0.123 =1.23 x 10! e 0.007 65=7.65x 103 f 0.9804 =9.804 x 10!
g 0.0098 =9.8 x 103 h 0.0000078 =7.8 x 10­6

a calculator you would enter 1.23 x 10­5, for example, as:

(1]e12]3]0]0)]6]
ry entering some of the numbers a to h (above) into your calculator for practice.

EXERCISE 9A
“ These numbers are in standard form. Write them out in full.
a 25x10? b 3.45x 10 c 467x103 d 3.46 x 10
e 2.0789 x 10­2 f 5.678 x 103 g 2.46 x 10? h 7.6 x 10°
i 8.97 x 10° j 865x103 k 6x10’ I 5.67 x10
® Write these numbers in standard form.
a 250 b 0.345 c¢ 46700
d 3400000000 e 20780000000 f 0.000567 8
g 2460 h 0.076 i 0.00076
j 0.999 k 234.56 | 98.7654
m 0.0006 n 0.00567 o 56.0045
In questions 3 to 5, write the numbers given in each statement in standard form.

@ One year, 27797 runners completed the New York marathon.

The largest number of dominoes ever toppled by one person is 321 197, although a team set
up and toppled 4491863.

Chapter 9: Standard form 135

 Chapter 9

. The asteroid Phaethon comes within 12 980 000 miles of the Sun. The asteroid Pholus, at its
furthest point, is a distance of 2997 million miles from the Earth. The closest an asteroid ever
came to Earth was 93 000 miles from the planet.

. How many times bigger is 3.2 x 108 than 3.2 x 104?

» The speed of sound (Mach 1) is 1236 kilometres per hour.

A plane travelling at Mach 2 would be travelling at twice the speed of sound.

How many kilometres would a plane travelling at Mach 3 cover in 1 minute?

® Here are the distances of some planets from the Sun:

Jupiter 778 million kilometres

Mercury 58 million kilometres

Pluto 5920 million kilometres

Write these distances in standard form.

9.2 Calculating with standard form

GC ttn rr rrr rrr r rier r rr rrr errr i rere siesrecsissstsensssenistsseesessnnenssse

Calculations involving very large or very small numbers can be done more easily if you use
standard form.
You can enter numbers in a scientific calculator in standard form. The way you do this may be
different for different models of calculator. Make sure you know how to do this with your calculator.
= :
PE
wp A vd Se sage BY ina ’
pel
­
SRT LW gl
A pixel on a computer screen is 2 x 10­2 cm long by 7 x 10­3 cm wide.
What is the area of the pixel?

The area is calculated as length times width.

Areaincm?=2x102x7 x 1073
= 14 x 10­3 (Use a calculator to do this.)
The answer is not in standard form as the first part is not between 1 and 10,
so you need to change it to standard form.
14 x 10­5 =0.00014 = 1.4 x 10­4
So area = 1.4 x 10­4 cm?
& | J
If you use a calculator you can enter the numbers directly without any rearranging. Your calculator
may give you.the answer in standard form.

136 9.2 Calculating with standard form

 ple 2
The distance from the Sun to the Earth is 150 million kilometres.

Light travels at 3.00 x 105 km/second.

How long does light from the Sun take to reach the Earth?

Distance = 150 000 000 =1.5x 10% km

~ Time = distance + speed

= (1.5 x 10%) + (3.00 x 105)

= 500 seconds (Use a calculator to work this out.)

= 8 minutes 20 seconds
"
RCISE 9B
¢ These numbers are not in standard form. Write them in standard form.
a 56.7 x 102 b 0.06 x 10%
¢ 346x102 d 0.07 x 10­2
_e 56x10 f 2x3x10°
g 2x102x35 h 160 x 10­2
i 23 million

Work these out. Give your answers in standard form.

a 2x10%x5.4x 10° b 1.6 x10? x3 x 104
€ 2x10°x6x 10% d 2x10%x54x103
e 1.6x10?%x4 x10? f 2x10°x6x 104
g 7.2x103 x4 x10? h (5x 10%)?
i (2x1072)3

0) Work these. Give your answers in standard form.

a (5.4x10% + (2x 10%)
b (4.8 x 10?) + (3 x 109)
[a] (1.2 x 10%) = (6 x 10%)
d (2x 107% + (5x 10%)
e (1.8x10% +(9x107?
f V(36 x 10­4)
. A typical adult has about 20 000 000 000 000 red blood cells. Each red blood cell has a mass
of about 0.000 000 000 1 g. Write both of these numbers in standard form and work out the
total mass of red blood cells in a typical adult.

Chapter 9: Standard form 137

 A man puts one grain of rice on the first square of a chess Advice and Tips
board, two on the second square, four on the third, eight
on the fourth and so on. Compare powers of 2
a How many grains of rice will he put on the 64th square with the running totals.
of the board? By the fourth square you
) have 15 grains altogether,
b How many grains of rice will there be altogether? and 2% = 16.
Give your answers in standard form.

The surface area of the Earth is approximately 3.2 x 108 square kilometres. The area of the
Earth's surface that is covered by water is approximately 2.2 x 108 square kilometres.
a Calculate the area of the Earth's surface not covered by water. Give your answer in standard
form.
b What percentage of the Earth's surface is not covered by water?
The Moon is a sphere with a radius of 1.74 x 10° kilometres. The formula for working out the
surface area of a sphere is:

surface area = 4n?

Calculate the surface area of the Moon.

Evaluate z when E = 1.5 x 10° and M = 3 x 10­2, giving your answer in standard form.
x10
Work out the value of 32x10 giving your answer in standard form, correct to 2 significant
figures. ® 10°

In one year, British Airways carried 33 million passengers. Of these, 70% passed through
Heathrow Airport. On average, each passenger carried 19.7 kg of luggage. Calculate the total
mass of the luggage carried by these passengers.

In 2013 the world population was approximately 7.14 x 10°. In 2014 the world population was
approximately 7.24 x 10°.
a By how much did the population rise? Give your answer as an ordinary number.
b What was the percentage increase?
Here are four numbers written in standard form.
1.6 x 104 4.8 x 106 3.2 x10? 6.4 x 10°
a Work out the smallest answer when two of these numbers are multiplied together.
b Work out the largest answer when two of these numbers are added together.
Give your answers in standard form.

The mass of Saturn is 5.686 x 10%¢ tonnes. The mass of the Earth is 6.04 x 102! tonnes. How
many times heavier is Saturn than the Earth? Give your answer in standard form to a suitable
degree of accuracy.

A number is greater than 100 million and less than 1000 million.
Write down a possible value of the number, in standard form.

138 9.2 Calculating with standard form

 Here are some population figures for some countries.

Country Population
Tunisia 1.10 x 107

Denmark | 5.60 x 106

Senegal 1.39 x 107
Jamaica | 2.71 x 108
Mexico 1.19 x 108
India 1.29 x 10°

a Which country has the largest population?

b Which two countries have the largest difference in population?
¢ Find the total population of Senegal, Denmark and Jamaica. Give your answer in standard
form to two significant figures.
d Complete this sentence:
The population of Mexico is approximately ... times larger than the population of Denmark.
e Complete this sentence:
The population of India is approximately ... times larger than the population of Jamaica.
This table shows the populations and the areas of five different countries.

Country Population | Area

Russian Federation | 1.44 x 108 1.71 x 107
Sri Lanka 2.07 x 107 6.56 x 104
Thailand 6.64 x 107 5.13 x 10°
Togo 6.98 x 106 5.68 x 10°
Iran 7.74 x 107 1.65 x 106
a Which country has the smallest population?
b Which country has the smallest area?
The population density is the population divided by the area.
¢ Which country has the largest population density?
d Which country has the smallest population density?
e What fraction of the area of the Russian Federation is the area of Sri Lanka?

Give your answer in the form =

Check your progress

Core
* | can understand and write numbers in standard form
* | can calculate using numbers written in standard form

Chapter 9: Standard form 139

Chapter 1 0

Applying number and using

calculators

1 Units of measurement metric system, length, mass, volume,

:
capacity

2 Converting between centimetre, millimetre, kilometre, gram,

metric units kilogram, tonne, litre, millilitre, centilitre

Time 24­hour clock, 12­hour clock, timetable

Currency conversions exchange rate

Using a calculator
efficiently

Tilly Yr (BA
In this chapter you will learn how to:

Use current units of mass, length, area, volume and capacity in practical situations and
express quantities in terms of larger or smaller units. (C5.1 and E5.1)
Calculate times in terms of the 24­hour and 12­hour clock. (C1.14 and E1.14)
Read clocks, dials and timetables. (C1.14 and E1.14)
Calculate using money and convert from one currency to another. (C1.15 and E1.15)
Use a calculator efficiently. (C1.13 and E1.13)
Apply appropriate checks of accuracy. (C1.13 and E1.13)
 Why this chapter matters
Technology is increasingly important in our lives. It helps us do many things more efficiently than
we could without it.

Hundreds of years ago people in different countries

had different systems of measurement. They were
often based on the human body, for example, the
length of people's hands, arms or feet, but they all
varied and all had different names. Flemish El
Hy Now the world has an official standard system of oan | French Ell
measurement — the metric system. This is especially Fathom
important for scientists so they can work together
worldwide. It is also helpful for everyone who Tyrr——
needs to compare lengths, masses, volumes and so ) A A g A 3
on between different countries. bis bs IESE6 Feet bso)

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ol o4 pal bal Bal Bl dl 2]

INE

Abacuses are still widely used in China today and 7x7 = od) Bal bal bal Bf Bd Bf Bf Bf 4
they were used everywhere for almost 3500 years,
URN

7x8 5215 52 57) 521 521 521 5d 57] 52

. . .
until John Napier devised a calculating
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ARN
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INNES

0/3) 2 A 54 52 52 52 571 52 57)

Napier’s bones
«= These led to the invention of the slide rule by
William Oughtred in 1622. This was in use until
— the mid­1960s. Engineers working on the first
ever moon landings used slide rules to do some
of their calculations.

The first electronic computers were produced in the mid­20th century.

When the transistor was invented, the power increased and the cost and mats
size decreased until the point where the average scientific calculator that
students use in schools has more computing power than the first craft
that went into space.

RH
i
P|
EIABL NN
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 Chapter 10

10.1 Units of measurement

ALARA LELEE EEL EE EE EEE EEE EE EE EE EE EN RE RR yy yyy I mI mm

The metric system of measurement is now used in most countries of the world, except for the United
States. Here is a list of the most common metric units.

Unit How to estimate it

Length
1 metre A long stride for an average person
1 kilometre Two and a half times round a school track
1 centimetre | The distance across a fingernail
Mass
1 gram A small coin weighs a few grams
1 kilogram A bag of sugar
1 tonne A saloon car
Volume/capacity
1 litre A full carton of orange juice
1 centilitre A small glass is about 10 centilitres
1 millilitre A full teaspoon is about 5 millilitres

Volume and capacity

The term ‘capacity’ is normally used to refer to the volume of a liquid or a gas.
For example, when referring to the volume of petrol that a car's fuel tank will hold, people may say
its capacity is 60 litres.

EXERCISE 10A
(9 Decide the metric unit you would be most likely to use to measure each of these.
a The height of your classroom b The distance from Athens to Vienna
¢ The thickness of your little finger d The mass of this book
e The amount of water in a fish tank f The mass of an aircraft
g A spoonful of medicine h The length of a football pitch
i The mass of your head teacher j The thickness of a piece of wire
Estimate the approximate metric length, mass or capacity of each of these.
a This book (both length and mass) b The length of your school hall
¢ The capacity of a bucket d The diameter of a coin, and its mass
e The mass of a cat f The amount of water in one raindrop
g The dimensions of the room you are in h Your own height and mass

142 10.1 Units of measurement

 Milo was asked to put up some decorative bunting from the top of each lamp post in
his street. He had three sets of ladders he could use: a 2 metre, a 3.5 metre and a 5 metre
ladder.

He looked at the lamp posts and estimated that they were about three times his height.
He is slightly below average height for an adult male.

Which of the ladders should he use? Give a reason for your choice.

10.2 Converting between metric

units
You should already know the relationships between these metric units.

Length Mass
10 millimetres = 1 centimetre 1000 grams = 1 kilogram
1000 millimetres = 100 centimetres 1000 kilograms = 1 tonne
= 1 metre
1000 metres = 1 kilometre
Capacity Volume
10 millilitres = 1 centilitre 1000 litres = 1 metre?
1000 millilitres = 100 centilitres 1 millilitre = 1 centimetre?
= 1 litre

Note the equivalence between the units of capacity and volume:

1 litre = 1000 cm? which means 1 ml=1cm?3

You need to be able to convert from one metric unit to another.
Since the metric system is based on powers of 10, it should be easy for you to multiply or divide to
change units. Work through the following examples.

=
‘Example 1 ‘ iY
a 732 cm to metres b 840 mm to metres.

To change small units to larger units, always divide. | ”»

a 732:100=732s0732cm=732m se a
b 840 + 1000 = 0.84 s0 840 mm = 0.84 m To Ly +

Chapter 10: Applying number and using calculators 143

 EXERCISE 10B
Fill in the gaps, using the information in this section.
a 125cm=..m b 82mm=...cm ¢ 550mm=...m
d 4200g=...kg e 5750kg=...t f 8ml=..d
g 755g=...kg h 800ml=...1 i 200d =...
j 10351=...m3 k 5301=..m3 I 3dkm=..m
Fill in the gaps, using the information in this section.
a 34m=..mm b 135cm=...mm c 067m=..cm
d 0.64km=..m e 24|=..ml f 591=..c
g 375t=..kg h 094cmi=...1| i 216l=..d
j 15.2kg=...g k 4mi=..1 I 019cmi=... ml
Sarif wanted to buy two lengths of wood, each 2 m long, and 1.5 cm by 2 cm. He went to the
local store where the types of wood were described as:
2000 mm x 15 mm x 20 mm
200 mm x 15 mm x 20 mm
200 mm x 150 mm x 2000 mm
200 mm x 15 mm x 2000 mm
Should he choose any of these? If so, which one?

How many square metres are there in a square kilometre? ‘Advice and Tips
The circumference of Earth is approximately 4 x 107 metres. The answer is not 1000.
you travel at 100 kilometres per hour, how many hours does it take to go round planet
If
Earth?

In 2017, the population of Earth was estimated to be 7.5 billion people.

One billion is 1000 million.

Write the population in standard form.

144 10.2 Converting between metric units

10.3 Time
Times can be given using the 12­hour or 24­hour clock. 1200
1100 2400 0100
The 12­hour clock starts at midnight and runs to 12:00 at midday. _ | 1300
After 12:59 it goes back to 1:00 and runs through to 12 again. So
7:45 could be 7:45 in the morning (am) or 7:45 in the evening (pm). bid ­
In everyday life you will usually use the 12­hour clock and
add ‘am’ or ‘pm’ to indicate whether you mean before 0900 _
or after midday.

The 24­hour clock indicates the number of hours and minutes after 0800 ~
midnight and has four digits. The first two digits are hours and food ) \
the last two digits are minutes. So 1:45 pm in the 12­hour clock is 0700 | 0500
1345 in the 24­hour clock, meaning 13 hours and 45 minutes after 1900 pre 1700
midnight. 7:30am is 0730 but 7:30 pm is 1930 and so on.
Fifteen minutes after midnight is 0015 in the 24­hour clock and 12:15 am in the 12­hour clock.

Timetables usually use the 24­hour clock to avoid confusion.

7:35 am = 0735 1: 42 pm = 1342 9:30 pm = 2130

Example 3
A train left at 1135 and arrived at 1415.
How long did the journey take?

Do not use a calculator for this sort of question. Calculating 1415 — 1135 will not give the
correct answer!
Break the journey into sections.
Here is one way:
1135 —» 1200 » 1400 ———» 1415
25 minutes 2 hours 15 minutes
Total time = 2 hours 40 minutes.

EXERCISE 10C
» Here is the timetable for four trains from Rome to Naples.

UCIUEH CEE 0900 | 0927 | 1027 | 1045

AELICERCIAD NN 1010 | 1130 | 1236 | 1230

a How long does each of the journeys take in hours and minutes?
b Which train was the high­speed express?

Chapter 10: Applying number and using calculators 145

 @ Here are the times of two trains from Rome to Venice.

Rome (depart) 0945 | 1036

Venice (arrive) 1333 1649

a Write the four times as 12­hour clock times.

b Find the length of each journey in hours and minutes.

A man arrived at his office at 0835 and left at 1520.

a His journey home took 45 minutes. What time did he arrive home?
b His journey to work in the morning took one hour and 20 minutes. What time did he
leave home?
¢ How long was he in the office?

Sunetra went on a coach trip to a forest park.

The coach left at 0830 and returned at 1855.
The journey took 2 hours and 20 minutes each way.
a What time did Sunetra arrive at the forest park?
b What time did she leave the forest park?
¢ How long did she spend there?

a A car left at 0845 and arrived at its destination 3 hours and 25 minutes later.

What time did it arrive?

b On the return journey the car left at 1835 and arrived at 2125.
How long did this return journey take?

Here is the timetable for a bus journey.

BUNBRGHENE 1729
Exton 1741
Topsham 1757
Digby 1809
Sowton 1823

How long did the journey take from Lympstone to:

a Exton
b Digby
¢ Sowton?

146 10.3 Time

¢ The express train left at 1050 and arrived at 1324.

The slow train left at 1242 and arrived at 1629.

How much faster was the express train?

® Pierre flew from Paris to Doha on a day when the clocks in Doha were one hour ahead
of the clocks in Paris.

He left at 0740 and the flight took 5 hours and 35 minutes.

What was the local time when he arrived in Doha?

. Boston is 5 hours behind London.

A flight from Boston to London left at 1935 and took 6 hours and 40 minutes.

What time did it arrive in London?

10.4 Currency conversions

Exchange rates are used to convert between one currency and another. They vary all the time,
depending on what happens in the world's stock exchanges.

] me the exchange rate is 1 US dollar = 0.7775 euros. IP fot ny

How many euros is 210 US dollars? AD aovues DIN sige

­ TQ ahr gris v oi
b How many dollars is 850 euros? ON

~ 210 US dollars = 210 x 0.7775 euros . >

= 163.275 euros 1 9 ir BU 1 wien Nar un wll gale or 9

b 850­eut00 mw R50+ BTATSAS Wilars RT PT S| A
= 1093.25 US dollars, mag the rua i 2 dec

EXERCISE 10D
a The exchange rate is 1 euro = 9.9919 Hong Kong dollars.

Change 320 euros into Hong Kong dollars, giving your answer to 2 decimal places.

@ The exchange rate is 1 Russian rouble = 0.0328 US dollars.

How many US dollars could you get for 5000 Russian roubles?

Chapter 10: Applying number and using calculators 147

 i» Copy and complete this guide for changing US dollars into euros.

$5.55 $10 $50 $100 $250 $500 $1000

€77.55

­ 1 US dollar = 85.7 Pakistani rupees.

If a gift costs 3686 Pakistani rupees, how many US dollars is that?

(CH The exchange rate is 1 British pound to 1.2128 euros.

a A flight from London to Paris costs £185.45.
How many euros is that?
b A flight from Paris to London costs €209.50.
How many British pounds is that?
. This table shows the conversion rates on one day between three currencies.

Currency euro US dollar Japanese yen

1 euro = 1 1.2863 109.7406
1 US dollar = 0.7774 1 85.315
1 Japanese yen = 0.0091 0.0117 1
a Use the table to convert:
i 450 US dollars to euros
ii 225 euros to Japanese yen (Give your answer to the nearest yen.)
ili 37 000 Japanese yen to US dollars.
b Here are three amounts: 500 euros, 650 dollars, 54 000 Japanese yen.
Use the values in the table to put them in order, from smallest to largest, and complete this
statement.

On one day the exchange rate is 1 US dollar = 31.885 Taiwan dollars = 46.53 Indian rupees.
a What is 75 US dollars in Taiwan dollars?
b What is 75 US dollars in Indian rupees?
¢ Which is worth more, a Taiwan dollar or an Indian rupee?
d Complete this exchange rate: 1 Taiwan dollar = ...... Indian rupees.

On 1 July 2005 the exchange rate was 1 US dollar = 8.2765 Chinese yuan.

On 1 July 2010 the exchange rate was 1 US dollar = 6.78099 Chinese yuan.
a How many fewer Chinese yuan could you buy for $50 on 1 July 2010 compared to
1 July 2005?
b Write the exchange rate on 1 July 2010 in the form:
1 Chinese yuan = ...... US dollars.

148 10.4 Currency conversions

 10.5

10.5 Using a calculator efficiently

The aim of this topic is to make you aware of some of the keys on your calculator and how to use
them to make calculations as efficiently as possible.
) ; 3.7+95
Consider the eetiation 038+0.16
If you just key in to your calculator 3.7 + 9.5 + 0.38 + 0.16 you will not get the correct answer.
One method is to calculate the numerator (that is, 3.7 + 9.5) first, then the denominator and finally
divide one by the other. Using the bracket keys, you can do it all in one operation:

(3.7 + 9.5) = (0.38 +0.16) gives 24.44 (to 2 decimal places)

It is also useful to check whether the answer is reasonable.
3.7+95 4+10_14 _
038+016 05 05 28 so the answer seems reasonable.

The check should be a calculation you can easily do in your head.

RCISE 10E
Use your calculator for this exercise. Try to key in each calculation as one continuous set, without
writing down any intermediate values.

Work these out.

a (10­2)x 180+ 10 b 180 ­(360 + 5)
Work these out.

a : x (4.6 + 6.8) x 2.2 b : x (2.3+9.9) x 4.5

Work out the value of each of these, when a =3.4, h=5.6, and c = 8.8.

a 2(ab + ac + bc) b asd ec =f d Va+b+c

b+c
Work these out, giving your answers to 2 decimal places.
a V3.224+ 16° b V4.87+36?

Work these out.

a 78 +3x78 b 5.45%­2 x 5.45­40
Do these calculations as efficiently as you can. Check that your answers are sensible.
15.89 b 27 383 + 936
3.24 + 1.86 18.1 + 17.95 1.47 + 13.11

0.34
0.0252
e 38+97x28 f \32.47­17.12

Chapter 10: Applying number and using calculators 149

 Check your progress
Core
| can use units of mass, length, area, volume and capacity
I can convert between units, including units of area and volume
| can calculate times using the 24­hour or the 12­hour clock
| can read timetables, clocks and dials
I can calculate with money and convert from one currency to another
| can use a calculator efficiently

150 10.5 Using a calculator efficiently

Examination questions: Number
0000000000000 RRNINNRRININNRNRINNNNNNNNNINNNINRNNONRNINRRIRROOIROIRIRRIOIOIRRINIYN:

Past paper questions reproduced by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education.

Other exam­style questions have been written by the authors.

PAPER 1
} a Work out 3 of 168. 1]
b Write 2 as a decimal. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q4 Oct/Nov 2015

Calculate.
a 32x(57­13)+438 [1
b V254­085
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q5 Oct/Nov 2015

Pip and Ali share $785 in the ratio Pip: Ali=4: 1.

Work out Pip’s share. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q8 Oct/Nov 2015

a Sara works for 28 hours each week.

She earns $12.45 per hour.
Calculate how much she earns in one week. [1]
b Sara invests $750 for 3 years at a rate of 2.4% per year compound interest.
Calculate the total amount she will have at the end of the 3 years. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q21 Oct/Nov 2015

The temperature in Berlin is =7°C and the temperature in Istanbul is ­3°C.

a Write down how many degrees colder it is in Berlin than it is in Istanbul. [1
b Sydney is 23 degrees warmer than Berlin.
Write down the temperature in Sydney. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q2 May/June 2015

a A mass of 300 kg is increased by 8%.

Work out the increase in mass. [1]
b Nelson scores 27 out of 40 in a history test.
Work out his score as a percentage. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q3 May/June 2015

The total mass of 38 spoons is 1824 g.

Work out the mass of 53 spoons. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q4 May/June 2015

Examination questions: Number 151

 Examination questions: Number

a Write 30 as a product of its prime factors. [2]

b Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 30 and 45. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q21 May/June 2015

Write the following in order of size, smallest first. [2]

n 3.14 Z 3.142 3
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q6 Oct/Nov 2014

a Write down a 2­digit odd number that is a factor of 182. [1

b Find all the prime factors of 182. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q12 Oct/Nov 2014

a Write 2.8 x 10? as an ordinary number. [1]

b Work out 2.5 x 10% x 2 x 102
Give your answer in standard form. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 17 Q13 Oct/Nov 2014

Dominic invests $850 at a rate of 3.5% per year compound interest.

Calculate the total amount he has after 3 years. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q17 Oct/Nov 2014
4.8 x1.98276
P="1683
a In the spaces provided, write each number in this calculation correct to 1 significant figure. [1]

b Use your answer to part (a) to to estimate the value of p. ’ [1

Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q5 Mayllune 2014

Use your calculator to work out 3 +27,

Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q10 May/June 2014
Carlo changed 800 euros (€) into dollars for his holiday when the exchange rate was €1 = $1.50.
His holiday was then cancelled.
He changed all his dollars back into euros and he received €750.
Find the new exchange rate. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q15 May/June 2014

In this question, do not use your calculator and show all the steps in your working.

a Show that
1
35 ­ 23
,5Ba 20°
23
[2]

7 23
b Work out 8720"

Give your answer as a mixed number in its simplest form. [2]

Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q18 May/June 2014

152 Examination questions: Number

 Examination questions: Number

PAPER 3
@ a Write down a number between 20 and 30 that is
i a multiple of 6, [1]
ii a square number, 1)
iii a cube number, [1]
iv a prime number. [1]
b Find
i 4913, Mm
[| A [1]
iii 6°, [1]
iv 2­4, [1]
c i Write 84 as a product of its prime factors. [2]
ii Find the highest common factor (HCF) of 84 and 126. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q2 Oct/Nov 2015

EY A carton of fruit juice contains apple, orange, pineapple and tropical juices.
a They are mixed in the ratio
apple : orange : pineapple : tropical =9:7:4: 5.
The carton contains 540 millilitres of apple juice.
i Show that the total amount of fruit juice in the carton is 1.5 litres. [3]
ii Calculate the amount of tropical juice in the carton.
Give your answer in millilitres. [2]
iii 70% of the tropical juice is mango.
Calculate the amount of mango juice in the carton. [2]
b A shopkeeper pays $36 for 16 cartons.
i How much does he pay for one carton? [1]
ii Hesells : of the 16 cartons for $3.40 each and the rest for $2.50 each. [2]
Calculate the total amount he receives from selling the cartons.
ili Calculate his percentage profit. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q1 Oct/Nov 2014

@® a Write down
i two factors of 12, [1]
ii the next prime number after 19, [1]
iii the cube root of 64, [1]
iv two million five hundred and seven in figures, 1]
v two multiples of 75, [1]
vi the value of n correct to 5 significant figures. [1]

Examination questions: Number 153

 b Write as a percentage.
i 1.63 Mm
§ a20 (1
€ i Write 63 521.769 correct to 1 decimal place. 0)
ii Write 63 521.769 correct to the nearest hundred. Q)
d i­ Change 234 mm into metres. )
ii Change 876 m? into square centimetres. [1
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q1 May/June 2015

a Luka earns $475 each week.

i He works for 38 hours each week.
How much does he earn for each hour he works? Q))
ii Luka pays $175 in rent each week.
Write the amount he pays in rent as a fraction of his weekly earnings.
Give your answer in its lowest terms. [2]
iii He spends 5 of his weekly earnings on bills.
How much money does he have left after paying rent and bills? [2]
b Luka's weekly earnings of $475 are increased by 6%.
Calculate his new weekly earnings. [2]
¢ Luka has saved $350.
He invests this for 2 years at a rate of 4% per year compound interest.
How much interest does he receive after 2 years? 31
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q2 Oct/Nov 2012

a From the integers 50 to 100, find

i a multiple of 43, (1
ii a factor of 165, (1
iii an odd number that is also a square number, (
iv a number which is a square number and also a cube number. 1]
b i Find the square root of 5929. (1
ii Find the lowest common multiple of 24 and 30. (2]
¢ Elena goes on a journey to the North Pole.
She leaves home at 7 am on 15 July and arrives at the North Pole at 10 pm on 27 July.
How long, in days and hours, did her journey take? [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q2 May/June 2014

154 Examination questions: Number

 Examination questions Number

Work out the highest common factor (HCF) of 36 and 90. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q7 Oct/Nov 2015

Hazel invests $1800 for 7 years at a rate of 1.5% per year compound interest.
Calculate how much interest she will receive after the 7 years.
Give your answer correct to the nearest dollar. [4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q16 Oct/Nov 2015

Write 30 as a product of its prime factors. [2

Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q17 May/June 2015

On a ship, the price of a gift is 24 euros (€) or $30.

What is the difference in the price on a day when the exchange rate is €1 = $1.2378?
Give your answer in dollars, correct to the nearest cent. (31
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q8 Oct/Nov 2014

Examination questions: Number 155

 PAPER 2

®. ,

In the Venn diagram shade the region A U B'. [1]

Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q2 Oct/Nov 2015
Write the recurring decimal 0.15 as a fraction. [2]
[0.15 means 0.1555...)
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q10 Oct/Nov 2015

V is directly proportional to the cube of (r + 1).

When r=1, V=24.
Work out the value of V when r = 2. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q12 Oct/Nov 2015
Rice is sold in 75 gram packs and 120 gram packs.
The masses of both packs are given correct to the nearest gram.
Calculate the lower bound for the difference in mass between the two packs. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q6 May/June 2015
A car travels a distance of 1280 metres at an average speed of 64 kilometres per hour.
Calculate the time it takes for the car to travel this distance.
Give your answer in seconds. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q13 May/June 2015

y varies directly with +5 Vx .

vy=4whenx=­1.
Find y when x = 11. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q13 Oct/Nov 2014

2 x2
YTET2
= —_—t —

Find the value of y when x = 6.

Give your answer as a mixed number in its simplest form. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q2 May/June 2014

156 Examination questions: Number

 Examination questions: Number

Write down all your working to show that the following statement is correct. [2]
8
1+ 9 _ 34

20] B
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q4 Oct/Nov 2012

A large water bottle holds 25 litres of water correct to the nearest litre.
A drinking glass holds 0.3 litres correct to the nearest 0.1 litre.
Calculate the lower bound for the number of glasses of water which can be
filled from the bottle. (3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q10 Oct/Nov 2012

The electrical resistance, R, of a length of cylindrical wire varies inversely as the

square of the diameter, d, of the wire.
R=10whend = 2.
Find R when d = 4. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q11 Oct/Nov 2012

Examination questions: Number 157

 PAPER 4
@ David sells fruit at the market.
a In one week, David sells 120 kg of tomatoes and 80 kg of grapes.
i Write 80 kg as a fraction of the total mass of tomatoes and grapes.
Give your answer in its lowest terms. [1]
ii Write down the ratio mass of tomatoes : mass of grapes.
Give your answer in its simplest form. [1]
b i One day he sells 28 kg of oranges at $1.56 per kilogram.
He also sells 35 kg of apples.
The total he receives from selling the oranges and the apples is $86.38.
Calculate the price of 1 kilogram of apples. [2]
ii The price of 1 kilogram of oranges is $1.56.
This is 20% more than the price two weeks ago.
Calculate the price two weeks ago. [3]
¢ On another day, David received a total of $667 from all the fruit he sold.
The cost of the fruit was $314.20.
David worked for 104 hours on this day.
Calculate David's rate of profit in dollars per hour. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q1 Oct/Nov 2013

a One day, Maria took 27 minutes to walk 1.8km to school.

She left home at 07 48.
i Write down the time Maria arrived at school. [1]
ii Show that Maria‘s average walking speed was 4 km/h. [2]
b Another day, Maria cycled the 1.8 km to school at an average speed of 15 km/h.
i Calculate the percentage increase that 15 km/h is on Maria’s walking
speed of 4 km/h. [3]
ii Calculate the percentage decrease that Maria‘s cycling time is on her
walking time of 27 minutes. (3]
iii After school, Maria cycled to her friend's home.
This took 9 minutes, which was 36% of the time Maria takes to walk
to her friend":
Calculate the time Maria takes to walk to her friend’s home. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q1 May/June 2013

12000 vehicles drive through a road toll on one day.

The ratio cars : trucks : motorcycles = 13:8: 3.
a i Show that 6500 cars drive through the road toll on that day. [1]
ii Calculate the number of trucks that drive through the road toll on that day. [1]

158 Examination questions: Number

 Examination questions: Number
b The toll charges in 2014 are shown in the table.

Cars $2
Trucks $5
Motorcycles $1
Show that the total amount paid in tolls on that day is $34500. [2]
¢ This total amount is a decrease of 8% on the total amount paid on the same day
in 2013.
Calculate the total amount paid on that day in 2013. [3]
d 2750 of the 6500 car drivers pay their toll using a credit card.
Write down, in its simplest terms, the fraction of car drivers who pay using a
credit card. [2]
e To the nearest thousand, 90000 cars drive through the road toll in one week.
Write down the lower bound for this number of cars. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q1 May/June 2015

a Distances from the Sun can be measured in astronomical units, AU.

Earth is a distance of 1 AU from the Sun.
One AU is approximateiy 1.496 x 10® km.
+ The table shows distances from the Sun.
Name Distance from the | Distance from the Sun
Sun in AU in kilometres
Earth 1 1.496 x 10°
Mercury 0887 |emvemmarmionne
JUPItEF | shscommnsmassmv 7.79 x 108
7 TI [OS —— 5.91 x 10°
a Complete the table. [3]
b Light travels at approximately 300 000 kilometres per second.
i How long does it take light to travel from the Sun to Earth?
Give your answer in seconds. [2]
ii How long does it take light to travel from the Sun to Pluto?
Give your answer in minutes. [2]
¢ One light year is the distance that light travels in one year (365 days).
How far is one light year in kilometres? Give your answer in Standard form. [3]
d How many astronomical units (AU) are equal to one light year? [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q9 Oct/Nov 2012

Examination questions: Number 159

Chapter 11

Algebraic representation and

formulae

1 Thel expression,symbol, variable, formula,

f al a " ;
wIngHane:of agers formulae, equation, term, solving

2 Substitution into formulae substitute

3 Rearranging formulae rearrange, subject

4 More complicated
formulae

In this chapter you will learn how to:

EXTENDED
Use letters to express generalised Construct and transform complicated
numbers and express basic arithmetic formulae and equations. (E2.1)
processes algebraically. (C2.1 and E2.1)
Substitute numbers for words and letters
in formulae. (C2.1 and E2.1)
Rearrange simple formulae. (C2.1)
Construct simple expressions and set up
simple equations. (C2.1)
 a ¥

Why this chapter matters

| Where is mathematics used? Is it used in:

Art Science Sport Language?

In fact, it is important for them all.

RE Art
Mathematicians think that famous works of art are often based on
the ‘golden ratio’. This is the ratio of one part of the art to another.
It seems that human brains find the ‘golden ratio’ very attractive.

Science
Science needs mathematics. In 1962 a space probe went off course
because someone had got a mathematical formula wrong in its
programming.

Sport
Is mathematics a sport? There are national and international competitions each year that use
@ mathematics. University students compete in the annual ‘Mathematics Olympiad’ and there is
a world Sudoku championship each year. Lots of sporting activities require maths too, such as
throwing a javelin (angles).

Language
But the best description of mathematics is that it is a
HOUTA OD CCCP O language.
: ~Itis the only language which people in all countries
oTele understand. Everyone understands the numbers on this stamp
wv­
even if they do not speak the language of the country.
V
Algebra is an important part of the language of mathematics.
MOO It comes from the Arabic al­jabr. It was first used in a book
written in 820 CE by a Persian mathematician called
al­Khwarizmi.
29.9,° \
The use of symbols grew until the 17th century when a French

he
~~»
mathematician called Descartes developed them into the sort
of algebra we use today.
 Algebra is based on the idea that if something works with numbers, it will work with letters.
The main difference is that when you work only with numbers, the answer is also a number. When
you work with letters, you get an expression as the answer.
Algebra follows the same rules as arithmetic, and uses the same symbols (+, —, x and +). Below are
seven important algebraic rules.
* Write ‘4 more than x" as 4 + x or x + 4.
* Write ‘6 less than p’ or ‘p minus 6' as p ­ 6.
* Write ‘4 times y' as 4 x y or y x 4 or 4y. The last one of these is the neatest way to write it.
* Write ‘b divided by 2" as b + 2 or 2
* When a number and a letter or a letter and a letter appear together, there is a hidden
multiplication sign between them. So, 7x means 7 x x and ab means a x b.
* Always write ‘1 x x’ as x.
e Write ‘rtimesr ast x tor 2.
Here are some algebraic words that you need to know.
Variable: This is what the letters used to represent numbers are called. These letters can take on any
value, so they ‘vary’.
Expression: This is any combination of letters and numbers. For example, 2x + 4y and =
are expressions.
Equation: An equation contains an equals sign and at least one variable. The important fact is that
a value can be found for the variable. This is called solving the equation. You will learn more about
equations in another chapter.
Formula: These are like equations in that they contain an equals sign, but there is more than one
variable and they are rules for working out amounts such as area or the cost of taxi fares. You refer
to more than one formula as formulae.
For example, V = 3, A = Jbh and C = 3 + 4m are all formulae.
Term: These are the separate parts of expressions, equations or formula.

162 11.1 The language of algebra

~ EXERCISE 11A
Write down the algebraic expression for:
a 2 more than x b 6 less than x
¢ k more than x d xminusr
e xaddedto3 f dadded tom
g y taken away from b h padded to r added to w
i 8 multiplied by x jh multiplied by j
k x divided by 4 | 2divided by x
* m ydivided by / nw multiplied by r
o a multiplied by a Pp g multiplied by itself.

Asha, Bernice and Charu are three sisters. Bernice is x years old. Asha is three years older than
Bernice. Charu is four years younger than Bernice.
a How old is Asha?
b How old is Charu?

An approximation method of converting from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit is given

by this rule:

Multiply by 2 and add 30.

Using C to stand for degrees Celsius and F to stand for degrees Fahrenheit, complete this
formula.

Faas

Cows have four legs. Which of these formulae connects the number of legs (L) and the
number of cows (C)?
a C=4L b L=C+4
¢ L=4C d L+C=4

Chapter 11: Algebraic representation and formulae 163

 Lakmini has three bags of marbles. Each bag contains » marbles. How many marbles
does she have altogether?

800 ­
b Rushani gives her another three marbles. How many marbles does Lakmini have now?
Lakmini puts one of her new marbles in each bag. How many marbles are there now
in each bag?
d Lakmini takes two marbles out of each bag. How many marbles are there now in
each bag?
Lee has n cubes. Advice and Tips
* Anil has twice as many cubes as Lee. Rémeiniber that you do
* Reza has two more than Lee. not have to write down a
¢ Dale has three fewer than Lee. multiplication sign
Chen has three more than Anil. between numbers and
How many cubes does each person have? 2, J Ea E
a | go shopping with $10 and spend $6. How much do | have left?
b 1go shopping with $10 and spend $x. How much do | have left?
¢ | go shopping with $y and spend $x. How much do | have left?
d 1 go shopping with $3x and spend $x. How much do | have left?
Give the total cost of:
a five books at $15 each
b x books at $15 each
¢ four books at $A each
d ybooks at $A each.
A boy went shopping with A dollars. He spent B dollars. How much did he have left?

Five ties together cost $A. What is the cost of one tie?

a My dad is 72 years old and | am T years old. How old shall we each be in x years’ time?
b My mum is 64 years old. In two years’ time she will be twice as old as | am.
What age am | now?
| am twice as old as my son. | am T years old.
a How old is my son?
b How old will my son be in four years’ time?
¢ How old was | x years ago?

164 11.1 The language of algebra

 Chapter 11. Topic 2

» Write down the perimeter of each of these figures.

a b [4 3
2x 4m

Square Equilateral Regular

triangle hexagon

­ Write down the number of marbles each student ends up with.

Student Action Marbles
Andrea Start with three bags each containing n marbles
and give away one marble from each bag
Barak Start with three bags each containing n marbles
and give away one marble from one bag
Ahmed Start with three bags each containing n marbles
and give away two marbles from each bag
Dina Start with three bags each containing n marbles
and give away n marbles from each bag
Emma Start with three bags each containing n marbles
and give away n marbles from one bag
Hana Start with three bags each containing n marbles
and give away m marbles from each bag

" The answer to 3 x 4m is 12m.

Write down two different expressions for which the answer is 12m.

11.2 Substitution into formulae

AAA AA ARE ARE AE A A A EEE EE EEE A EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EF EN FEENEY

A formula expresses the value of one variable as the other variables in the formula change.
; TR DR wa Te gee hel STR Tw FO)
Example 2 » ­y ) . ow . J

The formula for the area of a trapezium is: p. loa h

. od
4 (a +3bh
on i

Find the area of the trapezium when a = 5, b=9andh=3.

a=5+9) x3_14x 3.21 Oh : ad é EL ee EE ow
2 2

Always substitute the numbers for the letters before trying to work out the value of the expression.
You are less likely to make a mistake this way.

Chapter 11: Algebraic representation and formulae 165

 EXERCISE 11B
vy Find the value of 3x + 2 when: Advice and Tips
a x=2 b x=5 c x=10. It helps to put the
Find the value of 4k ­ 1 when: numbers in brackets.
a k=1 b k=3 32) +2=6+2=8
Cc k=11. 35)+2=15+2=17
Find the value of 5 + 2r when: etc...
a r=2 b r=5 Cc r=12.
Evaluate 15 ­ 2f when: a f=3 b f=5 c f=8.
Evaluate 5m + 3 when: a m=2 b m=6 c m=15.
Evaluate 3d ­ 2 when: a d=4 b d=5 c d=20.
A taxi company uses this rule to calculate their fares.

Fare = $2.50 plus $0.50 per kilometre.

a How much is the fare for a journey of 3 km?
b Farook pays $9.00 for a taxi ride. How far was the journey?
Mayra knows that her house is 5 kilometres from town. She has $5.50 left in her purse after
a night out. Has she got enough for a taxi ride home?
Kaz knows that x, y and z have the values 2, 8 and 11, Advice and Tips
but she does not know which variable has which value. SE ii
a What is the maximum value that the expression in yy po you
2x + 6y ­ 3z could have?
think for a mome 0 ent you
b What is the minimum value that the expression will find that th e 6y term
5x ­ 2y + 3z could have?
must gi largest
The formula for the area, A, of a rectangle with length / and
width wis A= Iw.
The formula for the area, 7, of a triangle with base » and height his T= Joh.

Find values of /, w, band hso that A = T.

­ Find the value of xd when: a h=S§ b h=10 Cc h=25,

i" Find the value of Bd when: a p=4 b p=8 c p=10.

“ Evaluate § when: a x=6 b x=24 ¢ x=­30.

­ Evaluate 4 when: a A=12 b A=10 c A=­20.

­ Evaluate = when: a y=2 b — Cc y=6.

­ Evaluate = when: a x=2 b x=3 c x=16.

166 11.2 Substitution into formulae

 A holiday cottage costs 150 dollars per day to rent.

A group of friends decide to rent the cottage for seven days.

a Which formula represents the cost of the rental for each
person if there are n people in the group? Assume that
they share the cost equally.
150 150 1050 150n
n . In n n
b Eventually 10 people go on the holiday. When they get the bill, they find that there
is a discount for a seven­day rental.
After the discount, they each find it cost them 12.50 dollars less than they expected.
How much does a 7­day rental cost?

a pis an odd number and q is an even number. Advice and Tips

yen
Say if each of these expressions is odd or even. There. are many answers
i p+gq ii pPP+g iili2p+gq iv p+? for b, a
b x yand z are all odd numbers. you a clue.
Write an expression, using x, y and z, so that the value of the expression is always even.
A formula for the cost of delivery, in dollars, of orders
. from a warehouse is:
C
D=2M­—=
5
where D is the cost of the delivery, M is the distance in
kilometres from the store and C is the cost of the goods to
be delivered.
a How much does the delivery cost when M = 30 and C = 200?
b Rahim buys goods worth $300 and lives 10 kilometres from the store.
i The formula gives the cost of delivery as a negative value. What is this value?
ii Explain why Rahim will not get a rebate from the store.
¢ Maya buys goods worth $400. She calculates that her cost of delivery will be zero. What is
the greatest distance that Maya could live from the store?

11.3 Rearranging formulae

LARA RAN AR ERA EE A A ER EA A A EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE ENN FE EE RF FRE RR XY

The subject of a formula is the variable (letter) in the formula that stands on its own, usually on the
left­hand side of the equals sign. For example, x is the subject of each of these equations.
x=5t+4 x=4Q2y­7) xl
To change the existing subject to a different variable, you have to tearange the formula to get that
variable on the left­hand side.

| Chapter 11: Algebraic representation and formulae 167

 (3 E)
Example 3
Make m the subject of this formula. T=m­3

Add 3tobothsides. T+3=m

Reverse the formula. m=7+3
| L/
(, I)
Example 4
From the formula P = 41, express 1 in terms of P.
(This is another common way of asking you to make r the subject.)

Divide both sides by 4: : = ¥

a,
Reverse the formula: r==
% 4 >
(
BRN

Example 5
From the formula C = 2m? + 3, make m the subject.

Subtract 3 from both sides so that the 2m? is on its own. C­3=2nm
EPRI KL c­3_2m?
=£€­3
. m’ = 2
Rem=y= | . v

Make k the subject. Advice and Tips

Express y in terms of X. Remember about inverse
, § operations, and the rule
Express p in terms of Q. ‘change sides, change
Make r the subject. signs’.
Make n the subject.

a Make m the subject. b Make r the subject.

Make m the subject. |

Make m the subject.

Make r the subject.

168 11.3 Rearranging formulae

 Chapter 11. Topic 4

­ A= bh Make b the subject.

­ P=2l+2w Make / the subject.

EY m=p?+2 Make p the subject.

The formula for converting temperatures in.degrees Fahrenheit (F) to temperatures in degrees
Celsius (C) is C = xr ­32).
a Show that when F =­40, C is also equal to ­40.
b Find the value of C when F = 68.
¢ Show that the formula can be rearranged as F = x +32
v=u+al a Make a the subject. b Make r the subject.
=— Make d the subject.

a Make n the subject. Express 7 in terms of n and W.

a Make y the subject. Express w in terms of x and y.

i Make p the subject.

a Make 1 the subject. Make u the subject.

a Make m the subject. Make n the subject.

00000000
T=572 Make r the subject.

=u K=5n2+w a Make w the subject. b Make n the subject.

11.4 More complicated formulae [EIS

AAA ARR RA A EE AR EA AE A EE A EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE FN FF REN

To find the value of a letter you need to make it the subject of the formula.
You often need to rearrange the formula to do this.
Some formulae will need a number of separate steps to rearrange them.
fi

Example 6
a=c+
=Lf
Make y the subject.

Subtract ¢ from both sides: a­c=$

Multiply both sides by y*: Ya­c)=d

Divide both sides by a ­ c: p=
Take the square root of y: y= —<
J
Chapter 11: Algebraic representation and formulae 169
 EXERCISE 11D
& a+bt=c2
a Find the value of a when » = 6.0 and ¢ = 6.5.
b Make a the subject.
4 S=ur+ Jar? is a formula used in mechanics.
a Find the value of s when u =­5, 1 =4 and a = 10.
b Make a the subject.
a=2t2¢
a Make b the subject.
b Make c the subject.
=

5
Make r the subject.

d=
12
1+
Make e the subject.

v2 =u? + 2as
a Find the value of ywhenu=3,a=2and s=4.
b Make « the subject.
¢ Make s the subject.
T= n/t
a Make L the subject.
b Show that G = 1
D = rR? ­ nf?
a Make R the subject.
b Make r the subject.
¢ Make n the subject.
32­42 = 11
a Find the value of x when y = 4.
b Make x the subject.
¢ Make y the subject.

T=2) 2
a Make a the subject.
b Make c the subject.

170 11.4 More complicated formulae

 n a? =b? + 2 = 2bcT

Make the
T subject.

2 uv = fu + fv is a formula used in optics.

a Find the value of fwhen « = 20 and v = 30.
b Make fthe subject.
¢ Make u the subject.
d Make the subject.
v

Check your progress

Core
¢ | can use letters to express arithmetic processes
_ * | can substitute numbers into formulae
* | can rearrange formulae
* | can use information to set up simple equations

Extended
* * | can construct and transform complicated equations and formulae

Chapter 11: Algebraic representation and formulae mm

Topics Key words

Simplifying expressions simplifying, coefficient, like terms

Expanding brackets expand, simplification

Factorisation common factors, factorise, factorisation

Multiplying two brackets: 1 quadratic expression, linear,

quadratic expansion

Multiplying two brackets: 2

Expanding three brackets

Quadratic factorisation difference of two squares, brackets

Algebraic fractions cancel, single fractions

ARTS EE
In this chapter you will learn how to:

® Manipulate directed Factorise where possible expressions of the form:

numbers. (C2.2 and ax + bx + kay + kby, a®>x® ­ b*y2; a? + 2ab + b%; ax* + bx + ¢. (E2.2)
E2.2) Manipulate algebraic fractions such as:
Use brackets and x x—4 2x 3(x­5) 3a Sab 3a 9a 1 2
~+ , = XT, em ­—, —— . (E2.3)
extract common 3 2 3 2 4 3°'4 10x­2 x­3
factors. Factorise and simplify rational expressions such as:
(C2.2 and E2.2) ik.
ste (£2.35)
Expand products of x¥­5c+6
algebraic expressions.
(C2.2 and E2.2)
 How can algebra save your life? Read on...

When you drive a car you must leave a safe distance

between you and the car in front. What is a safe
distance? How long will it take you to stop?
The stopping distance has two parts:
* thinking distance is the distance travelled
before your brain reacts and you.apply the
brakes
* braking distance is the time it takes the car to
come to a complete stop once the brakes have
been applied.
Stopping distances vary according to the weather
conditions, the road conditions and vehicle. This
table shows stopping distances for a car with good
brakes on a dry, level road with good visibility.

Typical stopping distances

| 32kph om) om be

| sion SID ARID Zoo

} sakph 12ND 24R 3 ar enghs
sokh 15m JD 38m 13 cor lengths
sokph 18m ID 55m Ts yor <P
112 kph PEE) 75m 94 or ls
thinking distanee) braking dista Average car length = 4 metres Data from the UK Highway Code

You will notice that the thinking distance increases steadily with speed. It increases by 3 metres
for every 16 km/h increase in speed. If you double the speed you double the thinking distance.
You can show this in a simple algebraic expression:
thinking distance in metres = 0.1875x
(where x is the speed in kilometres per hour).
The relationship between speed and braking distance is more complicated. It can be shown as:
braking distance = 0.006x?
So:
total stopping distance = 0.1875x + 0.00612
This is a quadratic expression and you can use it to work out stopping distance at any speed
(value of x). You will learn about both simple and quadratic expressions in this chapter.
 Simplifying an algebraic expression means making it neater and, usually, shorter by combining its
terms where possible.

Multiplying expressions
When you multiply algebraic expressions, first you multiply the numbers, then the letters.
3 5
Example 1 ’
Simplify each expression.
a 2xt bmxt € 2x5 d 3y x 2m
The ae is to write the ges first then the letters. The number in front of the letter is

a 5. emi €2rx5=10 d 3y x 2m=6my

3 o
You would not normally be penalised for writing 2ba instead of 2ab, but you should never write ab2
as this can be confused with powers, so always write the number first.
( 5
Example 2
Simplify each expression.
a txt b 3rx 2 €3x4 d2Pxad

Mukip the Sa using powers 1e indices are addec

a rxr=r (Remember: t= y : Fog 31x 21 = 67
LS 32 x 4r= 128 d 23x42 =85

EXERCISE 12A
vn Simplify these expressions. Advice and Tips
8 2nd b Syx3 ¢ rxd Remember to multiply
d Shxb e 2wxw f 4px2p numbers and add indices.
g 3x2 h 51x31 i mx2t
j S5txgq k nx6m I 3rx2¢q
m 5h x 2k n 3px7r

174 12.1 Simplifying expressions

 @ a Which of these expressions are equivalent?
2m x 6n 4m x 3n 2m x 6m 3m x 4n
b The expressions 2x and +? have the same value for only two values of x.
What are these values?
@® A square and a rectangle have the same area.
The rectangle has sides of length 2x cm and 8x cm.

What is the length of a side of the square?

® Simplify these expressions.

a yxy b 3m xm?
Cc 4% xt d 3nx2n?
e Pxp f Bxh?
) g 3n? xan? h 34% x 24°
i kx ak? j —P2x­t
k ­4d% x­3d I ­3p* x ­5p?
m 3mp xp n 3mn x 2m
| o 4mp x 2mp

Collecting like terms

ke terms are those that are multiples of the same variable or of the same combination of variables.
‘For example, qa, 34, 9a, re and ­5a are all like terms.

So are 2xy, 7xy and ­5xy, and so are 6x2, x2 and ­3x2.

Collecting like terms generally involves two steps.

e Collect like terms into groups.
* Then combine the like terms in each group.
Only like terms can be added or subtracted to simplify an expression. For example:

a+3a+9a­5a simplifiesto 8a
2xy + 7xy = S5xy simplifies to 4xy

Note that the variable does not change. You just have to combine the coefficients.
For example:
6:2 +x2­32=(6+1­3)2=4x2
However, an expression such as 4p + 81 + 5x — 9 cannot be simplified, because 4p, 8t, 5x and 9 are not
like terms, which cannot be combined.

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 175

 (Example 3
Simplify this expression.
72 +3y­6:+2243z­y rw 9
Write out the expression: Tx? +3y­6z+2x% + 3z­ hk
Then collect like terms: Bi a lise)
Then combine them: 9% + 2y ­ 32 +w+9
So, the expression in its simplest form is:
92 4+2y­3z+w+9
7}

EXERCISE 12B
® Jared is given $1, Jatan has $3 more than Jared, and Jasmin has $2r.
a How much more money has Jasmin than Jared?
b How much do the three of them have altogether?
) Write down an expression for the perimeter of each of these shapes.
a 5x b [4 x

4x y

Sx 3x

Write each of these expressions in a shorter form.

a a+a+a+a+a b c+c+ec+c+ctc
Cc 4de+ Se d f+2f+3f
e 5+j­2 f 99­3q­3¢
g 3r­3r h 2w+4w­7w
i 5x2+46:2­7x2422 ] 8 +52 ­72­y2
k 22­27243722­3722
Simplify each of these expressions.
a 3x+4x b 5­21
€ ­2x­3x d —k­4k
e m+2m?­m? f 2)2+32­502 If all the terms cancel out,
just write 0 rather than
Simplify each of these expressions. 0:2, for example.
a Sr+8+2x­3 b 7­2x­1+7%
Cc dp+2t+p­2 d 8+x+4x­2
e 3+2AU+p­t+2+4p f Sw­2k­2w­3k+5w
g a+tb+c+d­a­b­d h 9% ­y­Sy­k+10

176 12.1 Simplifying expressions

 ICE Simplify these expressions. (Be careful ­ two of them will not simplify.)
a c+d+d+d+c b 2d+2e+3d
C f+3¢g+4h d Su­4v+u+v
e 4m­5n+3m­2n f 3k+2m+5p
g 2v­5w+5w h 2w+4y­7y
i 5x2+6x2­Ty+2y j 8245:­7:­9)2
k 22­22 +3:2­32
(A Find the perimeter of each of these shapes, giving it in its simplest form.

a ya

4x + 1

b
x+5 x+4

. +7

[4 x+3

3x+5y+2x­y=5x+4y
Write down two other different expressions that are equal to 5x + 4y.

Find the missing terms to make these equations true.

a AxX+5y+ cannes RE =6x+3y
b 3a­6b­........ + oeerireens =2a+b

@ 45coEF is an Lshape.
CC AB=DF=x
AE=3x­1and EF =2x+1

3­11 [

| fp Xx

£ 2¢+ 1 F

a Explain why the length BC = 2x­ 1.

b Find the perimeter of the shape in terms of x.
¢ If x=2.5 cm, what is the perimeter of the shape?

i
Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 177
 Chapter 12 . Topic 2

"nn A teacher asks her class to work out the perimeter of this L­shape.
Tia says: ‘There is information missing so you cannot work out the
perimeter.’

Maria says: ‘The perimeter is4x­1+4x­1+3x+2 + 3x +2.

Who is correct?

Explain your answer. 3x+2

12.2 Expanding brackets

In mathematics, to ‘expand’ usually means ‘multiply out’. For example, expressions such as
3(y + 2) and 4y*(2y + 3) can be expanded by multiplying them out.

Remember that there is an invisible multiplication sign between the outside number and the opening
bracket. So 3(y + 2) is really 3 x (y + 2) and 4y2(2y + 3) is really 4y2 x (2y + 3).
You expand by multiplying everything inside the brackets by what is outside the brackets.
So in the case of the two examples above:

3(v+2)=3x(y+2)=3xy+3x2=3y+6
4%2y +3) =4y? x (2y +3) =4y? x 2y + 42 x 3 = 8) + 12)?
Look at these next examples of expansion, which show clearly how the term outside the brackets has
been multiplied with the terms inside them.
2(m+3)=2m+6 yO? ­4x) =y3 ­4xy

3(2t+5)=61+15 3x%(4x + 5) = 12:3 + 1522

m(p+7)=mp+7Tm ­3(2 + 3x) =­6­9x
x(x ­6) =x? ­ 6x ­2x(3 ­ 4x) = ­6x + 8x2
AP +2) =44 + 81 312 + 5t­p) = 61+ 152 ­ 3pt
Note: The signs change when the quantity outside the brackets is negative. For example:
ab + ¢) = ab + ac alb­c) =ab­ac
­a(b + ¢) =­ab ­ ac ­a(b­c) =­ab + ac
~(a­b)=­a+b —(a+b­c)=­a­b+c
Note: A minus sign on its own in front of the brackets actually means ­1, so:

“(x+2y­3)=­1x(x+2y­3)=­1xx+­1x2y+­1x­3=­x­2y+3
The effect of a minus sign outside the brackets is to change the sign of everything inside the
brackets.

178 12.2 Expanding brackets

EXERCISE 12C
A) Expand these expressions.
a 2(3+m) b 52+) [4 3(4­y) d 4(5 + 2k)
e 32­4 f 2(5­3w) g S5(2k + 3m) h 4(3d ­ 2n)
i fr+3) j kk­3) ‘k 4r­1) I 2k(4 ­ k)
m 4g(2¢ + 5) n Sh(3h­2) o ¥(y? + 5) P h(h3 +7)
q k(k?­5) r 317 +4) s 3d(54%­d3) t 3w(2w? + 1)
u 5a(3a% ­ 2b) v 3p(4p? ­5m) w 412(3h + 2g) 2mm + m?)

@ The local shop is offering $1 off the price of a large tin of biscuits. Maddox wants five tins.
a If the price of one tin is $1, which of the expressions below represents how much it will cost
Maddox to buy five tins?
5(r­1) 5t­1 t­5 5­5
b Maddox has $20 to spend. Will he have enough money for five tins?
Let + = $4.50. Show working to justify your answer.

® Dylan wrote the following.

3(Sx­4)=8x­4
Dylan has made two mistakes.
+ Explain the mistakes that Dylan has made.
x 3
@ The expansion 2(x + 3) = 2x +6
can be shown by this diagram.
2x 6

a What expansion is shown

in this diagram?
by 9

b Write down an expansion that

is shown on this diagram. 122 8

Simplification
Simplification means writing down an expression as simply as possible, combining any like terms. Like
terms are terms that have the same letter(s) raised to the same power and can differ only in their
numerical coefficients (numbers in front). For example:
m, 3m, 4m, —m and 76m are all like terms in m
2,482, 72, ­2, ­3 and 987 are all like terms in 2
pt, Stp, =2pt, Tpt, ­3tp and 103pt are all like terms in pr.
Note: All the terms in 1p are also like terms to all the terms in pr.

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 179

 When simplifying an expression, you can only add or subtract like terms. For example:

4m +3m=7Tm B3y+4y+3=7y+3
4h—h=3h 2P +52 = 77

2m+6+3m=5n+6 7t+8­2r=5+8
3ab + 2ba = Sab 5k ­ 2k = 3k
10g­4­3¢g=7¢­4

Expand and simplify

When you expand the product of two brackets there are often like terms that you can collect
together. You should always simplify algebraic expressions as much as possible.
[on

Example 4
Simplify the expression 3(4 +m) + 2(5 + 2m).

3+m) +2(5+2m)=12+3m+10+4m=22 + Im
{
­
+
’
Example 5
Simplify the expression 3«(5r + 4) — 2/(3r ­ 5).

31(5t + 4) — 2¢(31­ 5) = 157 + 121 — 6 + 10 = 972 + 22r

\_

EXERCISE 12D
® Simplify these expressions.
a 4+ 3 b 3d+2d+4d
Cc Se­2e d 3t­t
e 22 +38 f 62­2)?
g 3ab + 2ab h 7a%d­4d2d
» Find the missing terms to make these equations true.
a 4x+5y+..­...=6(x­y)
b 3a­6b­...+...=2(a +b)
nm The length of AB is 3 cm less than A BE
twice the length of AD.
a Write an expression for the length xcm
of AB, in centimetres. H
EF is twice as long as AB. D c
EH is 2 cm shorter than AD.
b Find an expression for the perimeter of EFGH. Give your answer in cm.

180 12.2 Expanding brackets

. Expand and simplify each expression.
a 34+0+25+1)
b 5(3 + 2k) + 3(2 + 3k)
c 4(3+2/)+2(5­3f)
d 5(1+3g)+3(3­4p)
» Expand and simplify each expression.
a 4(3 + 2h) ­ 25 + 3h)
b 5(3g + 4)­3(2¢ +5)
c 5(S5k+2)­2(4k­3)
d 4(4¢ + 3) ­ 2(5¢­ 4)
. Expand and simplify each expression.
a m@+p)+p3+m)
b k(3 + 2h) + h(4 + 3k)
c 4r(3+4p)+3p(8­r)
d Sk(3m + 4) ­2m(3 ­ 2k)
Ee 3 Expand and simplify each expression.
a n3r+4)+31(3+ 2)
b 2y(3 + 4y) + y(5y­1)
Cc 4¢(3e­5)­2ele­7)
d 3k(2k + p) ­ 2k(3p ­ 4k)

. Expand and simplify each expression.

a 4a(2b + 3c) + 3b(3a + 2¢)
b 3v(@w + 21) + 2w(3y ­ 41)
¢ 5m(2n­3p) ­ 2n(3p ­ 2m)
d 2r(3r+ 2) ­324­2r)
Fill in whole­number values so that this
expansion is true.
3x+.. N+. x+y) =1x+17y
. A rectangle with sides 5 and 3x + 2 has a smaller rectangle
with sides 3 and 2x ­ 1 cut from it.
Work out the remaining area.
3v+2

2x­1

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 181

 12.3 Factorisation
AA
PA

Factorisation is the opposite of expansion. When you factorise an expression you put it back into the
brackets it may have come from.
In factorisation, you have to look for the common factors in every term of the expression.
(o N
Example 6
Factorise each expression.
a 6r+9m b 6my+4py «¢ 5k­25k d 104%b ­ 15ab?

a First look at the numerical coefficients 6 and 9.

These have a common factor of 3.
Then look at the letters, : and m.
Neither of these is a common factor as they do not appear in both terms.
You can think of the expression as 3 x 21 + 3 x 3m, which gives the factorisation:
67+ 9m = 3(2t + 3m)
Note: You can always check a factorisation by expanding the answer.
b First look at the numbers.
These have a common factor of 2. m and p do not occur in both terms but
y does, and is a common factor, so the factorisation is:
6my + 4py = 2y(3m + 2p)

¢ 5is a common factor of 5 and 25 and k is a common factor of 2 and «.

5k2 — 25k = Sk(k = 5)

d 5 is a common factor of 10 and 15, a is a common factor of a? and a, b is a common factor of

b and b2.
10a%b ­ 15ab? = 5ab(2a — 3b)
Note: If you multiply out each answer, you will get the expressions you started with. 3
\
EXERCISE 12E
= iY) Factorise these expressions.
wv a 6m+12t b 9+3p
c 8m+ 12k d 4r+8t
e mn+3m f Sg2+3g
g 4w­=61 h 3y2+2y

182 12.3 Factorisation

i 47­3 ji 3m?­3mp
k 6p? + 9pr | 8pt+6mp
m 8ab ­ 4bc n Sh ­ 10bc
0 8abc + 6bde P 4a’+6a+8
q 6ab + bc + 3bd r S2+4r+ar
s 6m? ­3mt+9m* t 8ab®+ 2ab­4a?h
10pr2 + 15pt + 5p?

Three friends have a meal together. They each have a main meal costing $6.75 and a dessert
costing $3.25.
Carla says that the bill will be 3 x 6.75 + 3 x 3.25.

Suni says that she has an easier way to work out the bill as 3 x (6.75 + 3.25).
a Explain why Carla’s and Suni’s methods both give the correct answer.
b Explain why Suni’s method is better. ¢ What is the total bill?
Factorise these expressions where possible. List those that do not factorise.
a Tm­61
b 5m + 2mp
c 2­7
d 8pr + Sab
e 4m? ­6mp
f a2+b
g 4a? ­5Sab
h 3ab + 4cd
i Sab­3b%
Three students are asked to factorise the expression 12m — 8. These are their answers.

Ahmed Bernice Craig

26m­4) 4Gn­2 4nG­2)
All the answers are accurately factorised, but only one is the normally accepted answer.
a Which student gave the correct answer?
b Explain why the other two students’ answers are not acceptable as correct answers.
Explain why 5m + 6p cannot be factorised.

Alvin has correctly factorised the top and bottom of an algebraic fraction and cancelled out
the terms to give a final answer of 2x. Unfortunately some of his work has had coffee spilt on
it. What was the original fraction?

«ay «Mm. 2(x­3)

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 183

 These shapes are made from rectangles x cm long and 2 cm wide.
a b

Find an expression for the perimeter of each shape in centimetres.

Factorise each expression as much as possible.

12.4 Multiplying two brackets: 1

AANA LER EAE EEE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE FE EE EE FERRER)

A quadratic expression is one in which the highest power of the variables is 2.

For example:

y2 32 + 5¢ Sm? + 3m + 8

An expression such as (3y + 2)(4y ­ 5) can be expanded to give a quadratic expression.

Multiplying out such pairs of brackets is usually called quadratic expansion.
The rule for expanding expressions such as (r + 5)(3 — 4) is similar to that for expanding single
brackets: multiply everything in one set of brackets by everything in the other set of brackets.

184 12.4 Multiplying two brackets: 1

 There are several methods for doing this. Examples 7 to 9 show the three main methods:
expansion, FOIL and the box method.
1
~ Inthe expansion method, split the terms in the first set of brackets, make each of them multiply both
~ terms in the second set of brackets, then simplify the outcome.

a wr)
Example 7 b fe
Expand (x + 3)(x + 4). a

(x + 3)(x + 4) = x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4) a p—

=x +4x+3x+ 12 = ­
=x2+7x+ 12
\_ 8
FOIL stands for First, Outer, Inner and Last. This is the order of multiplying the terms from each set
of brackets.

Last terms give: +5x­2=­10 : ol / si

(t45)t­2)=r2­2t4+5­10 ©
=P +3t­10
J

The ‘box method’ can be used to lay out the multiplication.

(1 5 ~
Example 9 pT
Expand (4­4­2. ST
(k­3)(k­2) =k2=2k­3k+6 i. * 1­3

Warning: Be careful with the signs. This is the main place where NEN
ei are made in questions involving the expansion of brackets. its [a Thi I)

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 185

 EXERCISE 12F
Expand the expressions in questions 1­17.

@® «3:2 @ 9+ Advice and Tips

a Ov + Nw + 3) ­ (m + 5)(m + 1) A common error is to get
@ «:3¢+5 @ a0 i hm mi
2 (x+4)(x­2) . (r+5)(r­3) 2x x =3 = +6
» Ov +3)(w­1) ­ (F+2(­3)
@® 0­9 ® 90­3
@ ­3:+9 ® 204
@ «9:2 ® 249
@® «+3
The expansions of the expressions in questions 18­26 follow a pattern. Work out the first few and
try to spot the pattern that will allow you immediately to write down the answers to the rest.

@® «:3:­3 @® 5­5 @® 90­9

@® (2­2 @® 830­9 @® ­­0
@ :96­» @ ov:00­0 @® «­oc­+0
» This rectangle is made up of four parts with areas of +2, 2x, 3x
and 6 square units. 2
Work out expressions for the sides of the rectangle, in terms of x. a .
x

a» This square has an area of 1? square units. ­ : >

It is split into four rectangles. $
a Copy and complete the table below to show the dimensions and area ; i ;
of each rectangle.

Rectangle | Length Width Area ‘ 0 c

A x­1 x=­2 (x=1N(x­2) ­—
B
C
D
b Add together the areas of rectangles B, C and D.
Expand any brackets and collect terms together.
¢ Use the results to explain why (x ­ 1)(x— 2) = x2 = 3x + 2.

186 12.4 Multiplying two brackets: 1

 Chapter 12 PIC ° 12 .s
» a Expand (x ­3)(x + 3).
b Use the result in a to write down the answers to these. (Do not use a calculator or do a
long multiplication.)
i 97 x 103 ii 197 x 203

12.5 Multiplying two brackets: 2

AAA EAR EE EE A EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE ER RR yy yy I mn mn mmm rT

All the algebraic ‘squared’ terms (such as x?) in Exercise 12F have a coefficient of 1 or —1. The next two
examples show what to do if you have to expand brackets containing terms with coefficients that are
not 1 or ­1.

Example 10
Expand (21 + 3)(31 + 1).

Example 11
| Expand (4x­ 1)B3x­ 5).
(x= 1)3x­ 5) = 4x(3x~ 5) ~ (3x ~5) [Note: (3x 5) is the same as 1(3x~5)] x
=12:2­20x=3x+5 ™ Bp dilY wh
=122­23x +5 & Ener: t ®.

EXERCISE 12G
Expand the expressions in questions 1­21.

@ 36:4) ® c:204+3 Advice and Tips

@ (31+ 1)(2r + 5) . (4r + 3)(2r­ 1) Always give answersin =)
® 200­3 @ «36­5
i

B _
vei mes
the form ax? £bx xc

® c­22+9 @ 202043 coefficient is negative.

@® 2­364 @ «­3e­
® c:­26:­2 @ «i­nici+2)

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 187

 @ cGy @ c:z042 @ ce
@ 500­2) @ «306­29 @® 3­3
@ :­2006:5 @® 0­36 @ «­26+
= Expand these expressions.
a (x+Nx­1)
b (2x + 1)(2x­1)
¢ (2x +3)(2x­3)
d Use the results in parts a, b and c to write down
the expansion of (3x + 5) (3x ­ 5).

@@ a Without expanding the brackets, match each expression on the left with an expression on
the right. One is done for you.
(Bx­2)x+ 1) 432 ­4x +1
(2x­1)(2x­1) 6x2 ­x­2
6x­3)(x+1) 6x2 + 7x +2
(@x + x ­— __ 6x2 + 3x­3
+ 1)
(Bx + 2)(2x 4x2 ­3x­1
b Taking any expression on the left, explain how you can match it with an expression on the
right without expanding the brackets.

EXERCISE 12H
Try to spot the pattern in each of the expressions in questions 1­15 so that you can immediately
write down the expansion. .
@ cen @® c­a:­2 ® c:35­3
@ ¢rni36n­3 @ x­3w+3 @ ¢­n@nen
@ 3902­39 @® 26­2) @ 6­596:
i (a + b)(a­b) ­ (31+ Kk) ­k) w (2m = 3p)(2m + 3p)
@ Gi oci­o @ «+ca­ca @® «:­»
( Imagine a square of side a units with a square of side b units <X
cut from one corner. |
a What is the area remaining after the small square is cut away?
b The remaining area is cut into
rectangles, A, B and C, and B . B Cc
rearranged as shown.
Write down the dimensions and
area of the rectangle formed by
A, B and C. c
¢ Explain why a? ­ b? = (a + b)(a ­ b).

188 12.5 Multiplying two brackets: 2

 Ld Explain
i
why the areas of the shaded
2k 2k +1
regions are the same.

Expanding squares
Whenever you see a linear bracketed term squared you must write the brackets down twice and then
use whichever method you prefer to expand.
4 A
Example 12
Expand (x + 3)2.

(+372 =(x+3)(x+3)
| =x(x+3) + 3(x +3)
=x’ +3x+3x+9 .

(Example 13 y
xpand (3x ­ 2). rn \ oil
(3x­2)2=(3x­2)(3x­ 2) F x OE Ur
=92­6x­6x+4 ol 1 YT
=92­12x+4 NA "
, },

EXERCISE 121
Expand the squares in questions 1­24 and simplify.

® ® ® >
® cr @® ~­» @® (5
® «nw ®
» (Bx + 1) » (ar + 3)2 EL @ +5)
® «> ® c­» ® cs»
© (x+y)? ­ (m—n)? ­ (21 + yp? » (m — 3n)?

@ 2­4 @ 5x @ vior­% @ «­2¢­4

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 189

 Chapter 12 . Topic 6

» A teacher asks her class to expand (3x + 1)2.

Marcela’s answer is 9x2 + 1.

Paulo's answer is 3x2 + 6x + 1.

a Explain the mistakes that Marcela has made.
b Explain the mistakes that Paulo has made.
¢ Work out the correct answer.
Use the diagram to show algebraically and 2%
diagrammatically that:
(x­12=4x2­ 4x + 1
(2x1)?
2x

12.6 Expanding three brackets wc

MARA AAA A A Al A EE EE EEE EE EE ER RR RRR III

Here is an expression with three brackets. (x + 2)(x ­ 4)(2x + 3)

You can expand three brackets in two stages.

First multiply two brackets. You can use FOIL or the box method. x | +2
(r+2)(x­4)=x?+2x­4x­8 x | 2 | x
=22­2x­8 ­4 | ­ax | ­8
Now multiply this expression by the third bracket.
If you use the box method you will have six cells in the second box.
To use a similar method to FOIL, you multiply each term in the first bracket by each term in the
second bracket and then simplify.
ANN 2 | ­2¢| ­8
Bathe 2 | 23 | ­4x2 | ­16x
+3 | +322 | 6x | ­24
+3x2­6x­24
=23­x2­22x­24

You can multiply the brackets in any order. For example, you could start with the second and third
and then multiply the result by the first. You will get the same answer.

190 12.6 Expanding three brackets

EXERCISE 12]
& Expand
a (v+3)x­1) b x(x+3)x­1) c (x+2)(x+3)(x­1)
2 Expand
a (x=­2)(x­5) b (x+ 1)(x­2)(x­5) c (2x+ )(x­2)(x­5)
> Expand
a (x­DE+3)(x­5 b (x+2+7)Bx+4) ¢ (x­8)(x=1)(x=5) n

a (x+2)7 b (x+2)3 c (2x+13

a (x+2(x­2)(x+1) b (2x­1)(x+2)(x­3) n (x= 2)(x + 4)(x + 2)

. Expand
a (x+MNx+2d(x+3) b (x=Nx­2)(x­3)
7 Expand
a (x+372(x­2) b (x­57(x+4) ¢ (3x­2) (x +10)
8 a Showthat (x+ 13 ­(x­12=2(32+1) Cup hb
b Find a similar expression for(x + 2)? ­ (x ­ 2)3
0 A cube with side x + 1 is cut into eight pieces.

Explain how this illustrates the expansion of (x + 1)3

0) (c+ N­2(c +a) = 23 + ba? 4 cx 12

Find the values of 4, b and ¢

n a Expand (x2 +x + 1)(x­1)

b Expand (x2 + 2x + 4)(x­ 2)
¢ Hence write x3 ­ 27 as the product of two brackets.

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 191

 Chapter 12 lOPIC

2 2+ N2r + |

2¢+ 1

Each side of a wooden cube is 2x + 1 cm

A hole with a square cross­section and a side of x cm is cut through the cube.

Find an expression for the amount of wood remaining.

12.7 Quadratic factorisation &

CE tres rrr rtr rere rtrrrrrrr rrr sr ir rN rer rnc so ronsisentsesnesnsesssnsensse
Factorisation involves putting a quadratic expression back into its brackets (if possible).
Start with the factorisation of quadratic expressions of the type:

2rax+b

where a and b are integers.

Sometimes it is easy to put a quadratic expression back into its brackets, at other times it seems hard.
However, there are some simple rules that will help you to factorise. . |
* The expression inside each set of brackets will start with an algebraic unknown such as x, and
the signs in the quadratic expression show which signs to put after the unknowns.
* When the second sign in the expression is a plus, the signs in both sets of brackets are the same
as the first sign.
Prax+b=(x+N(x+?) Since everything is positive.
P­ax+b=(x­Nx­?) Since negative x negative = positive
e When the — sign is a minus, the signs in the brackets are different.
2rax­b=(+Nx=­?) Since positive x negative = negative
R­ax­b=@x+D(x­?)
* Next, look at the /ast number, b, in the expression. When multiplied together, the two numbers
in the brackets must give b. '
* Finally, look at the coefficient of x, which is a. The sum of the two numbers in the brackets will
give a.

192 12.7 Quadratic factorisation

&

Example 14
Factorise x2 — x ­ 6.

Because of the signs you know the brackets must be (x + ?)(x ­ ?).

Two numbers that have a product of ­ 6 and a sum of — 1 are ­ 3 and + 2.

Ede

( Example 15 A
Factorise x2 — 9x + 20.

Because of the signs you know the brackets must be (x — ?)(x = ?).
Two numbers that have a product of + 20 and a sum of ­9 are ­4 and ­5.

© So, 12 9x + 20 = (x ­ 4)(x ­ 5)

EXERCISE 12K
Factorise the expressions in questions 1­40.

a “+5¢+6 2+5+4 m? + 7m + 10
k + 10k + 24 P+ 14p + 24 P?+9r+18
w? + 11w +18 2+ T+ 12 a’ + 8a +12
kK + 10k + 21 24+22f+ 21 b? + 20b + 96
?­5+6 d®­5d + 4 2­72 +10
x2 ­15x +36 c?­18c + 32 ?­13r+36
v2 ­ 16y + 48 2­14) +48 P­8p+15
y+ 5y­6 2?+2­8 2 +3x­10
m? = 4m ­12 P­6r­7 n?­3n­18
m? —7Tm ­ 44 w? = 2w ­ 24 2­11­90
hR­h­172 ?­2r­63
@ +2441 2 + 20y + 100 Advice and Tips
@ 2­846 m?— 18m + 81 First decide on the signs
B70 ­24c4144 in the brackets, then look
d­d­12
at the numbers.
@ ~2­1­20 4° ­q­56

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 193

 This rectangle is made up of four parts. Two of the parts
have areas of x2 and 6 square units.
The sides of the rectangle are of the form x + a and x + b.
There are two possible answers for a and b. 6
Work out both answers and copy and complete the areas in the other
parts of the rectangle.

Difference of two squares

In Exercise 12H, you multiplied out, for example, (a + b)(a ­ b) and obtained a? ­ b2. This type of
quadratic expression has only two terms, both of which are perfect squares separated by a
minus sign. This type of expression is called the difference of two squares. You should have found
that all the expansions in Exercise 12H involved the differences of two squares.
The exercise illustrates a system of factorisation that will always work for the difference of two
squares such as these.
2­9 2­25 2­4 2­100
There are three conditions that must be met if the difference of two squares works.
* There must be two terms.
* They must separated by a negative sign.
* Each term must be a perfect square, such as x? and n2.
When these three conditions are met, the factorisation is:
x2 =n? =(x+n)(x­n)

a N
Example 17
Factorise 92­169,
® Recognise the difference of two squares (3x)? and 132.
| ® Soitfactorisesto Gr + 13)3x­ 13). 4

194 12.7 Quadratic factorisation

EXERCISE 12L
Each of the expressions in questions 1­9 is the difference of two squares. Factorise them.

10 a A square has a side of x units. POS J.

What is the area of the square?

b A rectangle, A, 2 units wide,
is cut from the square and placed at
the side of the remaining
rectangle, B.
A square, C, is then cut from
the bottom of rectangle A to leave 2}
a final rectangle, D.
i What is the height of rectangle B?
ii What is the width of rectangle D?
iii What is the area of rectangle B
iv. What is the area of square C? plus rectangle A?
¢ By working out the area of rectangle D, explain why x? ­ 4 = (x + 2)(x ­ 2).
n a Expand and simplify: (x + 2)2 ­ (x + 1)2.
b Factorise: a? ­ b2.
In your answer for part b, replace a with (x + 2) and b with (x + 1).
Expand and simplify the answer.
d What can you say about the answers to parts a and ¢?
e Simplify: (x + 12 = (x= 1)2
Each of the expressions in questions 12­20 is the difference of two squares. Factorise them.

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 195

 Factorising ax? + bx + ¢
We can adapt the method for factorising +? + ax + b to take into account the factors of the coefficient
of +2.
~ ™
Example 18
Factorise 3x2 + 8x + 4.

® First, note that both signs are positive. So the signs in the brackets must be
(2x + (x +2).
As 3 has only 3 and 1 as factors, the brackets must be (3x + ?)(x + ?).
Next, note that 4 can be factorised as 4 x 1 and 2 x 2.
Now find which pair of factors of 4 combine with 3 and 1 to give 8.

® | ¢@
ORR NE)
You can see that the combination 3 x 2 and 1 x 2 adds up to 8.
® So, the complete factorisation becomes (3x + 2)(x + 2).
\.

—
Factorise 6x2 ~ 7x ­ 10.

® First, note that both signs are negative. So the signs in the brackets must be
(2x + (x= 2).
® As 6 can be factorised as 6 x 1 and 3 x 2, the brackets could be (6x + ?)(x + ?) or
(Brx (2x x ?).
® Next, note that 10 can be factorised as 5 x 2 and 1 x 10.
® Now find which pair of factors of 10 combine with the factors of 6 to give ­7.
3 ® +1 ®
2(1) | £10 (25)
You can see that the combination 6 x ­2 and 1 x 5 adds up to ­7.

® So, the complete factorisation becomes (6x + 5)(x — 2).

Although this seems to be very complicated, it becomes quite easy with practice
and experience.
\_

196 12.7 Quadratic factorisation

 Chapter 12 . Topic 8

EXERCISE 12M
Factorise the expressions in questions 1­12.

2 722 + 8x + 1

@ 2241942
6 16x2­8x + 1

10 of +n §
@ 32­16c­12 @ 72­3704 10
3 This rectangle is made up of four parts, with areas of
12x2, 3x, 8x and 2 square units. 122
Work out expressions for the sides of the rectangle, in terms of x.
Three students are asked to factorise the expression 6x2 + 30x + 36. 8x
These are their answers.
Adam Bella Cara
6x+12)(x+3) (Bx+6)(2x+6) (2x+4)(3x+9)
All the answers are correctly factorised.
"a Explain why one quadratic expression can have three different factorisations.
b Which of these is the most complete factorisation?
2(3x + 6)(x + 3)
6(x + 2)(x + 3)
3(x + 2)(2x + 6)
Explain your choice.
¢ What is the geometrical significance of the answers to parts a and b?

12.8 Algebraic fractions El

AAA LA AA RL EE EE EE EE LE EE EEE EEE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE NE ER RR RRR rn

The following four rules are used to work out the value of fractions.
Addition: a,c
bt d~ adsbd
2 + ad ­ be
btraction:
Subtractiol %­£=9
> 4 od

Multiplication:
ultiplication: ¢x
& £ == 22
© %€

Note that aq, b, c and d can be numbers, other letters or algebraic expressions. Remember:
* use brackets, if necessary
e factorise if you can
* cancel if you can.

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 197

 (s hn
Example 20
Simplify each expression.
ad p
a+ 2
2 a
or

» rule::
a Using the addition Lp 4 Dy) + (WE) =_ 2y +2
9 = xrE 2y (x)(2y) 2xy

: rule:. 2_a
b Using the subtraction DB" _(2)2b)­(a)b)
OXI) _4b­ab
25

­¥4­a)_4­a
2b
Note: There are different ways of working out fraction calculations. Part b could have been
done by making the denominator of each fraction the same .
@2_a _4­a
2b 2b 2b Pp

~ _— 0)
Example 21
Simplify each expression.
aX i+2
3 x­2
x. 2%
b3*3

m ber s the red from the bottom of an algebraic fraction

acts as rackets well gp asa sign. Note that it is sometimes preferable to leave an

"
BE Using the ey
division rule:> x33 2_ a)
320° _76

Example 22 PL.
Write 2 ­ ret as a single fraction as simply as possible.

Using the subtraction rule:

Fr 2 236+ H­2(x­1)
x=­1 x+1 (x=Tx+1)
_3x+3­2c+2
x=T)x+1)

a TED
x=­NDkx+1
«
198 12.8 Algebraic fractions
 ~
Example 23
Simplify this expression. ~~ 2+%­3
42­9

Factorise the numerator and denominator: 2X +3)x­1)

(2x + 3)(2x­3)
Denominator is the difference of two squares.
) x—­1)
Cancel any common factors: rr 3)

If at this stage there isn't a common factor on top and bottom, you should check your
factorisations.

The remaining fraction is the answer: — 4

| EXERCISE 12N
Q Simplify each of these.
Xb ie 3x x
a di b Is
x, & x.
Cats d3+3
e
xy
a
2 f
x+1 x+2
2 + 3

2x+1 3x+1 x 2x+1

9 5 *73 hs*=3
. x=2 x­3 x­4 2x­3
A Jd 7
@ Simplify each of these.
xX Xx 3x x
$273 b 2­5
3x 2x xX Vy
Ca" s 49373
xy_2 x+1 _x+2
. 4 y f 2 3
2x+1 3x +1 x 2x+1
9 3 h 5­73
i x­2 x­3 j x­4 2x­3
2 4 4 2

3 Simplify each of these

xX Xx 2x 3y
a 32%3 b 5%
4x 2v 4y2 3x2
¢ 3y x d 9x © 2y
x _x­2 x—­3 5
* 3% 5 35 "56

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 199

 2x+1_ 3x+1 x_2x+1
973 *72 h 5x53
2 4 x­5
§ = — x= 5
2 "x=3 I 0 “2­5
Simplify each of these. Factorise and cancel where appropriate.
3x «x 3x «x
ul Bt b Za
3x, 0x 3x, x
a ult an
3x+1 x­2 3x+1 x­2
*TR. ty 2 5
3x+1_x­ 2­9 5
Li Ral h 0 *i3
ip 2227
9.3
Write these expressions as single fractions as simply as possible.
2 5 4 7
" +7 x42 b 2­3 xe
(= _2 __ 6
C Trl 1+2 TES TY
3 4
® 1%
For homework a teacher asks her class to simplify the expression gm
J X=
This is Tom's answer:
­1
2­x­2
x2 +X ­6.3

=x=1_x+1
x+3 x+3
When she marked the homework, the teacher was in a hurry and only checked the answer,
which was correct.
Tom made several mistakes. What are they?
axpre+ bx—c .
An expression of the form _— ’ x­1
lif to
simplifies
2x­3
What was the original expression?

Write these expressions as single fractions.

4 5 18 1 2x­1 6 3 4
A STE PR a £ TF “rei Fa Ra
Simplify these expressions.
2+ 2x­3 4x2 ­1 6x2 + x­2 d 4x2 + x­3 . 4x2 ­ 25
22+ 7x +3 2x? + 5x­3 92­4 42 ­7x +3 8:2­22v +5

200 12.8 Algebraic fractions

Check your progress
Core
¢ | can simplify expressions
¢ | can expand brackets
¢ | can find common factors and factorise

Extended .
* | can expand expressions with two sets of brackets
* | can expand expressions with three sets of brackets
* | can work out the value of fractions using algebraic expressions

Chapter 12: Algebraic manipulation 201

 inequalities
Topics Key words

1 Solving linear equations equation, variable, solution, brackets, solve

2 Setting up equations

3 Solving quadratic linear equations, quadratic expressions, quadratic

equations by factorisation equation, factors, difference of two squares
4 Solving quadratic equations
by the quadratic: formula q uadratic formula, coefficients,
c constant,t, soluble
solubl

5 Solving quadratic equations

by completing the square completing the square

6 Simultaneous equations [core | simultaneous linear equations, eliminate, substitute

7 Linear and non­linear

linear, non­linear
simultaneous equations

= 8 Solving inequalities inequality

WINSAY F FW J
In this chapter you will learn how to:

® Derive and solve simple linear equations Derive and solve simultaneous equations,
in one unknown. (C2.5 and E2.5) involving one linear and one quadratic.
® Derive and solve simultaneous linear (E2.5)
] equations in two unknowns. (C2.5 and Derive and solve quadratic equations by r
E2.5) factorisation, completing the square and v
by use of the formula. (E2.5)
Derive and solve linear inequalities. (E2.5)

pe h ———
To
 Why this chapter matters
We use equations to explain some of the most important things in the world.
Three of the most important are shown on this page.

y/ Why does the Moon keep orbiting the

Earth and not fly off into space?
This is explained by Newton's law of universal
gravitation, which describes the gravitational
attraction between two bodies:
m, xX m,
F=Gx
2
where F is the force between the bodies, G is the
gravitational constant, m, and m, are the masses of the
two bodies and r is the distance between them.

Why don’t planes fall out of the sky?

This is explained by Bernoulli's principle, which states that as the speed
of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases. This is what causes the difference
in air pressure between the top and bottom of an aircraft wing, as shown in
the diagram on the left.
In its simplest form, the equation can be written as:

P+q=p,
where p = static pressure, ¢ = dynamic pressure and Po is the total pressure.

How can a small amount of plutonium have enough energy to

wipe out a city?
This is explained by Einstein's theory of special relativity,
which connects mass and energy in the equation:
E = mc?

where E is the energy, m is the mass and c is the speed of

light. As the speed of light is nearly 300000 kilometres
per second, the amount of energy in a small mass is huge.
If this can be released, it can be used for good (as in
nuclear power stations) or harm (as in nuclear bombs).

Rag
Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 203
 Chapter 13. Topic 1

13.1 Solving linear equations

A teacher gave these instructions /
to her class. * Think of a number. *
What algebraic expression Eble It
y
represents the teacher's \ * Add 3.
statement?

This is what two of her students said.

Can you work out Kim's answer and
the number that Freda started with? | chose the
Kim's answer will be: number 5.

2x54+3=13

Freda’s answer can be set up

as an equation.
An equation is formed when an expression is
put equal to a number or another expression.
You should be able to deal with equations that My final
have only one variable or letter. answer
was 10.
The solution to an equation is the value of the
variable that makes the equation true.
For example, the equation for Freda’s answer is
2x +3=10
where x represents Freda’s number. Kim

The value of x that makes this true is x = 3.

To solve an equation such as 2x + 3 = 10, do the same thing to each

side of the equation until you have x on its own.
2x+3=10 Freda
Subtract 3 from both sides: 2v+3­3=10­3

20=7

Divide both sides by 2: 2 = !

1
X= 3;

204 13.1 Solving linear equations

Here is another example.
Mary had two bags, each of which contained the same number of
marbles. She also had five spare marbles.

She put the two bags and the five spare marbles on scales and
balanced them with 17 single marbles.
How many marbles were there in each bag?
If x is the number of marbles in each bag, then the equation
representing Mary's balanced scales is:

2x+5=17

Take five marbles from each pan: ( 2 2

2x+5­5=17­5

2x=12
Now halve the number of marbles on each pan.

That is, divide both sides by 2:

Cees
2 _12
2 #2
x=6
Checking the answer gives 2 x 6 + 5 = 17, which is correct.

€ ) B
Example 1
d :
Solve each of these equations by ‘doing the same to both sides’. w
a 3x­5=16 b 2+2=10

a Add 5 to both sides b Subtract 2 from both sides

3x­5+5=16+5 3+2­2=10­2
3xr=21 5 =8
Divide both sides by 3. Multiply both sides by 2.
3x _21 x JE alg
33 Elie
x=7 x=16
Checking the answer gives: Checking the answer gives:
3x7­5=16 16+2+2=10
which is correct. which is correct.
9 J

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 205

 EXERCISE 13A oo
. Solve each of these equations by ‘doing the same to both sides’. Remember to check that each
answer works for its original equation.
a x+4=60 b 3y­2=4 Advice and Tips
c Ix­7=1 d 5:+3=18 Be careful with negative
e 7+3r=19 f 5+4f= 15 numbers.

g 3+6k=24 h 4x+7=17 S5m­3=17

w Xx m
I —=­5=2
3 k g+3=12
3=
—_ I 3­3=5
~pL

c+3=
mg+3=3 Byam
n S+2=t ° ¥3+10=4
tom
y
roc­2=8
xX
P 3­5
s=5=7 q 5­13=5
= l3= Le =

Et2 f=3 3x +10 _

s =5 t 2 =3 er aa

Vv atl, 3 =5 Ww Sy­2_a =3 x 6y 9+3=1

2­3
am | z
5t+3
2
=
1
y 5

Think of a number. ry
Divide it by 3and (wy answeris­1.) My starting
subtract 6. 1 number is 6.

Teacher
Mandy
— And
a What answer did Andy get? —~
b What number did Mandy start with?
@® A teacher asked her class to solve the equation 2x­1=7.
Mustafa wrote: Elif wrote:
2x=1=7 2x­1=7
2x­1­1=7­1 2x­1+1=7+1
2x=6 2x=8
2x­2=6­2 2x+2=8+2
Kimi x=4
When the teacher read out the correct answer of 4, both students ticked their work
as correct.
a Which student used the correct method?
b Explain the mistakes the other student made.

206 13.1 Solving linear equations

 1

Brackets
When you have an equation that contains brackets, you first must multiply out the brackets and then
solve the resulting equation.
( MN)
Example 2
Solve the equation 5(x + 3) = 25.

First multiply out thé brackets to get:

5x+15=25
Subtract 15: 5x=25­15=10
5x _ 10
| Divide by 5: 5 =g
x=2
py,
7)

Divide both sides by 3: 2x ­ 7 = 5

Add 7: 2x=12 Nea a
|' Divide by 2: x=6 alk
; >
Make sure you can use both methods.

EXERCISE 13B
(i Solve each of these equations. Some of the answers may be decimals or negative numbers.
Remember to check that each answer works for its original equation. Use your calculator
if necessary.
2(x+5)=16 Advice and Tips
UT 5(x­3)=20 Once the brackets have
n 3(r+1)=18 ‘been expanded the
equations become
a 4(2x + 5)=44
straightforward. Remember
2(3y­5)=14 to multiply everything
5(4x + 3) = 135 inside the brackets with
0

4(3r­2)=88 what is outside.

Ja 6(2r + 5) =42
= 2Bx+1)=1
­ 4(5y­2) =42
x 6(3k + 5) = 39

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 207

 I 5(2x +3) =27
m 9(3x­5)=9
n 2(x+5)=6
0 5(x­4)=­25
Pp 3r+7)=15
q 2(3x+11)=10
­ 4(5: + 8) = 12

& Fill in values for a, b and c so that the answer to this equation is x = 4.

albx+3)=c¢
Advice and Tips
‘ys My son is x years old. In five years’ time, | will be twice .
his age and both our ages will be multiples of 10. Set up an equation and
The sum of our ages will be between 55 and 100. put it equal to 60, 70, 80,
How old am | now? etc. Solve the equation
and see if the answer fits
the conditions.
Equations with the variable on both sides
When a letter (or variable) appears on both sides of an equation, collect all the terms containing
the letter on one side. This is usually the left­hand side of the equation. When there are more of
the letters on the right­hand side, it may be easier to turn the equation round. When an equation
contains brackets, you must multiply them out first.

( 3
Example 4
Solve this equation. S5¢t+4=3x+10

There are more xs on the left­hand side, so leave the equation as it is.
Subtract 3x from both sides: 2x+4=10
Subtract 4 from both sides: 2x=6
Divide both sides by 2: x=3 y

(5 A)
Example 5
Solve this equation. 2x+3=6x­5

There are more xs on the right­hand side, so turn the equation round.
6x­5=2x+3
Subtract 2x from both sides: 4x­5=3
Add 5 to both sides: 4x=8
Divide both sides by 4: x=2
\ ‘ .

208 13.1 Solving linear equations

 [ @

fasion 6
Solve this equation.

32x +5) +x=2(2­x) +2

Multiply out both brackets: 6x + 15 +x=4­2x+2

Simplify both sides: Tx +15=6­2x
There are more xs on the left­hand side, so leave the equation as it is.
Add 2x to both sides: 9 +15=6
Subtract 15 from both sides: 9x=­9
Divide both sides by 9: x=­1
w >

EXERCISE 13C
a Solve each of these equations.
a 2x+3=x+5 b Sy+4=3y+6
¢ 4a­3=3a+4 d 5+3=2t+15
e 7p­5=3p+3 f 6k+5=2k+1
| g dm+1=m+10 h 8­1=6s5s­5

@ Hasan says: Miriam says:

: 1 am thinking
of a number. | multiply it | am thinking
TP of a number.
~ by 3 and subtract 2. ™ ) multiply it by 2 and add 5.

Hasan and Miriam find that they both thought of the same Advice and Tips
number and both got the same final answer.
Set up expressions; make
What number did they think of? them equal and solve.
() Solve each of these equations.
a 2d+3)=d+12 b 5(x­2)=3(x+4)
¢ 3(2y+3)=5@2y+1) d 3(h­6)=2(5­2h)
e 43b­1)+6=52b +4) f 25¢+2)­2c=3(2c+3)+7
. Explain why the equation 3(2x + 1) = 2(3x + 5) Advice and Tips
cannot be solved.
Expand the brackets and
0 Explain why these are an infinite number of solutions to collect terms on one side
this equation. as usual. What happens?

2(6x +9) = 3(4x + 6)

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 209

 Chapter 13

13.2 Setting up equations

You can use equations to represent situations, so that you can solve real­life problems. You can solve
many real­life problems by setting them up as linear equations and then solving the equation.
4 a
Example 7
~The rectangle shown has a perimeter of 40 cm.

Find the value of x. 3x41

The perimeter of the rectangle is:
3x41+x4343c4 14543240 fd
This simplifies to: 8x+8=40
Subtract 8 from both sides: 8x=32

9Divide both sidesby 8: x=4

EXERCISE 13D
Set up an equation to represent each situation described below. Then solve the equation.
Remember to check each answer.

wm Every day, from Monday to Saturday a man buys a daily paper for d cents. He buys a Sunday
paper for 1.80 dollars. His weekly paper bill is 7.20 dollars.

What is the price of his daily paper?

® The diagram shows a rectangle.

Nn Ox ­ 1 ) 3

variable unless you are

é p—_ given a letter to use. Once
Wr­2) the equation is set up
solve it by the methods
14 shown above.

a What is the value of x?

b What is the value of y?
In this rectangle, the length is 3 cm more than the width. +3)
The perimeter is 12 cm.
a What is the value of x? x
b What is the area of the rectangle?

­ Masha has two bags, each of which contains the same number of sweets. She eats four sweets.
She then finds that she has 30 sweets left. How many sweets were there in each bag to start with?

210 13.2 Setting up equations

 ® Flooring costs $12.75 per square metre.

The shop charges $35 for fitting. The final bill was $137.

How many square metres of flooring were fitted?

. Moshin bought eight garden chairs. When he got to the till he used a $10 voucher as part
payment. His final bill was $56.
a Set this problem up as an equation, using c as the cost of one chair.
b Solve the equation to find the cost of one chair.

(r This diagram shows the traffic flow through —b B

—
Nj—­
a one­way system in a town centre.

Cars enter at A and at each junction the aw |= Nl—­ = C

fractions show the proportion of cars that take Ab:
Le

| each route. f—
Bo
=|

=p D
» a 1200 cars enter at A. How many come out of
each of the exits, B, Cand D?
b If 300 cars exit at B, how many cars entered at A?
¢ If 500 cars exit at D, how many exit at B?
­ A rectangular room is 3 m longer than it is wide.
* Theperimeter is 16 m.

Floor tiles cost $9 for a pack that covers a square metre.

How much will it cost to cover the floor?

A boy is
Y years old. His father is 25 years older than he is. the area.
The sum of their ages is 31. How old is the boy?

Another boy is X years old. His sister is twice as old as he is. The sum of their ages is 27.
How old is the boy?

The diagram shows a square. (4x ­1)

Find the value of x if the perimeter is 44 cm.

a Max thought of a number. He then multiplied his number by 3. He added 4 to the

answer. He then doubled that answer to get a final value of 38. What number did
he start with?

© The angles of a triangle, in degrees, are 2x, x + 5

and x + 35.
a Write down an equation to show that the angles
add up to 180 degrees.
b Solve your equation to find the value of x.

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 211

 ™ Five friends went for a meal in a restaurant. The bill was $x.
They decided to add a $10 tip and split the bill equally between them.
Each person paid $9.50.
a Set up this problem as an equation.
b Solve the equation to work out the bill before the tip was added.
” A teacher asked her class to find three angles of a triangle Advice and Tips
that were consecutive even numbers.
Tammy wrote: X+x+2+x+4=180 min, 3 engl d for
3x+6=180 a triangle. Work out the
3x=174 value of x. What
happens?
x=58

So the angles are 58°, 60° and 62°.

The teacher then asked the class to find four angles of a quadrilateral that are consecutive
even numbers.
Can this be done? Explain your answer.

Maria has a large and a small bottle of cola. The large Advice and Tips
bottle holds 50 cI more than the small bottle. Adin nd Tip

From the large bottle she fills four cups and has 18 cl
left over.

left over. add 50 to the small bottle

equation to allow for the,
How much cola was there in each bottle? difference. Solve for x,
then work out how much
Fo #
ttle.

13.3 Solving quadratic equations

by factorisation [7&1
AAA AAA LAA RE EE A EE EE EEE EE EEE ER rr I I TIT IIIT

So far, all the equations you have worked with have been linear equations. Now you will look at
equations that involve quadratic expressions such as 12 ­ 2x ­ 3, which contain the square of the
variable.

Solving the quadratic equation x? + ax + b = 0

To solve a quadratic equation such as x ­ 2x ­ 3 = 0, you first must be able to factorise it. Work
through Examples 8 to 10 below to see how this is done.

212 13.3 Solving quadratic equations by factorisation

Ff

Example 8
Solve the equation x + 6x + 5 =0.

This factorises into (x + 5)(x + 1) = 0.

The only way this expression can ever equal 0 is if the value of one of the expressions in the
brackets is 0.
Hence either (x +5)=0 or (x+1) =0
=x+5=0 or x+1 =0
=x==5 or x=­1
So the solution isx=­S or x =­1.
There are two possible values for x.
\

it)
= 2+ 5% or x­2 =
= x=­5 or x=2.
| Sothesolutionisx=­50rx=2.

Solve the equation x2 ­6x + 9=0.

This factorises into (x ­ 3)(x­3) = 0.

The equation has repeated roots.
That is: (x­3)2=0 A
Hence, there is only one solution, x = 3. per
< 7

EXERCISE 13E
Solve the equations in questions 1­12.

@ «+2xe5=0 @ ¢+30+n=0 3 (a+6)a+4)=0

a (x+3)(x­2)=0 ® (x+ D(x­3)=0 @® «+a0­5­=0
@ ­2x+2=0 @® G­2:+5=0 . (a­7)a+4)=0
#0 (­31:­2=0 @ ­nix­5­=0 “(a­8)fa­3)=0

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 213

 First factorise, then solve the equations in questions 13­26.

1a 24+ 11x+18=0

@ c+a­12=0
2 P­x­2=0

23 m+ 10m +25=0
25 cfis+12=0 26 ­14a+49=0
27 A woman is x years old. Her husband is three years younger.
Advice and Tips
The product of their ages is 550.
If one solution to a real­life
a Set up a quadratic equation to represent this situation. problem is negative, reject
b How old is the woman? it and only give the positive
answer.
28 A rectangular field is 40 m longer than it is wide. Advice and Tips
The area is 48 000 square metres.
The farmer wants to place a fence all around the field. Let the width be x, set up a
quadratic equation and
How long will the fence be? solve it to get x.
First rearrange the equations in questions 29­37, then solve them.
Advice and Tips
You cannot solve a
quadratic equation by
factorisation unless it is in
the form
2+ax+b=0

2­17­72
B86
@ ci1=2
38 A teacher asks her class to solve 12 ­ 3x = 4.

This is Mario's answer.

2 ­3x­4=0
(x­4)(x+1)=0
Hencex­4=0o0rx+1=0
x=4o0r­1

214 13.3 Solving quadratic equations by factorisation

 This is Sylvan’s answer.
x(x­3)=4
Hencex=4o0orx­3=4=x=­3+4=­1

When the teacher reads out the answer of x = 4 or ­1, both students mark their work
as correct.

Who used the correct method and what mistakes did the other student make?

~ Solving the general quadratic equation by factorisation

The general quadratic equation is of the form ax? + bx + ¢ = 0 where a, b and ¢ are positive or
negative whole numbers. (It is easier to make sure that « is always positive.) Before you can solve any
quadratic equation by factorisation, you must rearrange it to this form.
The method is similar to that used to solve equations of the form x2 + ax + b = 0.
That is, you have to find two factors of ax? + bx + ¢ with a product of 0.

Example 11
| Solve these quadratic equations. 1242.

a First, earrange the ec

. 12x2­28x+15=0
This factorises into (2x — 3)(6x­ 5) = 0.
The only way this product can equal 0 is if the value of the expression in one of f the brack
is 0. Hence: i
either 2x­3=0 or 6x­5=0
= 2x=3 or 6x=5
= x=3 or x=32
So the solution is x= 1} orx=3
Note: It is almost always the case that if a solution is a fraction which is then changed into
a rounded decimal number, the original equation cannot be evaluated exactly, «
decimal number. So it is preferable to leave the solution in its fraction form. called the
rational form.
~ b This equation is already in the general form and it will factorise to (15x + 5)(2x­ 1) =0 or
(3x + 1)(10x­5) = 0.

Look again at the equation. There is a common factor: of 5 which can be taken out to give:
5(6x2­x­1=0)
This is much easier to factorise to 5(3x + 1)(2x ­ 1) = 0, which can be solved to give x =­1 or

Lt J

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 215

 Special cases
Sometimes the value of b or c may be zero. (Note that if a is zero the equation is no longer a
quadratic equation but a linear equation.)

( Exatnple 12
Solve these quadratic equations.
a 3:2­4=0
b 4x2­25=0
€ 6x¥­x=0

a Rearrange to get 3x2 =4.

.. The symbol + s means that the square root

i 8 abc for

EachNr ——— Iv, oR to zero.

2x­5=0 = x=43
204520 = r= Sothesolutionisx=1j
© Thereisa RAR see 5: ­ 1)=0.

EXERCISE 13F
Give your answers either in rational form or as mixed numbers.

CJ] Solve these equations. Advice and Tips

a 3 +8x­3=0 b 6x?­5x­4=0 Look out for the special

c 5x2­9x­2=0 dar ­4:­35=0 cases where b or ¢ is zero.
e 182+9+1=0 f372­14r+8=0
g 6x2+15x­9=0 h 12x22 ­16x­35=0
i 152+4­35=0 j 28x2­85x+63=0
k 24x2­19x+2=0 lI 162­1=0
m 4x2 +9 =0 n252­49=0
0 Im? ­24m­9=0

216 13.3 Solving quadratic equations by factorisation

fl chapter 1310p
a Rearrange these equations into the general form and then solve them.
a 2­x=42 b 8x(x+ 1)=30
c (x+1)(x­2)=40 d 13:2=11­2x
e (x+1Nx­2)=4 f 10:2­x=2
g 82+6x+3=22+x+2 h 25x%2=10­45x
i 8x­16­1%2=0 j y+ 1D)5xr+2)=(2x­2)(x­2)
k Sr+5=30x2+ 15x +5 I 2m? =50
m 6x2+30=5­32­30x n 4x? +4x­49 =4x
0 2%­1=15

3 Here are three equations.

A: (x­12=0 B:3x+2=5 C:x2­4x=5

a Give some mathematical fact that equations A and B have in common.
b Give a mathematical reason why equation B is different from equations A and C.

a Pythagoras’ theorem states that the sum of the squares of the two short sides of a
right­angled triangle equals the square of the long side (hypotenuse).
A right­angled triangle has sides 5x ­ 1, 2x+3 and x + 1 cm.
. a Show that 20x2­24x­9=0. 243 \ 5c 1
b Find the area of the triangle.

13.4 Solving quadratic equations

by the quadratic formula [80
LAA AAR A EEE EE EE EE A EE EE EE EL A EE LE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE NE EE EE ENE

‘Many quadratic equations cannot be solved by factorisation because they do not have
simple factors. Try to factorise, for example, x2 — 4x ­ 3 = 0 or 3x2 ­ 6x + 2 = 0. You will find it is
impossible.
One way to solve this type of equation is to use the quadratic formula. This formula can be used to
solve any quadratic equation that can be solved (is soluble).
The solution of the equation ax? + bx + ¢ = 0 is given by:

ER Cr
2a

where a and b are the coefficients of x? and x respectively and c is the constant term.
is is the quadratic formula, which you should memorise.

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 217

 i»
Example 13
Solve 5x? ­ 11x ­ 4 = 0, giving solutions correct to 2 decimal places.

a=
"bx oi 4ac

and spuo­ Sher ie ‘which gives:

Note that the values for q, b and c have been put into the formula in brackets. This is to avoid
mistakes in calculation. It is a very common mistake to get the sign of » wrong or to think that
i 21. Using brackets will help you do the calculation correctly.

Note: If you are asked to solve a quadratic equation to one or wo dec

sure that it can be solved only by the quadratic formula.
\_

EXERCISE 13G
Use the quadratic formula to solve the equations in
questions 1­15. Give your answers to 2 decimal places. Advice and Tips
!» " = sts whe
22 +x­8=0 : g brackets when
ng and do not
3x2+5¢+1=0 try to work two things
2­x­10=0 out at the same time.

5x2+2x­1=0
724+ 12x+2=0
32+ 11x+9=0
42 +9 +3=0
6x2+22x+19=0
P+3x­6=0
32­7x+1=0

22+ 11x +4=0

4? +5x­3=0

218 13.4 Solving quadratic equations by the quadratic formula

 The area of the lawn is 21 m2. The gardener wants to edge the lawn with edging strips, which
are sold in lengths of 1} m. How many will she need to buy?

Shaun is solving a quadratic equation, using the formula.

He correctly substitutes values for 4, b and ¢ to get:
32437
Xx
2
What is the equation Shaun is trying to solve?

Hasan uses the quadratic formula to solve 4x? ­4x + 1 =0.

Miriam uses factorisation to solve 4x2­4x + 1 = 0.

They both find something unusual in their solutions.

Explain what this is, and why.

13.5 Solving quadratic equations

by completing the square El
(ARERR EE A EEE EEE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE FR RE RR RR RE Rs rrr

Another method for solving quadratic equations is completing the square. You can use this method
~~ as an alternative to the quadratic formula.

You will remember that:

(x+ a =x%+2ax +a?
which can be rearranged to give:
2+2ax=(x+a)l­a?
This is the basic principle behind completing the square.
There are three basic steps in rewriting x2 + px + ¢ in the form (x + a)? + b.
Step 1: Ignore ¢ and just look at the first two terms, x2 + px.

Step 2: Rewrite x2 + px as e + gf ­ g.

Step 3: Bring g back toget x2 + px + ¢ = x + 4 ­ i +q.

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 219

 ( MN
Example 14
Rewrite each expression in the form (x + a)? + b.
a 24+6x­7 P
b ?­8x+3

a Ignore ­7 for the moment.

Rewrite x? + 6x as (x + 3)2­9.
(Expand (x + 3)? ­9 =x? + 6x + 9­9 = x2 + 6x. The 9 is subtracted to get rid of the constant
term when the brackets are expanded.)
Now bring the ­7 back, so x? + 6x7 = (x + 3)2­9­7
Combine the constant terms to get the final answer:
P+6x­7=(x+32­16
b Ignore +3 for the moment.
Rewrite x2 — 8x as (x — 4) ­ 16.
(Note that you still subtract (~4), as (4)? = +16.)
Now bring the +3 back, s0 x2 ~8x + 3 = (x­4)?­ 16 + 3.
Combine the constant terms to get the final answer:
P­8x+3=(x­42­13
\ J

(i 15 . BN
Rewrite +2 + 4x 7 in the form (x + a)? ­ b. Hence solve the equation +2 + 4x ­7 = 0,
giving your answers to 2 decimal places.

Note that:
2+lx=(x+202­4
So:
Plx­7=(x+2P­4­7=(x+2P­1
When x? + 4x ­ 7 = 0, you can rewrite the equations completing the square as:
CC (x+ 22­11=0

Rearranging gives (x + 2)? = 11.

Taking the square root of both sides gives:

x+2=+'N

Sxr=­2+VN

This answer could be left like this, but you are asked to calculate it to 2 decimal places.
=» x = 1.32 or ­5.32 (to 2 decimal places)
­

220 13.5 Solving quadratic equations by completing the square

To solve ax? + bx + ¢ = 0 when a is not 1, start by dividing through by a.

B Example 16
Solve by completing the square.
22­6x­7=0

Divide by 2: x­3x­3.5=0
P­3x=(x­152­225
So: P2­3x­35=(x­15P2­575
When: 2­3x­35=0
then: (x­152=575
x­15=2V575

x=152V575
1 x=3.90 or x =­0.90
nd J

EXERCISE 13H
EN Write an equivalent expression in the form (x + a)? ­ b.
a ?+4x b x? + 14x ¢ 2­6x d x2 +6x
e ?­3x f 2­9x g 2+ 13x h 22+ 10x
i +8 j x?­2x k 242
2 Write an equivalent expression in the form (x + a)? ­ b.
Question 1 will help with a to h.
a 2+4x­1 b 12+ 14x­5 € x?­6x+3 d 2+6x+7
e x*­3x­1 f x2+6x+3 g 2­9x+10 h 2+13x+35
i 2+8x­6 jo oa2+2x­1 k 2­2x­7 I x22+2x­9
3 Solve each equation by completing the square. Leave a square root sign in your answer
where appropriate. The answers to question 2 will help.
a 2+4x­1=0 b x2+14x­5=0 c 2­6x+3=0
d ?+6x+7=0 e ¥­3x­1=0 f 2+6x+3=0
g ?­9%x+10=0 h 2+13x+35=0 i 2+8x­6=0
j 2+2x­1=0 k 2­2x­7=0 I 2+2x­9=0
a Solve by completing the square. Give your answers to 2 decimal places.
a 2+2%­5=0 b x22­4x­7=0 c 2+2x­9=0
5 Solve these equations by completing the square. Leave your answer in square root form.
a 2@2­6x­3=0 b 4x2­8x+1=0 c 2x2+5x­10=0
d 05x2­75x+8=0

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 221

 Chapter 13 PIC

Ahmed rewrites the expression x? + px + ¢ by completing the square. He does

this correctly and gets (x ­ 7)? ­ 52.

What are the values of p and 4?

Write |
rl
X¥+6x+7=0 ke bo
the mania
square |

(x+3F­2=0 |

13.6 Simultaneous equations

AAA ARR RE EE EE EE El EE EE EE EE EE EE EE yy ya yy Inmnmnmmmmm

All the equations we have looked at so far have just one unknown.
Sometimes there is more than one unknown variable in a problem. In these cases, we will have
several simultaneous equations to solve.

Example 17
Tariq is twice as old as Meera. Their total age is 39 years. How old are they?

= Lally « wu

Now use equation (1) to find x: x=2x13=26

Tariq is 26 and Meera is 13.
\_ ”

EXERCISE 131
® Solve each of these pairs of simultaneous equations.
a x+y=15 b x=3y c x+y=60
y=2x x+y=24 y=4x

222 13.6 Simultaneous equations

 Solve each of these pairs of simultaneous equations.
a y=x+12 b y=x­10 C x+4=y
y=3x x=05y y=9%

Solve each of these pairs of simultaneous equations.

a x+y=20 b y+x=23 ’ C x+y=6
x=y=6 y­x=5 x=­y=14
Solve each of these pairs of simultaneous equations.
a y=2x+3 b x+y=20 Cc y=2x+4
y=8x y=3x­2 y=10­x
Carmen and Anish are carrying some books. There are 40 books altogether.

Carmen has 4 times as many as Anish.

How many do they each have?

Ari writes down two numbers. The total is 37. The difference between them is 14.

What are the numbers?

Luis records the temperature at midday and again at midnight.

. He notices that the temperatures add up to 5 and the difference between them is 11.

What are the temperatures?

Carlos has $x and Sarah has $y.

a Together they have $75. Write an equation to show this.
b Sarah has twice as much as Carlos. Write an equation to show this.
¢ Solve the equations to find x and y.
The mass of a plate is x g and the mass of a cup is y g.
a The total mass is 300 g. Write an equation to show this.
b The plate is 60 g heavier than the cup. Write an equation to show this.
¢ Find the values of x and y.

Ahmed is x years old. His mother is y years old.

a Ahmed is 26 years younger than his mother. Write an equation to show this.
b The total of Ahmed’s age and his mother’s age is 50 years. Write an equation to show his.
¢ Find the age of Ahmed and his mother.
The length of Chen's car is x m. The length of Ari's car is y m.
a Chen's car is 0.4 m shorter than Paola’s. Write an equation to show this.
b The total length of the two cars is 8.6 m. Write an equation to show this.
¢ Find the length of Paola’s car.

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 223

 A pair of simultaneous linear equations is exactly that — two linear equations for which you want
the same solution, and which you therefore solve together. For example,
x + y = 10 has many solutions:
x=2,y=8

x=4,y=6
x=5,y=5..

and 2x + y = 14 has many solutions:

x=2,y=10

x=3,y=8

x=4,y=6...

But only one solution, x = 4 and y = 6, satisfies both equations at the same time.
In the last section you looked at some simple examples. You can now look at ways of solving more
complicated examples of simultaneous equations.

Elimination method
One way to solve simultaneous equations is by the elimination method. There are six steps in this
method.

Step 1 is to balance the coefficients of one of the variables.

Step 2 is to eliminate this variable by adding or subtracting the equations.
Step 3 is to solve the resulting linear equation in the other variable.
Step 4 is to substitute the value found back into one of the previous equations.
Step 5 is to solve the resulting equation. ­
Step 6 is to check that the two values found satisfy the original equations.

Label the equations so that the method can be clearly explained.

6x+y=15 (1)

Ax+y=11 (2)
Step 1: Since the y­term in both equations has the same coefficient there is no need to balance
them. ,
Step 2: Subtract one equation from the other. (Equation (1) minus equation (2) will give positive
values.) ;

M­@ 2=4

224 13.6 Simultaneous equations

 Step 3: Solve this equation: x=2
Step 4: Substitute x = 2 into one of the original equations. (Usually it is best to the one with
smallest numbers involved.) 8
So substitute into: 4x + y= 11
which gives: 8+y=1
Step 5: Solve this equation: y=3
Step 6: Test the solution in the original equations. So substitute x=2 and y = 3 into 6x + y,
which gives 12 + 3 = 15 and into 4x + y, which gives 8 + 3 = 11. These are correct, so you
can confidently say the solutionisx=2 and y = 3.

tinD halon
Ds 1
ra dls

| Step 2: As the signs are different, add the two equa

| m+@) Tx=28
Step 3: Solve this equation: x=4
| Step 4: Substitute x = 4 into one of the original equations, 5x + y = 22,
which gives: 20 + y=22
Step 5: Solve this equation: y=2
Step 6: Test the solution by putting x = 4 and y = 2 into the original equations, 2x ­ y, which
gives 8 ­ 2 = 6 and 5x + y which gives 20 + 2 = 22. These are correct, so the solution is
x=4andy=2. wv
\_ _

Substitution method
This is an alternative method. The method you use depends very much on the coefficients of the
variables and the way that the equations are written in the first place. There are five steps in the
substitution method.
Step 1 is to rearrange one of the equations into the form y=...orx=....
Step 2 is to substitute the right­hand side of this equation into the other equation in place of the
variable on the left­hand side.
Step 3 is to expand and solve this equation.
Step 4 is to substitute the value into the y =... or x = ... equation.
Step 5 is to check that the values work in both original equations.

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 225

 ­
Example 20
Solve the simultaneous equations: y = 2x + 3, 3x + 4y = 1.

Because the first equation is in the form y = ... you can use the substitution method.
Again label the equations to help with explaining the method.
y=2x+3 (1)

3x+4y=1 (2)
Step 1: As equation (1) is in the form y = ... there is no need to rearrange an equation.
Step 2: Substitute the right­hand side of equation (1) into equation (2) for the variable y.
3x+4(2x+3)=1
Step 3: Expand and solve the equation. 3x+8x+12=1,1x=­11, x=­1
Step 4: Substitute x =­1 into y= 2x + 3: y=­2+3=1
Step 5: Test the valuesiny=2x+ 3, which gives 1 = ­2 + 3 and 3x + 4y = 1, which gives
­3 +4 =1.These are so the solution isx=­1and y= 1.

EXERCISE 13]
co) Solve these simultaneous equations.

In question 1 parts a to i the coefficients of one of the variables are the same so there is
no need to balance them. Subtract the equations when the identical terms have the same
sign. Add the equations when the identical terms have opposite signs. In parts j to | use the
substitution method.
a dx+y=17 b 5x+2y=13 C 2x+y=7
2x+y=9 x+2y=9 Sx­y=14
d 3x+2y=1 e 3x­4y=17 f 3x+2y=16
2x­2y=14 x­4y=3 x=2y=
g x+3y=9 h 2x+5y=16 i 3x­y=9
x+y=6 2x+3y=8 Sx+y=1
j 2x+5y=37 k 4x­3y=7 I 4x­y=17
y=11­2 x=13­3y x=2+y
In this sequence, the next term is found by multiplying the previous term by a and then
adding b. a and b are positive whole numbers.
3 14 47
a Explain why 3a + b= 14.
b Set up another equation in a and b.
¢ Solve the equations to solve for a and b.
d Work out the next two terms in the sequence.

226 13.6 Simultaneous equations

 Balancing coefficients in one equation only
You could solve all the examples in Exercise 13I, question 1 by adding or subtracting the equations in
each pair, or by substituting without rearranging. This does not always happen. The next examples
show what to do when there are no identical terms, or when you need to rearrange.

| Example 21
™)
Solve these equations. 3x+2y=18 (1)
2x­y=5 (2)
Step 1: Multiply equation (2) by 2. There are other ways to balance the coefficients but this is
the easiest and leads to less work later. With practice, you will get used to which will be
the best way to balance the coefficients.
2 x (2) 4x­2y=10 (3)
: Label this equation as number (3).
Be careful to multiply every term and not just the y­term. You could write:

2x(@x­y=5) = 4x­2y=10 (3)

Step 2: As the signs of the y­terms are opposite, add the exptions. |
+3) 7 w 25POVINURE ind fal mbam adipys or
Be careful to add the correct equations. This is why labelling them is useful
Step 3: Solve this equation: x=4
| Step 4: Substitute x = 4 into any equation, say 2x­y=5 = 8­y=5
Step 5: Solve this equation: y=3
| Step 6: Check: (1),3x4 +2 x3 =18 and (2), 2 x 4 ­ 3 = 5, which are correct so the solution is
x=4andy=3.
\_ 7
( )
Example 22
Solve the simultaneous equations: 3x+y=5 (1)

Sx—­2y=12 (2)

Step 1: Multiply the first equation by 2: 6x + 2y = 10 (3)

Step 2: Add (2) + (3): 1x =22
Step 3: Solve: x=2
Step 4: Substitute back:3 x2 +y=5
Step 5: Solve: y =­1
| Bw 6: Check: (1)3x2­1=5and (2) 5x 2­2 x­1=10 + 2 = 12, which are correct.

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 227

 EXERCISE 13K
()) Solve parts a to ¢ by the substitution method and the rest by first changing one of the
equations in each pair to obtain identical terms for one unknown, and then adding or
subtracting the equations to eliminate those terms.
a S5x+2y=4 b 4x+3y=37 Cc x+3v=7
4x­y=11 2x+y=17 2x­y=7
d 2x+3y=19 e S5v­2y=26 f 10x­y=3
6x + 2y =22 3x­y=15 3x+2y=17
g 3x+5y=15 h 3x+4y=7 i S5x­2y=24
x+3y=7 4x + 2y=1 3x+y=21
j Sx­2y=4 k 2x+3y=13 I 3x­2y=3
3x­6y=6 4x + 7y = 31 S5x+ 6y=12

a Francesca is solving the simultaneous equations 4x­2y=8 and 2x­y=4.

She finds a solution of x = 5, y = 6 which works for both equations.
Explain why this is not a unique solution.
b Dimitri is solving the simultaneous equations 6x + 2y=9 and 3x + y= 7.
Why is it impossible to find a solution that works for both equations?

Balancing coefficients in both equations

In some cases, you will need to change both equations to obtain identical terms. The next example
shows you how to do this.
Note: The substitution method is not suitable for these types of equation as you end up with
fractional terms.
~
Example 23

Sx­2y=5 (#3)

You need to change both equations to obtain identical terms in either x or y. However, you
can see that if you make the y­coefficients the same, you will add the equations. Addition is
always safer than subtraction, so this is obviously the better choice. Do this by multiplying the
first equation by 2 (the y­coefficient of the second equation) and the second equation by 3
(the y­coefficient of the first equation).
Step1: (1) x20r2x(4x+3y=27) = 8x+6y=54 (3)
(2) x3 0r3 x (5x­2y=5) =5 15x­6y=15 (4)
Label the new equations (3) and (4).
Step 2: Eliminate one of the variables: (3) + (4): 23x =69
Step 3: Solve the equation: x=3
Step 4: Substitute into equation (1): 12 +3y=27
Step 5: Solve the equation: y=5
Step 6: Check: (1), 4x3+3x5= 12+15=27and (2), 5x 3­2 x 5= 15­10 = 5, which are
L correct so the solution isx=3 and y = 5. %

228 13.6 Simultaneous equations

p—
Bl Chapter 13. Topic 7

EXERCISE 13L
wv Solve these simultaneous equations.
a 2x+5y=15 b 2x+3y=30 2x­3y=15
3x­2y=13 Sx+7y=71 S5x+ 7y=52
d 3x­2y=15 e S5x­3y=14 3x+2y=28
2x­3y=5 4x­5y=6 2x + 7y=47
g 2x+y=4 h S5x+2y=11 x=2y=4
x­y=S 3x+4y=8 3x­y=­3
j 3x+2y=2 k 6x+2y=14 2x+4y=15
2x + 6y=13 3x­5y=10 x+5=21
m 3x­y=5 n 3x­4y=45 x=5y=15
x+3y=­20 2x +2y=10 3x­7y=17
® Here are four equations.
A:S5x+2y=1

B:4x+y=9

C:3x­y=5
D:3x+2y=3

* Here are four sets of (x, y) values.

(1,­2), (1,3), (2,1), (3,­3)
Match each pair of (x, y) values to a pair of equations.

@® Find the area of the triangle enclosed by these

three equations.
y=­x=2 xX+y=6 3x+y=6
(w Find the area of the triangle enclosed by these
three equations.
x=2vy=6 x+2y=6 x+y=3

13.7 Linear and non­linear

simultaneous equations El
AAA AR AAR A AEE AE EAL EE EE EE EE EE EE EE Ey EN ER RR RR rr

You have already seen the method of substitution for solving linear simultaneous equations.

You can use a similar method when you need to solve a pair of equations, one of which is linear and
the other of which is non­linear. But you must always substitute from the linear into the non­linear.

—_—

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 229

 Example 24
Solve these simultaneous equations.

2+y?=5 ­
x+y=3

Call the equations (1) and (2):

2+y2=5 (1)
x+y=3 (2)
Rearrange equation (2) to obtain:
x+=3­y

Substitute this into equation (1), which gives:

(3­y2+y*=5
Expand and rearrange into the general form of the quadratic equation:
9­6y+)y2+)2=5
2’­6y+4=0
Divide by 2:

¥=­3y+2=0
Factorise:
b­N»r­2)=0
=y=1o0r2

Substitute for y in equation (2):

Wheny=1,x=2andwheny=2,x=1

Note that you should always give answers as a pair of values in x and y.

a
Example 25
Find the solutions of the pair of simultaneous equations: y=x2 + x­2and y=2x­4

This example is slightly different, as both equations are given in terms of y,

2x+4=x24x=­2
Rearranging into the general quadratic:
P2­x­6=0

Factorising and solving gives:

(x+2)x­3)=0
x==20r3

230 13.7 Linear and non­linear simultaneous equations

EXERCISE 13M
1 Solve these pairs of linear simultaneous equations using the substitution method.
a 2x+y=9 . b 3x­2y=10 c x­2y=10
x=­2y=7 4x+y=17 2x +3y=13
a Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.
a xy=2 b w=­4
y=x+1 2y=x+6
J@ Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.

(pun 15m 25 b +)y2=9 ¢ R+y=13

x+y=7 ~ y=x+3 ~~ Sy4x=13
ry Solve these pairs of simu ‘equations. hg I* 40
a y=242c­3 b y=x2­2¢­5 ¢ y=2­2r
y=2x+1 y=x­1 y=2x­3
5 Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.
a y=x2+3x­3andy=x b 2+y=13andx+y=1
¢c 2+¥=5andy=x+1 d y=x2­3x+1andy=2x­5
e y=x2­3andy=x+3 f y=x2­3x­2andy=2x­6
g ?+y¥=4landy=x+1
6 Ravi’s phone number has 6 digits: XY1290
He notices that the sum of the first 2 digits is 12 and the sum of the squares of the first two
digits is 90.
a Write down two equations using X and Y. b What is Ravi's phone number?
7 Samara says:

| am 4 years older than my brother. The difference between the squares of our ages is 80.
How old is Samara?

8 Salman is thinking of two numbers.

The sum of the squares of the numbers is 85. The square of the sum of the numbers is 121
a If the numbers are x and y, write down two equations connecting x and y.
b Work out the two numbers.

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 231

 Chapter 13

13.8 Solving inequalities E)

0000000 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000s

Inequalities behave similarly to equations. You use the same rules to solve linear inequalities as you
use for linear equations.
There are four inequality signs:
< means ‘less than’
> means ‘greater than’
< means ‘less than or equal to’
= means ‘greater than or equal to".
Be careful. Never replace the inequality sign with an equals sign.

Example 26
Solve 2x + 3 < 14.
Rewrite this as:2x < 14­3
2x<1
Divide both sides by 2: 2 < 11

=x<55
This means that x can take any value below 5.5 but not the value 5.5.
You can use a number line to show the solution to the last example.

­
­ —0 F
0 55
The open circle shows that 5.5 is not included in the solution.
=
ail

Example 27
a Solve : +13=>4. b Show the solution on a number line.

a Solve as you would an equation but leave the inequality sign in place of the equals sign.
Subtract 4 from both sides: = =­9
Multiply both sidesby 2: x= ­18
This means that x can take any value above and including ­18.
b @® >
­ 0
4
1

_ J
232 13.8 Solving inequalities
If you multiply or divide by a negative number when you are solving an inequality you must change
the sign.
‘less than’ becomes ‘more than’
‘more than’ becomes ‘less than’

4d ­ *
Example 28
a Solve the inequality 10 ­2x < 3
b Show the solution on a number line.

a Subtract 10 from both sides: 2x < 7

Divide both sides by ­2: x=35

Note that you must reverse inequality signs when multiplying or dividing both sides by a
negative number. So the inequality has changed in the last line.
You could solve example 25 in a different way:
10­2x<3

© Divide both sidesby2: ~~ 35=x

The sign does not change this time.
3.5 = xis equivalent to x = 3.5 w eri ~ eet helt 9AT
bs AT ad 8 TI heir) 7
oO BS

EXERCISE 13N
­) Solve these linear inequalities. Show each solution on a number line.
a x+4<7 bt+5>3 Cc p+12=2
d 2x­3<7 e 4y+5=17 f 3t+4>13
g 3g+a<} h g4 +6<3
A
i 3I. 2=4
j 3x­2)<15 k 52x+1)=<35 I 2(4:­3)=36
& Write down the largest integer value of x that satisfies each inequality.
a x­3=S5, where x is positive
b x+2 <9, where x is positive and even
¢ 3x­11< 40, where x is a square number
d 5x­8 =< 15, where x is positive and odd
e 2x+1<19, where x is positive and prime

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities 233

 ® ‘Write down the smallest integer value of x that satisfies each inequality.
a x­2=09, where x is positive
b x­2 > 13, where x is positive and even
¢ 2x­11 = 19, where x is a square number

Ahmed went to town with $20 to buy two CDs. His bus Advice and Tips
fare was $3. The CDs were both the same price. When he
reached home he still had some money in his pocket. Set up an inequality and
What was the most each CD could cost? solve it.
a Explain why you cannot make a triangle with three sticks
of length 3 cm, 4 cm and 8 cm.
b Three sides of a triangle are x, x + 2 and 10 cm.
x is a whole number. x
What is the smallest value x can take? T
Five cards have inequalities and equations marked on them.

x>0) (x<3] [x24] [x=2) | x=6 |

The cards are shuffled, laid face down and then turned over, one at a time.
If the possible values on two consecutive cards have any numbers in common, then a point is
scored.
If they do not have any numbers in common, then a point is deducted.

a The first two cards below score ­1 because x = 6 and x < 3 have no numbers in common.
Explain why the total for this combination scores 0.

x=6 Fo x >4 |

b What does this combination score?

x>0| | x=6| |x=4 x=2 | x<3

¢ Arrange the cards to give a maximum score of 4.
Solve these linear inequalities.
a 4&x+1=3x­5 b 5r­3=<21+5 c 3y­12=<y­4
d 2x+3=x+1 e Sw­7<3w+4 f 2(4x­1)=3(x+4)
Solve these linear inequalities.

a
x+4
3 <3 b x=3
c= 5 2x 3+5 <6
7 [4 ——

d
4x­3
5 =5 e 2r­2
3 >4 Sy +3
f “5 <2

234 13.8 Solving inequalities

EX In this question » is always an integer.
a Find the largest possible value of n if 2n + 3 < 12.
oT Find the largest possible value of n if 2 < 20.
Nn Find the smallest possible value of n if 3(n­7) = 10.
en 2 >9,
Qa Find the smallest possible value of » if
nn Find the smallest possible value of n if 3n + 14 < 8n­ 13.

If 20 ­ x> 4, which of these numbers are possible values of x?

­10 0 10 20 30
b Solve the inequality 20 ­ x > 4.
n Solve these inequalities.
a 15­x>6
b 18­x=7
Cc 6=9­x

2 Solve these inequalities.

a 20­21<5 b 3­4=>1
€ 25­3r>7 d 26­x)<9
10 ­ 2x 84x
e ——=<4 f >2

Check your progress

Core
* | can derive simple linear equations in one unknown
* | can solve simple linear equations in one unknown
* | can derive simple simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns
* | can solve simple simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns

Extended
* | can derive quadratic equations
| can solve quadratic equations by factorisation, by completing the square or by use of the formula
| can derive and solve simultaneous equations where one equation is linear and the other is
quadratic
| can derive and solve linear inequalities
| can interpret and represent inequalities on a number line

Chapter 13: Solutions of equations and inequalities

 Chapter 14

Graphs in practical situations

x. rl LX N ­ > 5 . ­. v a NL

Topics
eG
1 Conversion graphs

2 Travel graphs

: speed­time, constant speed, distance travelled,

3 Speed­time graphs ] : .
rate of increase, acceleration, deceleration

4 Curved graphs

Interpret and use graphs in practical © Apply the idea of rate of change to easy
situations including travel graphs and kinematics involving:
conversion graphs. (C2.10 and E2.10) distance­time and speed­time graphs |
Draw graphs from given data. (C2.10 and
acceleration and deceleration. (E2.10)
E2.10)
Why this chapter matters
Line graphs are used in many media, including
1.60 1
newspapers and the textbooks of most of the
subjects that you learn in school.
1.55 1
Graphs show the relationship between variables.
Often one of these variables is time and the
1.50 1
graph shows how the other variable changes over
time.
1.45
For example, this graph on the right shows how Jan Jun
the exchange rate between the dollar and the
pound changed over six months in 2015.
Graphs like this make it easy to see what is happening to a variable — much easier than looking
at lists of data. Here you can see instantly that the value of the pound, compared to US dollars,
went up and down, but increased overall, over the five months.
A graph can show several variables to make it easier to compare them. The graph below
shows data about a racing car going round a circuit. It compares the driver's acceleration and
deceleration (speeding up and slowing down) with his steering. The green line is speed and the
pink line is steering.

Pi Car Analysis (Racing Car) ­ (Speed vs Distance)

oof
These numbers at
represent the t
differant [
sections on
the trock

This line
represants
the steering
of the driver

Track driven and analysed

The graph gives the team engineers and trainers an instant picture of the way the driver goes
round the course. It would be difficult to compare all this data in any other way.

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 237 =

|

| RE
 Look at Examples 1 and 2, and make sure that you can understand the conversions. You need to
be able to read these types of graph by finding a value on one axis and following it through to the
other axis. Make sure you understand the scales on the axes to help you estimate the answers.

­
Example 1
This is a conversion graph between litres
25=hofWi=d­c­ ’
T1177
and gallons. | 20 7
a How many litres are there in 5 gallons? N ¥ Dd
| b How many gallons are there in 15 litres? £ ­ A
­ , Ws !
From the graph you can see that: 10 T
A 1
)
a 5 gallons are approximately equ te ; 5 = — |

equivalent to 33 gallons. ORR. + 5

Gallons
=

r Ly
4 4 I! 1 ] 1 1
Bl l l 1 L
FT
1

s = t

1­1 aa]
i | | wv.rd
| From the graph you can see that: a

will be charged $45

ba customer who is charged $20 will have used 0 3
~ aboutisOunits.

238 14.1 Conversion graphs

EXERCISE 14A
Mass can be measured in kilograms or pounds. This is a conversion graph between kilograms
(kg) and pounds (Ib).
10] a Use the graph to make an approximate
conversion of:
8 7 i 18 Ib to kilograms
; 7 ii 5 Ib to kilograms
g . + ili 4 kg to pounds
o
2, A iv 10 kg to pounds.
“ / i | b Approximately how many pounds are
) Z| equivalent to a total mass of 1 kg?
¢ Explain how you could use the graph to
0 l a convert 48 Ib to kilograms.
02 4 6 81012141618 2022 24
Pounds

® Distances can be measured in centimetres or inches. This is a conversion graph between

inches (in) and centimetres (cm).
wf + a Use the graph to make an approximate
] = conversion of:
11
84 i 4in to centimetres
ii 9in to centimetres
3 $ iii 5cm to inches
}* 3 iv 22 cm to inches.
: b Approximately how many centimetres are there
2 in 1inch?
c¢ Explain how you could use the graph to convert
0 l . 18 inches to centimetres.
0 5 10 15 20 25
Centimetres

» This graph was produced to show approximately how much the British pound (£) is worth in
Singapore dollars ($).
__100 a Use the graph to make an
17) 9 — .
2 = approximate conversion of:
8 50 an i £100 to Singapore dollars
r SE BB ii £30 to Singapore dollars
5 p
“ ols —— iii $150 to British pounds
0 100 200 300
Singapore dollar ($) iv $250 to British pounds.
b Approximately how many Singapore dollars would you get for £1?
¢ What would happen to the conversion line on the graph if the pound is worth fewer
Singapore dollars?

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 239

 A hire firm hired out industrial heaters. They used this graph to approximate what the charges
would be.
) ) a Use the graph to find the approximate charge for
ve , hiring a heater for:
~

& 120 i 40days

­ ~ ii 25 days.
3 % I” b Use the graph to find out how many days’ hire you
T 0 would get for a cost of:
”
i $100
0 ­
0 10 20 30 40 50 ii $140.
Number of days hire

A conference centre had this chart on the office wall so that the staff could see the
approximate cost of a conference, based on the number of people attending it.
350 a Use the graph to find the approximate charge
300 for:
Z 250 i 100 people
pos ii 550 people.
hd 100 b Use the graph to estimate how many people
50 can attend a conference at the centre for a cost
0 . of:
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 | ¢300 !
Number of le
prytshmy ii $175.
® A shopkeeper has to add sales tax to the prices of all goods he sells. He marked all goods with
prices before tax was added and the sales assistant had to use this chart to convert these
marked prices to selling prices.
120 a Use the chart to find the
selling price of goods marked:
­:...
­— LA
7 i $60
5 80 ­ ii $25.
£ b What was the marked price if
2 ­ you bought something for:
8 40 a i $100
1A
50 » ii $45?
rd
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Price before sales tax ($)

240 14.1 Conversion graphs

® In Europe temperatures are
measured in Celsius and in the USA they
are measured in Fahrenheit. Here is a
conversion graph for the two scales. (°C)

a Use the graph to make an

approximate conversion of: Celsius

i 35°C to Fahrenheit
Degrees

ii 20°C to Fahrenheit
iii 50°F to Celsius
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
iv 90°F to Celsius,
Degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
b Water freezes at 0°C. What
temperature is this in Fahrenheit?
(C) I lost my fuel bill, but while talking to my friends | found out that:

Bill, who had used 850 units, was charged $57.50

Wendy, who had used 320 units, was charged $31

Rhanni, who had used 540 units, was charged $42.

a Plot the given information and draw a straight­line graph. Use a scale from 0 to 900 on
the horizontal units axis, and from $0 to $60 on the vertical cost axis.
b Use your graph to find what | will be charged for 700 units.
9. Distances can be measured in kilometres or miles.

80 kilometres is approximately the same distance as 50 miles.

a Use this information to draw a conversion graph between kilometres and miles.
b Use the graph to convert 30 miles into kilometres.
¢ Use the graph to convert 25 kilometres into miles.

0 A candle gets shorter as it burns.

After 10 hours it has burnt down by 13 centimetres.

a Show this information on a graph.
b How much did the candle burn down in 7 hours?
¢ How long did it take to burn down by 5 centimetres?

This table shows how far a snail has moved after different periods of time.

Time in minutes 5 15 30
Distance in centimetres 13 39 78
a Draw a graph to show this information.
b How long did the snail take to move 60 centimetres?

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 241

 Chapter 14 . Topic 2

14.2 Travel graphs

LRA a A

As the name suggests, a travel graph gives information about how far someone or something has
travelled over a given time period.
Travel graphs are sometimes called distance­time graphs.
You read a travel graph in a similar way to the conversion graphs you have just done. But you can
also find the average speed from a distance­time graph, using the formula:
average speed = total distance travelled
total time taken
( N
Example 3 cade D E
a car journey from Murcia to Cartagena, = 40 A ETH RE: im
a distance of 50 km, and back again. £ HH Shadici HR HHH
J AO
a What can you say about points 8, C £ 80H FREER
and D? [ SE AEN ENG Tr
doodt : a Ly =:
b What can you say about the journey ~~ 'g 207F SrTEEREEE eRe
from D to F? $ HHA I. EEE EEE AVE Ra
8 104++A4H+ : : imal
€ Work out the average speed for each HAH HET THT YE
of the five stages of the journey. ¥ AnsuENEa) TH IT HH FEN
AO 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (minutes)

From the graph:

a B: After 20 minutes the car was 16 km away from Murcia.
C: After 30 minutes the car was 35 km away from Murcia.
D: After 50 minutes the car was 50 km away from Murcia, so at Cartagena.
b D­F: The car stayed at Cartagena for 20 minutes, and then took 60 minutes for the return
journey. /
¢ The average speeds over the five stages of the journey are worked out as follows.
A to B represents 16 km in 20 minutes.
20 minutes is { of an hour, so multiply by 3 to give distance/hour.
Multiplying both numbers by 3 gives 48 km in 60 minutes, which is 48 km/h.
B to C represents 19 km in 10 minutes. ,
Multiplying both numbers by 6 gives 114 km in 60 minutes, which is 114 km/h.
C to D represents 15 km in 20 minutes.
Multiplying both numbers by 3 gives 45 km in 60 minutes, which is 45 km/h.

242 14.2 Travel graphs

EXERCISE 14B
Paulo was travelling in his car to a meeting.
This distance­time graph illustrates 240
his journey. 200
£ 160
a How long after he set off did he: 120
i stop for his break ; 80
ii set off after his break 40
ili get to his meeting place?
0 1
b At what average speed was he travelling:
i over the first hour
ii over the second hour
ii for the last part of his journey?
¢ The meeting was scheduled to start at 10.30 am.

What is the latest time he should have left home?

@® Farid was travelling by car in Europe on his holiday.

This distance­time graph illustrates his journey.

3004+
nN[93o

8
(km)
&o 1 NL

Distance 8
50 pa
0
1 00pm 2.00pm 3.00pm 4.00pm 500pm 6.00pm 7.00 pm
Time

a His greatest speed was on the motorway.

i How far did he travel on the motorway?
ii What was his average speed on the motorway?
b i When did he travel the most slowly?
ii What was his lowest average speed?

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 243

 > A small bus set off from Auzio to
pick up Mikel and his family. It then went 501 i
on to pick up Mikel’s parents and E 40 — \
grandparents. It then travelled further, > 30 — REI
dropping them all off at a hotel. The bus ­ 20 A——1
then went on a further 10 km to pick up 8 10 | \­ i
another party and it took them back to 0 ­ \ |­
Auzio. This distance­time graph illustrates 12 noon 1.00 pm 2.00 pm 3.00 pm
the journey. Time
a How far from Auzio did Mikel’s parents and grandparents live?
b How far from Auzio is the hotel at which they all stayed?
¢ What was the average speed of the bus on its way back to Auzio?
Reu and Yuto took part in a
5000 m race. It is illustrated in 5000 + t
this graph. — ] alll
a Yuto ran a steady race. What is E i TT ­]
his average speed in: CAEN NT This Yolo
i metres per minute ; 2000 ­=h 11 “TTT e ­ |
ii kilometres per hour? 1000 ~1­r T1117
b Reu ran in spurts. What was his am I I
o 0 ­
highest average speed? 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 |
4 : |
¢ Who won the race and by Time token (minutes|
how much?
Three friends, Patrick, Araf and Sean, Patrick Araf Sean
ran a 1000 m race. The race is illustrated eT TTT 7 F =
’
on the distance­time graph. —
= 800 | Fowe
600
a Describe how each of them completed g y 1 — jo |
the race. | —
o 200 —
b i What is Araf’s average speed in m/s? 0
ii What is this speed in km/h? 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time taken minutes)
­ A walker sets off at 0900 from point P to
walk along a trail at a steady pace of 6 km per hour. Advice and Tips
90 minutes later, a cyclist sets off from P on the same trail Mark a grid with a
at a steady pace of 15 km per hour. horizontal axis as time
a Draw a graph to illustrate the journeys of the walker from 0900­1 300, and the

from 0 to 24. Draw lines

b At what time did the cyclist overtake the walker? for Both walker and
cyclist. Remember that
the cyclist doesn't start
until 1030.

244 14.2 Travel graphs

 Three school friends set off from school at the same time, 1545. They all lived 12 km away
~ from the school. The distance­time graph illustrates their journeys.
124 Ravinder Sue Michael

10 / Pa
/ /
8 iV Dd ~~
E A | |
g 6
2 py _g
a = / Fg |

[| AA
/ 4
2 7
JIV4%
yd .
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time taken (minutes)

One of them went by bus, one cycled and one was taken by car.
a i Explain how you know that Sue used the bus.
ii Who went by car?
b At what times did each of them get home?
¢ i When the bus was moving, it covered 2 km in 5 minutes. What is this speed in
kilometres per hour?
ii Overall, the bus covered 12 km in 35 minutes. What is this speed, in kilometres per hour?
iii How many stops did the bus make before Sue got off?
® A girl walks at a steady speed of 1.5 metres/second for 20 seconds.

She stops for 20 seconds.

Then she walks at 2 metres/second for 10 seconds.
a How far has she walked altogether?
b Show her journey on a distance­time graph.
¢ What is her average speed for the whole journey?
» A car drives along a motorway for 2 hours at a steady speed of 100 km/hour.
The driver has a break of 30 minutes.

She then drives back to where she started.

The whole trip takes 5 hours.

a Draw a distance­time graph to show the journey.
b What is the average speed for the second half of the journey?

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 245

 Chapter 14 pic 3

ve A man walks to the top of a high hill.

He starts at 0900 and by 1000 he has travelled 5 km.

From 1000 to 1200 he covers another 8 km.

He takes an hour to complete the final 2 km to the top of the hill.

a What time did he reach the top?
b How far did he walk?
¢ lllustrate the journey with a distance­time graph.
d Find the average speed for each stage of the walk and for the whole journey.

14.3 Speed­time graphs EN

AAA ARE RA A A AAR A A EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE ER yy a I InmnmmMmMmmmm TT

This is the distance­time graph for a cyclist.

\

80
[TTT
= 60 l |
[1]

EI 40 1 —

§
8 od 1 1 1 |
0 >
0 5 10 15 20
Time (seconds)

The graph is a straight line. This shows that she is moving at constant speed.

The distance she travels in 20 seconds = 4 x 20 = 80 metres.

This is a speed­time graph of the same situation.
[

(m/s)
ES

Speed

|
0 >
0 5 10 15 20
Time (seconds)
—

246 14.3 Speed­time graphs

The horizontal line shows that she is moving at a constant speed.
The area between the line and the x­axis gives the distance travelled.

Area = 20 x 4 = 80 metres travelled in 20 seconds

Here is a different speed­time graph for the cyclist.

.
I—

(m/s) (

Speed
he | I

SN

Time (seconds)

In this case the speed increases uniformly from 4 m/s to 7 m/s in 20 seconds.

The rate of increase of speed is the acceleration.

Acceleration = 2 =0.15 m/s?

As before, the area between the line and the x­axis gives the distance travelled.
Area = area of rectangle and area of triangle
=20 x 4 +] x 20 x 3 = 110 metres travelled
Note: if you know the formula for the area of a trapezium, you can use that here to give:
Area = }(4 + 7) x 20 = 110 metres, as above.
( a
Example 4 }
This is a speed­time Ee N
graph for a car over 15 seconds. wr RS
" or 40
Describe the car's journey. Pi \

£T 30 \
i 20
10

0 : ­
01 2 3 4 §°6 7 8.9 701 1213 14995
Time (seconds)

In the first five seconds the car accelerates steadily from 30 m/s to 50 m/s.
The acceleration is 2° 30 _ 4 ms2.

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 247

 trave ata constant speed of SD mss.
For the last four seconds the car slows down steadily from 50 m/s to 20 mis.
Because the speed is decreasing you can say the car is decelerating.
The deceleration is 20 =20 = 7.5 mys.
hig = pn ne gives the distance travelled.
nce travelled = area of trapezium (from 0 to 5 seconds) + area of rectangle
rab (from 5 to 11 seconds) + area of trapezium (from 11 to 15 seconds).
© =200+300 +140

EXERCISE 14C
“a The speed­time graph shows a car accelerating for 40 seconds and then decelerating. —
4
20

15

:3 10
8 ­
5 be L

0 ­
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (seconds)

a What is the maximum speed of the car? Advice and Tips

b What is the initial acceleration? Average _ distance travelled
¢ What is the deceleration for the second part of speed time taken
the journey?
d What is the distance travelled?
e What is the average speed for the whole journey?
The speed­time graph shows a train slowing :
down as it approaches a station. 30 :
a What is the deceleration of the train? _ nN + 1 1
b What is the distance travelled? § = B TT
| SERENE
1 — =

I | NU

0 ­ ­ ­
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (seconds)

248 14.3 Speed­time graphs

3 The speed­time graph shows the speed of a boat over thirty seconds.

0 r=

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (seconds)

a What is the acceleration for the last ten seconds?

b What is the deceleration for the first ten seconds?
¢ What is the distance travelled?
d What is the average speed?
4 The graph illustrates a journey for a car.

40

\
30 AN
& N
£E
3 20

a \
10 N
\.

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (seconds)

a What is the initial acceleration?

b What is the final deceleration?
¢ What is the distance travelled?
d What is the average speed?
This table shows the speed of a cyclist as he descends a hill.

0 5 10 15
4 8 16
a Draw a speed­time graph for this journey.
b Find the acceleration of the cyclist.
¢ Find the distance travelled in the first ten seconds.

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 249

 6 A car accelerates from 10 m/s at a rate of 2 m/s? for 8 seconds.
a What is the speed of the car after 8 seconds?
b Draw a speed­time graph to illustrate this.
¢ How far does the car travel in those 8 seconds?
a) This graph shows the journeys of two cars. The red car in this graph is travelling at a constant
speed.

As the red car passes it the blue car starts from rest and accelerates for 15 seconds in the same
direction as the red car.

The blue car then continues at a constant speed.

4
30

25

20 Blue car

(m/s)
15 ya Red car
S\
Speed

10

0 ­
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

a What is the initial acceleration blue car? of the

b How far apart are the two cars after 30 seconds?
A car and a motorbike start at the same time and travel in the same direction.

Their speeds are shown on the speed­time graph.

A
30 Cor

20 Motorbike
(m/s)

Speed
I)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (seconds)

~—

250 14.3 Speed­time graphs

 a What is the initial acceleration of the motorbike?
b i When are they travelling at the same speed?
ii How far apart are they at that time?
¢ How far does the car travel when it is moving faster than the motorbike?
EX A truck decelerated uniformly from 20 m/s to rest. It travelled 150 m.

Time (seconds)

a How long did it take to come to rest?

b What was the rate of deceleration?
10 A cyclist started from rest and accelerated at 1.2 m/s? for 5 seconds.
a What was the speed of the cyclist after 5 seconds?
b Sketch a speed­time graph for the 5 seconds.
¢ How far did the cyclist travel in the 5 seconds?

14.4 Curved graphs WE

AAA RAE RE A EE EE ym TTI YY

Distance­time and speed­time graphs are not always straight lines. Often they are curves.
This graph shows the distance travelled by a runner in a 10­second interval.
¥

PY)
hd
(m)

2
Distance

o
o = NA CD FN 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (seconds)

The runner goes 20 metres and then returns to the start.

To find the speed at any time, draw a tangent to the curve and find its gradient.

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 251

 £s aE
Example 5
For the runner described y
above, find the speed
after 2 seconds. E 201

Draw a tangent at the : ot FA

point (2, 10) a
straight line with
This is a 03 ; Ag : i Rg it am
the same gradient as the
curve at that point. Tos ds
To find the gradient, draw a triangle underneath the tangent.
BC. = 31.
Gradient = AB a = 7.75
The speed is 7.75 m/s
Because this value is found by drawing a tangent on a graph, it will be an approximate answer.
For a speed­time graph that is a curve, you can find the acceleration in a similar way. J

EXERCISE 14D
@ A car starts from rest and drives in a straight line.

This graph shows the distance from the start for the first 5 seconds.
.
50 rede

(m)

Distance

0 Li LJ 1 LJ LJ

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (seconds)

a Use this table of values to make a copy of the graph.

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 a 5
Distance (m) 0 2 8 18 32 50

b Draw atangentatx=2
c¢ Estimate the speed after 2 seconds.
d Estimate the speed after 4 seconds.

252 14.4 Curved graphs

3 A tennis ball is hit straight upwards.

This table shows the height of the ball.

0 1 2 3 4 5
0 25 (40 | 45 |40 | 25
Use the table to draw a graph of the height of the ball.
To Draw a tangent to estimate the speed after 2 seconds.
Nn Draw a tangent to estimate the initial speed (when the time = 0).
Qa What is the speed after 3 seconds?
” Estimate the speed after 5 seconds.
A kite is blown vertically up and then vertically down to the ground.

Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Height (m) 20 (27 |32 |35 [36 (35 [32 (27 (20 [11 |O
a Draw a graph to show the height of the kite.
b Draw a tangent to estimate speed of the kite after 2 seconds.
c¢ Estimate the speed after 7 seconds.
« d When is the speed 0 m/s?
e Estimate the speed when the kite hits the ground.
This table shows the speed of an accelerating car.

Time (s) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Speed (m/s) 16 | 25 |31 |35 |37 |38
a Draw a graph to show the speed of the car.
b Draw a tangent to estimate the acceleration after 1s.
¢ Estimate the acceleration after 2s.
d Estimate the acceleration after 4s.
& This table gives the speed of a car.

Time (s) 10 | 20 (30 |40 |50 [60 | 70

Speed (m/s) 36 [40 (36 (27 |16 |9 3
a Show the speed on a graph.
b Draw a tangent to estimate the acceleration after 10 seconds.
¢ When is the acceleration 0?
d Estimate the deceleration after 1 minute.

Chapter 14: Graphs in practical situations 253

 6 This table shows the speed of a car over an interval of 80 seconds.

Time (s) 10 (20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Speed (m/s) 15 | 19 18 15 12 1" 15 26
oO Draw a graph of the speed.
UT Find the acceleration after 10s.
Nn Find the deceleration after 40 s.
Qa Find the acceleration after 60 s.
oT When is the acceleration 0?

Check your progress

Core
* | can interpret graphs in practical situations
* | can understand and use travel graphs that involve distance or speed
* | can find the speed from the gradient of a distance~time graph
* | can understand and use conversion graphs

Extended
* | understand the idea of a rate of change
* | can estimate speed from the gradient of the tangent to a distance­time graph
* | can estimate acceleration or deceleration using the gradient of the tangent to a speed­time
graph

254 14.4 Curved graphs

 Straight­line graphs
Topics Level Key words W
1 Bedwing strstibeline CER
W\

9uadrant, coordinates,
negative coordinates,
graphs 9 9 i CORE | Cartesian coordinates, equation of line, Cartesian
plane, straight­line graph i
2 The equation y=mx +c
PEE
pu
ks CORE
—
BN
i
y
slope, gradient, intercept, coefficient
EL
| 3 More about straight­line
graphs

4 Solving equations
graphically

5 Parallel lines parallel

6 Points and lines midpoint, line segment

AI. ~~] 7
7 Perpendicular lines EXTENDED perpendicular

LU i 7
In this chapter you will learn how to:

Calculate the gradient of a straight line

from the coordinates of two points on it.
(E3.2)
® Construct tables of values for functions of E Calculate the length and the coordinates
the form ax + b, £x% + ax + b, (x # 0). where of the midpoint of a straight line from the
a and b are integer constants. (C2.11) coordinates of its end points. (E3.3)
e® Draw and interpret such graphs. (C2.11) wo Find the gradient of a line perpendicular
e Interpret and obtain the equation of a to a given line ­ find the gradient of
straight­line graph in the form y = mx + c. parallel and perpendicular lines. (E3.6)
(C3.4 and E3.4)
® Determine the equation of a straight line
parallel to a given line. (C3.5 and E3.5)
­
” Why this chapter matters
>
=~ The simplest type of graph is a straight­line graph. This shows that the value of one variable on
eo» the graph is always affected in a certain way by changes in the value of the other.
~
A graph gives you a good visual impression of the way two variables are related to each other.
This graph shows the results of an y
gs experiment that measured the voltage in 1.24
pl an electrical circuit when different currents A
were flowing. The points are approximately
in a straight line. 7
You could use this graph to find the voltage 0.84 ! A
for any current you choose. For example, if
you read up from 0.6 amps on the horizontal (volts)
0.6 | A
axis (the x­axis) to the graph line you find
o" that the voltage on the vertical axis (the Voltage
0.44 I;
v­axis) is 0.66 volts and if the current is 0.8 711
amps the voltage is 0.88 volts. /
> You can see that there is a constant /
Bi relationship between current and voltage: 0 a
the current in amps is 1.1 x the voltage in 0 02 04 06 08 1 ae
volts. You can show this as an equation: Current(amps)

y = 1.1x (voltage is on the y­axis and current is on the x­axis)

Then you can use this equation to find the voltage for any current you choose. You can also
use it to find the current for any voltage. Once you know the relationship between variables,
using the equation is quicker and easier than using the graph.

This connection between the geometry of graphs

and the algebra of equations was made by a
French mathematician, René Descartes in the 17th
century CE. This picture shows him at work.
The coordinates in such graphs are called Cartesian
coordinates (in Latin his name was Cartesius) and
the xy grid they appear on is called the Cartesian
plane.
The grid can be extended to include negative
values as well. The graphs and equations shown
on it are not always straight­line ones, as you will
see in later chapters.

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs

 Chapter 15

15.1 Drawing straight­line graphs

WAAR AAA AREAL EE EE EE EE EE ER ym TTT TT

Using coordinates
A set of axes can form four sectors called quadrants but, so far, all the points you have read or
plotted on graphs have been coordinates in the first quadrant (the top right section of a grid).
The grid below shows you how to read and plot coordinates in all four quadrants and how to
find the equations of vertical and horizontal lines. This involves using negative coordinates.
The coordinates of a point are given in the form (x, y), where x is the number along the x­axis
and y is the number up the y­axis. These are sometimes called Cartesian coordinates after their
inventor, René Descartes.
The grid is sometimes called the Cartesian plane.
The coordinates of the four points on the grid are:
A(2, 3) B(­1, 2) C(­3, ­4) D(1,­3)
Line X
3 = = 5 1 |

yA
­ 1 — ml S— 4

lt = 3­4 ! XA 3
| |

xB 2 wl 1 |

| |
1 | A _ ! !
| | |
| | | |
1 1 I 0 1 1 =e i
­4 ­3 ­2 ­1 1 2 4 x
— =]

Line ¥

SET. ail D
a

­ ol: 4 — {

The x­coordinate of all the points on line X is 3.

So you can say the equation of line X is x = 3.
The y­coordinate of all the points on line Y is ­2.
So you can say the equation of line Y is y = ­2.

Note: The equation of the x­axis is y = 0 and the equation of the y­axis is x = 0.

258 15.1 Drawing straight­line graphs

Straight­line graphs
An equation of the form y = mx + ¢ where m and ¢ are numbers will give a straight­line graph.

( T)
Example 1
Draw the graph of y = 4x ­ 5 for values of x from 0 to 5. This is usually written as 0 < x = 5.
Choose three values for x: these should be the highest and lowest x­values and one in between.
Work out the y­values by substituting the x­values into the equation.
Keep a record of your calculations in a table, as shown below.

B 3 [5

Whenx=0, y=4(0)­5=­5 Po
This gives the point (0, ­5). y dd 7
Whenx=3,y=4(3)­5=7 16
This gives the point (3, 7). 15 a
14
When x=5, y=4(5)­5= 15 i /
This gives the point (5, 15). | L
Hence your table is: ey
0 13 Is * : J

517 |15 :
8 /
You now have to decide the extent (range) of the axes. You can g y
find this out by looking at the coordinates that you have so far. ® /
5
The smallest x­value is 0, the largest is 5. The smallest y­value is ­5, 4 /
the largest is 15. 3
Now draw the axes, plot the points and complete the graph. 2 /
1

3
0 |f2 SEES
’
­2
pe
ar
#4
\_ 4

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 259

 It is nearly always a good idea to choose 0 as one of the x­values. You will often be given the range
for the x­values and a set of axes to draw your graph.

EXERCISE 15A
Read through these hints before drawing the straight­line graphs in this exercise.
* Use the highest and lowest values of x given in the range.
* Do not pick x­values that are too close together, such as 1 and 2. Try to space them out so that
you can draw a more accurate graph.
* Always label your graph with its equation. This is particularly important when you are drawing
two graphs on the same set of axes.
Create a table of values.
Draw the graph of y = 3x + 4 for x­values from 0 to 5 (0 = x < 5).

Draw the graph of y=2x­Sfor0 = x <5. Advice and Tips

Draw the graph of y = is 3 for 0 = x = 10. Complete the table of
Draw the graph of y =3x + 5 for­3 = x = 3. cd ahi 5 pig
Draw the graph of y = 3 +4for­6<x<6. xp,
On the same set of axes, draw the graphsof y=3x­2andy=2x+1for0 <x <5.
To At which point do the two lines intersect?

o On the same axes, draw the graphsof y=4x­5and y=2xr+3for0 <=. <5.
To At which point do the two lines intersect?

On the same axes, draw the graphs of y = = ­1andy= Sn 2for0=x=<12.

2 At which point do the two lines intersect?

On the same axes, draw the graphsof y=3x+1andy=3x­2for0 < x < 4.

b Do the two lines intersect? If not, why not?
a Copy and complete the table to draw the graph of x + y=5for0 = x < 5.

0 |1 |2 [3 |4 |5
5 3 1
b Now draw the graph of x + y=7for0 =x =< 7.
A line has the equation y = 1.5x + 3.

Decide whether each of these points is on the line or not.

a (6,12) b (0,4.5)
c (2,6) d (10, 13)
e (2,0 f (­4,­6)

260 15.1 Drawing straight­line graphs

 w Thisis a graph of y=2x­7.
Uo
Use the graph to solve these equations. OA

a 2x­7=5 WwW

b 2¢x­7=0 Wp

¢ 2x­7=­3
­

2.9 2 Ya5 8"

» This is a graph of y = 0.5x + 15.

y
— | 30

be 25

120

Fam 5
* F ol T T xT T © x 4
~35­30­25­20­15­10 5.9 5 0 15 20 25

Use the graph to solve these equations.

a 05x+15=25 b 05x+15=10

15.2 The equation y = mx +c

MAAR A RRA A RA EE EA A Al EE EE EE EE ER RRR a III

Gradient
The slope of a line is called its gradient. The steeper the slope of the
line, the larger the value of the gradient. Te T a
t
The graph shows the line with equation y = 2x + 3. You can measure the 6 us
gradient of the line by drawing a right­angled triangle that has part of =
the line as its hypotenuse (sloping side). The gradient is then given by: 3
gradient = distance measured up Ai
distance measured along | 1 .
6 rf Hs F214 1

3 I]
=2
In fact, if the equation of the line is y = mx + ¢, then m is the gradient of the line.

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 261

 fF

Example 2
Show that the line with the equation y = 0.5x ­ 1 has a gradient of 0.5.

­2 0 2 4 6
­2 | 1 0 1 2

)
~

[a2x2 0 Tals TeIs

i
l
­a
i

This is a graph of the line.

From the shaded triangle, you can see that the gradient is:
3 =0.5.
\ 6
7

What does the ‘c" in y = mx + c represent?

From the graphs above you can see it is the value of y, where the line crosses the y­axis.

y= 2x + 3 passes through (0, 3).

y = 0.5x —1 passes through (0, ­1).
Note that a line that slopes downwards from left to right has a
negative gradient. y=­x
|
This line has a gradient of ­1. |
a a a

[=

IN

EE
1 nN

|
———
1 HEE
­

Summary
When a graph can be expressed in the form y = mx + ¢, the coefficient of x, which is m, is the gradient, i

and the constant term, which is ¢, is the intercept on the y­axis.

This means that if you know the gradient, m, of a line and its intercept, c, on the y­axis, you can write
down the equation of the line immediately.
For example, if m = 3 and ¢ = ­5, the equation of the line is y = 3x ­ 5.
This gives a method of finding the equation of any line drawn on a pair of coordinate axes.

262 15.2 The equation y = mx + ¢

 Example 3
Find the equation of the line shown in diagram A.

THR HEE |
©

——

First, find where the graph crosses the y­axis (diagram B).
Soc=2
Next, measure the gradient of the line (diagram C).
y­step=8 :

EXERCISE 15B
® You drew the graphs of the lines with these equations in Exercise 15A, questions 1­5.

In each case state the gradient.

Then check from your drawing that you are correct.

a y=3x+4

b y=2x­5

Cy ats3 3

d y=3x+5

e |=
y==­+4
Ww

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 263

 ® Give the equation of each of these lines, all of which have positive gradients. (Each square
represents one unit.)
a P 7 b 2} 1c 1 _
4
A A

F
A

1
2
1 ­
1

1
2­ 2
BARIUY.BRE) 41224 a] 20 FT
­2 ­2 ~2
­4 i
1 |
ral I I A

d Iv
1
e I
f I
I

4
A A A

F
T |x2
—1— 2 2

BYR EE 4­4 ~41­2411214 =A 1­221

4}
: +
­4 74
1 I

In each of these grids, there are two lines. (Each square represents one unit.)
a 4 b Bet Cc ab |
nN

4­2 ONT [~4]> 43 [4] 43

N
ye.

ESE) NS

For each grid find the equation of each of the lines.

Give the equation of each of these lines, all of which have negative gradients. (Each square
represents one unit.)
a Pp b 1) c 52
¢ 4
Li
A
2
T

at­212 2­4 ­4+­21 4 41­2] 4

niLl)
i 1
. T

a =
| | | |
d 12 e Iti
ih i
JSr4
\ 9
&

5
at ­2T 824 ­4t­N 241s

4+| :
“+N
|

Er ——

264 15.2 The equation y = mx + ¢

 Chapter 15 . Topic 3

5 The line y = 4x + ¢ passes through (1, 7).

a Find the value of c.
b Where does the line cross the y­axis?

. The line y = mx — 6 passes through (3, 6).

a Find the value of m.
b What is the gradient of the line?

iA Here are the equations of three lines.

y=4x­2

y=3x­4

y=4x+5

Which of these lines are parallel? Explain how you know.

Find the equation of a straight line that passes through the point (5, 3) and the origin.

a Draw a graph of the line y = 0.5x + 3.

b Draw the reflection of the line y = 0.5x +3 in the y­axis.
¢ Find the equation of the line in part b.
d Draw the reflection of the line y = 0.5x + 3 in the x­axis.
© Find the equation of the line in part d.

15.3 More about straight­line

graphs [T&T
The equation of a straight line is not always written in the form y = mx + ¢
For example, y = =2x + 3 is the equation of a straight line with a gradient of ­2 and an intercept on
the y­axis of (3, 0)

By adding 2x to each side the equation can be writtenas y+ 2x=3o0r2x+y=3

By subtracting 3 from each side it can be written as 2x +y­3=0
Here are some more examples.

Equation Alternatives
yv=­4x­2 y+4x=­20rdx+y+2=0
y==5x+1 y+5x=1orS5x+y=1

3.
y=35x+1 2y=3x+2

y=4x­12 y=4(x ­ 3)

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 265

 The equation of a straight nes 3c. 4y = 24
ent of the line.

4y=­3x+24
y=­3 +6

SY NEE

x=8 Thepoint (8, 0)isalsoo

Draw the line by joining (0,
6) and (8, 0)

EXERCISE 15C
5 The equation of a straight line is 5x + 2y = 10
a Write the equation in the form y = mx +¢
b Find the gradient and the intercept on the y­axis.
¢ Draw a graph of the line.
CY) The equation of a straight line is x + 3y = 15
a Write the equation in the form y = mx + ¢
b Find the gradient and the intercept on the y­axis.
¢ Draw a graph of the line.
3 The equation of a straight line isx + 2y + 6=0
a Write the equation in the form y = mx + ¢
b Find the gradient and the intercept on the y­axis.
¢ Draw a graph of the line.

266 15.3 More about straight­line graphs

 Chapter 15. Topic 4

a Here are the equations of straight lines.

Write each one in the form y = mx + ¢
a x+y+20=0 b y=3(x+5) c¢ 7x+10y=30
d x­5y=40 e 2(y+1)=3x f 12­2y=x
5 Find the gradient and the intercept on the yids for each of the lines in question 4.

6 Find the gradient of each of these straight lines.

a 4x+4y=15 b x=3y+6 ¢ y=6(x­5)
d 5r+10y=28 e 10x=5y+28 f 28x­5y=10

Match the equation to the line.

a x­y=4 b y­x=4 C x+y+4=0 d x+y=4=0
8 Find the odd one out. Give a reason for your answer.

a 2x+3y=12 b y=4­2x C 6y=—4r+24 d 3x­2y=12 e x=6­15y

{ 9 Find the points where each of these straight lines cross the axes.
a 3x+5y=45 b 2y=20­x ¢ 12x+6y+60=0

15.4 Solving equations graphically

AAA AR RRA RA AE EE EAE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE FE EE EE ER ER REE)

Here is a graph of y = 0.73x ­ 1.15

8 J
2.

1 wt?

[7 | 37% 3 3 3%
7
­
pe
­2

<3

You can use this graph to solve equations.

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 267

 Example 5
Use the graph to solve the equations:
0.73x­1.15=0
0.73x­1.15=­2.2
0.73x­2.65=0

Since the equation of the line is y = 0.73x — 1.15 then 0.73x — 1.15 = 0 when the y coordinate is
zero.
This is where the line crosses the x­axis,
Reading from the graph, x= 1.6
Because this is taken from a graph, it can only be correct to 1 d.p.
To solve the equation 0.73x ­ 1.15 = ­2.2, find ­2.2 go across the line and then up to the
x­axis. The lines on the graph show this.

The solution is the x­coordinate. That is x= 1.6

1f0.73x ­3.05=0then 0.73x­ 1.15­19=0
$00.73x­1.15=1.9
Find 1.9 on the y­axis, go across to the line and down to the x­axis.
The solution is x= 4.2
=

EXERCISE 15D

Es
»

This is a graph of y = 2.45 ­ 1.37x

Use it to solve these equations:

a 245­13%x=0
b 245­137%x=3
€ 245=137%­15

268 15.4 Solving equations graphically

 2

ra
T T T T ee
5 4 ­3 =) 1 2 WA FN
5x

=i

=o

This is a graph of y = 0.46x + 0.73

Use the graph to solve these equations:

a 046x+073=0 b 0.46x+0.73=25 c¢ 046x+173=0

® Teg
1­

& o wif
=

2]

This is a graph of 2.7y + 1.9x = 4.42

Use the graph to solve these equations:

a 19x=4.42 b 2.7y=4.42 c 27+19%=4.42

| « 0)

60 ­40 20 90 2040 640 80*

~20­

­40­

This is a graph of y = 14.2 ­ 0.62x

Use the graph to solve these equations:

a 14.2­0.62x=0 b 14.2 ­0.62x=32 c 442­062x=0

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 269

 Chapter 15

2 <1 YT 3 4 fe wn o ~N
­

This is a graph of y= 2.5 ­ 0.31x and y = 0.42x ­ 0.6

Use the graph to solve these equations:

a 042x­06=23
b 25­031x=1.6
c¢ 0.42x­0.6=2.5­0.31x

® 300}
wT
y

~3 2 3 9 1 NA WA = ~

­100­

This is a graph of y = 43.8x + 136.2

Use it to solve these equations:

a 438x+36.2=0
b 87.6x+ 272.4 =500
c 438x + 1362 = 1500

15.5 Parallel lines

MAA ARERR EE A EE A A EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EER RR a III ITI ™M TT

Consider the line with the equation y = 0.5x + 1. TTT T5 TTT

HT EE 0.5¢+3
The gradient is 0.5. Any line parallel to it will have TTP 7T| Cl PS
the same gradient. HA aman P
CIA lr
Examples are y= 0.5x + 3 and y = 0.5x ­ 4. = = PT 1
They all have 0.5 as the coefficient of x. an 3 HH y= 0.5¢­4
2 0 To T4 Te®
PET
EHH
ai HH
270 15.5 Parallel lines
 Example 6
Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 4x that passes through (2, 5). ­
The line will have the equation y = 4x + ¢ for some value of c.
Substitute the coordinates of (2, 5) into the equation.
| S5=4x2+c¢

5=8+c¢

c=­3

So the equation is y = 4x ­ 3. er
\ ­

EXERCISE 15E
® A line has the equation y = 2x + 6.
a Show that (3, 12) is on this line.
oT What is the gradient of the line?
nn Draw the graph of the line.
Qa Find the equation of a parallel line passing through the origin.
+@ Find the equation of a parallel line passing through (0, 3).

@ A line has the equation y = Ie ­1

a Find the coordinates of the points where the line crosses the y­axis and the x­axis.
b Find the equation of a parallel line through (8, 5).
@® A line has the equation y = 8 — 2x.
a What is the gradient of this line?
oT Where does the line cross the x­axis?
Nn Draw the line on a grid.
Qa A parallel line passes through the origin. What is the equation?
” Find the equation of a parallel line through (5, 4).

The line with equation y = 5x + k passes through (2, 11). Find the value of &.
b A line that is parallel to the line in part a passes through (4, 11).
Find the equation of this line.

@® The two lines in this graph are parallel. . y=fx+4

Find the equation of the lower line. ad

7 Xx

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 271

 Chapter 15

. The three lines on this graph are parallel. . y=2

Find the equations of a and b.
b a

a /J2 ®

® The equation of this line can be written as y + 2x = 6. \ y

a Show that (1, 4) is on this line. 6

b Rearrange the formula in the form y = mx + c.

¢ What is the gradient of the line?
d Find the equation of a line that is parallel to \ *
this line, but passes through the origin.

15.6 Points and lines IE

PB EE NNN tN NNN NNN ltr NN Prt TE leet ite enNettt i cssssstensessnssssnssnssse

The equation of a line

If you know the coordinates of two points on a straight line you have enough information to find the
equation of the line between them.
Consider the line through (­2, 2) and (4, 5). y |
6 4,5)
Using the triangle shown: ) nied A
.__. _ difference between y­coordinates (2,2) 1 !
gredient = difference between x­coordinates Pai
b 5­2
4­2
3
Rie 0
Ha
ru BREEN]
"6
=0.5
So the equation must be y = 0.5x + ¢ for some value of c.
Use the coordinates of either of the points to find c.
Usingx=4andy=5:
5=05x4+c¢
5=2+c¢
c=3

So the equation is y = 0.5x + 3.

272 15.6 Points and lines

Midpoints
The midpoint of a line segment is the same distance from each end. TTT W :
Tofind the coordinates of the midpoint, add the coordinates of the Tel nal ­
end points and divide by 2. 2.2)
In the example shown: i Is TTT
eo
midpoint
(244 245)|=
is Ho a
1­2 2­1 13
1, 3.5) 2H

The distance between two points

You can use Pythagoras’ theorem (see Chapter 25 section 1) to find TIP 11
the distance between two points. H ! (4,5) ­
The lengths of the sides of the right­angled triangle shown are the SEEAEE­aan
APT is 2=3
differences between the x­coordinates and the y­coordinates of the |F22 ) Lig
end points. Fr
In this case the lengths are 3 and 6. n ine 1 hs
1 1

Distance between points = V3 4+ 62= Vas =6.71 to 2 decimal places.

EXERCISE 15F
Ey Find the gradient of the line through each pair of points.
(4, 0) and (6, 6)
b (0, 3)and (8,7)
¢ (2,­2) and (4, 6)
d (1,5) and (5,1)
e (­4, 6) and (6, 1)
f (­5,­3) and (4, 3)
i) Find the equation of the line joining each pair of points.
a (0,­3)and (4,5)
b (­4,2) and (2,5)
¢ (­1,­6) and (2, 6)
d (1,5) and (4, ­4)
Find the midpoints of the line segments joining the points in question 1.

Ais (­3, 5), Bis (1, 1) and Cis (5, 9).

a Draw the triangle ABC on a coordinate grid.
b Find the equation of the straight line through A and C.
¢ Find the midpoint of AB.
d Find the equation of the straight line through the midpoints of AC and BC.

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 273

 Chapter 15 pic 7

5 Find the length of the line segment joining each pair of points.
a (2,2) and (6, 5) b (­3,2)and (9,7)
c¢ (1,5) and (7,­3) d (­6,­4) and (9, 4)
6 A circle is drawn with its centre at (2, 1) and radius 5.

Show that (­3, 1), (6, 4) and (5, ­3) all lie on the circle.

7 Show that the triangle ABC in question 4 is an isosceles triangle.

15.7 Perpendicular lines 0&0

The lines in this diagram are perpendicular to each other.
This means that the angle between them is a right angle, 90°. y
You can use the dotted triangles to work out the gradients. 3 —[ 1 3 1
The gradient of line A is 2 7 \§ + 1 u

The gradient of line B is 2

? or ­1.5. TTY AT |
5 AN A
You can see that: — + r 3 j
the gradient of line B = —(the reciprocal of line B) Id my | \ |
You can also see that the product of the gradients is —1: I A =
2 3
$x­3=­1 ZL EEN
& ­
2.3 48 IN '
The gradients of perpendicular lines usually have this 2 | |B
property. The only exception is when the gradient of a [ |
one of the lines is zero.

( xample 7
ckasls . »
Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to 2x + y = 3 and passes through the point (4, 6).

The given equation is equivalent to y = ­2x + 3.

The gradient is ­2.
The gradient of the line pemendicter to this line is ­ (Find the reciprocal,
change the sign).
The equation you want is y = 2x + ¢ where c is a number.
Find the value of c by substituting the coordinates (4, 6) in the equation.
6=1xd+c + ,Sm2e _ 4 c=4
‘The equation of the perpendicular line is y= Jae 4,

5 J
274 15.7 Perpendicular lines
You can check the answer to example 5 by drawing a diagram. y
The lines are perpendicular. 4 [ ]
’ = p = 1, + 4
’ rs
1] & |

Ne |

|
PN
JN |
8 2.0
ol ¢ 3 4 5 6
§
E |
EENEEN IEE
EXERCISE 15G
P Work out the gradient of a line that is y
perpendicular to: 8 /
a lineA . B
b lineB
«¢ line C. 4

IPP AERE REEL NR

W 11
Here are the equations of two lines.
v=2+5x S5y+x=6
Show that the lines are perpendicular.

Work out the gradient of a line that is perpendicular to:

a y=3v b y=1x­15 c y=35­0.4x d y=75x+57

Work out the gradient of a line that is perpendicular to:
a x+v+5=0 b y43x=4 ¢ 3x+4y=5 d 12y­2x=15.
Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to y = 5x and passes through:
a the origin b (0,10) c¢ (10,0).

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 275

 6 Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to 5x + 3y = 30 and passes
through (­20, ­10).

® Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular

to AB and passes through C. Ne

GO

WwW

nN

3
Lo 1 —
LAY

A is the point (­4, 5) and B is the point (6, 7).

The perpendicular bisector of AB is a line that is perpendicular to AB and passes through its
midpoint.

Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB.

This list includes the equations of two pairs of perpendicular lines.

a 3x+5/=7
b 6x+3y=7
€ 3y­5x=7
d 8x­4y=7
e 4y+2x=7

Which is the odd one out?

The centre of a circle is the point C(3, 2).

N=

The circle passes through the point P(­1, 4). >

Work out the equation of the tangent to the circle at P.

8

Ww

Nn ie
­

[J
—g
4

nN

276 15.7 Perpendicular lines

Check your progress
Core
| can interpret the equation of a straight­line graph in the form y = mx + ¢
I can find the equation of a straight line from a graph

I can find the equation of a straight line parallel to a given line

Extended
| can interpret and find the equation of a straight­line graph given in different forms
I can find the gradient of a line parallel to a given line
I can find the gradient of a line perpendicular to a given line
| can find the equation of a straight line passing through two points

Chapter 15: Straight­line graphs 277

 Graphs of functions
Topics Level Key words

1 Quadratic graphs quadratic graph, quadratic equation, TN

[cone |
parabola ­

2 Turning points on a
quadratic graph turning point

3 Reciprocal graphs [core | reciprocal

4 More graphs cubic, exponential functions, asymptotes

5 Exponential graphs exponential growth, exponential decay

6 Estimating gradients gradient, tangent

In this chapter you will learn how to:

——

® Construct tables of values for Construct tables of values and draw graphs for | B
functions of the form + 2 + ax +b, functions of the form ax" (and simple sums of
4 (x # 0) where a and b are integer these) and functions of the form ab' + ¢ where a
X
constants. (C2.11) and ¢ are rational constants and n =­2, ­1, 0, 1,
2, 3.(E2.11)
® Draw and interpret such graphs.
(C2.11) Solve associated equations approximately by
graphical methods. (E2.11)
® Solve quadratic equations
Draw and interpret graphs representing
approximately by graphical
exponential growth and decay problems. (E2.11)
methods. (C2.11)
Estimate gradients of curves by drawing
tangents. (E2.12)
 . ­
»
LI

Why this chapter matters

There are many curves that can be seen in everyday life. Did you know that all these curves can
be represented mathematically?
Below are a few examples of simple curves that you may have noticed. Can you think of others?

In mathematics, curves can take many shapes.

These can be demonstrated using a cone, as
shown on the right and below. If you make a
cone out of modelling clay, you can see this for If you slice the cone parallel

yourself. As you look at these curves, try to think to the base, the shape you
are left with is a circle
of where you have seen them in your own life.

i" OU slice the cone at an angle «7 If you slice the cone verti: ally
10 the base, the shape you ss the shape you are left with
are left with is an ellipse feds "ee
is a hyperbola

The curve that will be particularly important in

this chapter is the parabola. Car headlights are
shaped like parabolas.

If you slice the cone porallel to

its side, the shape you are
left with is a parabola

All parabolas can be represented by quadratic

graphs. In this chapter you will look at how to
use quadratic equations to draw graphs that The suspension cables on this bridge are also
have this kind of curve. parabolas.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 279

 16.1 Quadratic graphs
FE rrr rr rr rr NNN NINN NEN NNN Ir Ir err eal ersieEnsncesssnsssscncsnssssnnes

A graph with a U or N shape is a quadratic graph.

A quadratic graph has an equation that involves a ‘squared’ term, such as 12.
All of the following are quadratic equations and each would produce a quadratic graph.
y=x2

y=x2+5
y=x­3x

y=r+5x+6

y=x+2x­5
8 3
Example 1
Draw the graph of y=? for­3 < y= 3.

First make a table, as shown below.

­3 [­2 | 0 1 2
9 4 1 0 1 4 9

Now draw axes, with ­3 =< x < 3 and

0 =< y=9, plot the points and
join them to make a smooth curve.
This is the graph of y = x2.
This type of graph is often referred
to as a parabola.

NG

280 16.1 Quadratic graphs

 Here are some of the more common mistakes that you should try to avoid, when you are
drawing a curve.
* When the points are too far apart, a curve tends to ‘wobble’.
Wobbly curve

* Drawing curves in small sections leads to ‘feathering’.

Feathering ge ae
J
7”
Vs
«

* The place where a curve should turn smoothly is drawn ‘flat’.

Flat bottom

* Acurve is drawn through a point that, clearly, has been incorrectly plotted.
Miscalculated
point y

A quadratic curve drawn correctly will always be a smooth curve.

Here are some tips that will make it easier for you to draw smooth, curved graphs.

* If you are right­handed, turn your piece of paper or your exercise book round so that you draw
from left to right. Your hand may be steadier this way than if you try to draw from right to left
or away from your body.
If you are left­handed, you may find drawing from right to left the more accurate way.
* Move your pencil over the points as a practice run without drawing the curve.
~* Doone continuous curve and only stop at a plotted point.
* Use a sharp pencil and do not press too heavily, so that you may easily rub out mistakes.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 281

 V! Example 2
a Draw the graphof y=x*+2x­3for­4 = x = 2.
b Use your graph to find the value of y when x = 1.6.
¢ Use your graph to find solve the equation x? + 2x­3=1.

a Draw a table like this, to help work out each step of the calculation.

Generally, you do not need to work out all values in a table. If you use a calculator, you need
only to work out the y­value. The other rows in the table are just working lines to break
down the calculation.
b To find the corresponding 6
y­value for any value of x, you start on the :
x­axis at that x­value, go up to the curve, 5 1k yma? 20­3
across to the y­axis and read off the y­value. VaRERE 1
This procedure is marked on the graph with 4
arrows.
Sowhenx=1.6,y=2.8.
1 Ema
¢ Ifx*+2x­3=1, thismeansthaty=1. 2
This time, start at 1 on the y­axis and read
1 fA11

y­value of 1.
EREEEE
EEE
1 1
Again, this procedure is marked =e
INE LE

on the graph with arrows.

Sowheny=1,xy=­3.20rx=1.2.
There are two possible values of x that 1
make ¥ + 2x­3=1. 3
Notice that the graph is symmetrical. The
equation of the line of symmetry is x = 1,
C a nd thee lowest po point is ((­1, ­4). 1

The solutions of an equation like x? + 2x ­ 3 = 0 are called the roots of the equation.
Look at the graph in Example 2. You can see that the roots of the equation x? + 2x­3=0
are­3 and 1.

282 16.1 Quadratic graphs

 EXERCISE 16A
a a Copy and complete the table for y = x? + 2.
11
­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3 ­

1 2 6

b Drawagraphofy=x*+2for­3 =x <3.
To I :
a Copy and complete the table for y=x*­3xfor­3 =x <5. ­3 3
Use your table to plot the graph. A
18
­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 3 4
4
­6
J) VOT [BN Tat
­2 ­3 5
65

b Use your graph to find the value of y when x = 3.5. )

Advice and Tips
¢ What are the coordinates of the lowest point on
the graph? You
d What is the equation of the line of symmetry?
e Use your graph to solve the equation x*~ 3x =5. E
® a Copy and complete the table for the graph of y = + ­ 2x ­ 8 for
­3 = x =< 5. Use your table to plot the graph.

x ­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3 4
v £:g 8

en
©T Find the roots of the equation x¥*­2x­8=0
Nn
Use your graph to find the value of y when x = 0.5.
a Use your graph to solve the equation +> ­ 2x ­8 = 3.
|
| . a Copy and complete the table for y= x*­5y+4for­1 <x <6.
Use your table to plot the graph.

1] 0 1 2 3 | 4 | 5 | 6
4 <2
What are the coordinates of the lowest point on the graph?
NT What is the equation of the line of symmetry?
Q Use your graph to find the value of y when x =­0.5.
0 Find the roots of the equation xX? ­5x+4=0
­ Use your graph to solve the equation x ­5x +4 = 3.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 283

 a Copy and complete the table for y= x? + 2x­ 1 for­4 = x < 2.
Use your table to plot the graph.

­4 ­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2
7
b Use your graph to find the approximate values of the roots of the equation x? —6x +3 =0
¢ Use your graph to find the approximate values of the roots of the equation 2x­1=0
d Use your graph to find the approximate values of the roots of the equation x? + 2x = 2

a Copy and complete the table to draw the graph of y = 12 ­ x? for ­4 = x =< 4.
­4 ­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3 4
n 3
b Use your graph to find the y­value when x = 1.5.
¢ Use your graph to solve the equation 12 ­ x* = 0.
d Use your graph to solve the equation 12 ­x* = 7.

a Copy and complete the table to draw the graph of y = x? + 4x for ­5 =< x =< 2.
­5 ­4 ­3 ­2 ­1 0 2
25 4
­20 ­8
5 ­4 wilia|l=|­
b Where does the graph cross the x­axis?
¢ Use your graph to find the y­value when x = ­2.5.
d Use your graph to solve the equation x? + 4x = 3.
a Copy and complete the table to draw the graph of y=x*­6x+3for­1 =x = 7.
­1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 ­5 ­2
b Where does the graph cross the x­axis?
¢ Use your graph to find the y­value when x = 3.5.
d Use your graph to solve the equation x» = 6x + 3 = 5.

y=5x­2?
a Copy and complete this table of values.
­1 0 1 2 3 Bl 5 6

b Draw a graph of v=5x­+* for­1 <x < 6.

¢ What is the highest point on the graph?
d What is the equation of the line of symmetry on the graph?
e Solve the equation 5x = 2.

284 16.1 Quadratic graphs

 Chapter 16 . Topic 2

16.2 Turning points on a

quadratic graph &0
Here is the equation of the quadratic graph from Example 2: y=x* + 2x­3

In Section 13.5 you saw how to write expressions like x2 + 2x —3 in completed square form.

y=r+2x­3=(x+1?­1­3 Advice and Tips

=(x+10°­4 Look at Section 13.5 if
Now (x + 1)? = 0 and only equals 0 when x = ­1 you have forgotten how
to do this.
This means that x? + 2x —3 has a minimum value of ­4 when
x=­4

This means that (­1, ­4) on the graph of y= x* + 2x ­3

It is called a turning point.
It is a point where the graph changes direction.

*Example 3
2
a Find the turning point of the graph of y=x­3x­3
b Sketch the graphof y=x*­3x­3

a Write x ­ 3x ­ 3 in completed square form.

P¥=­3xr­3=(x­1502­15­3
=(x­15¢­5.25
(x = 1.5)? = 0 when x = 1.5 and so the turning point is (1.5, ­5.25)
b To find a point on the curve, let x = 0 and then y = ­3
Hence (0, ­3) is­on the curve.

You can draw a sketch using (1.5, 5.25) and (0, ­3)
P

5 |

\
«\ /
Ne?

Notice that, by symmetry, (3, ­3) is also on the curve.

& 4

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 285

 Chapter 16 . Topic 3

EXERCISE 16B
és) The equation of a graph isy=x*­2x­8
a Write x? ­ 2x ­ 8 in‘completed square form.
b Find the coordinates of the turning point of the graph.
c Solve the equation ¥ ­2x­8=0
d Hence sketch the graph of y =x? = 2x ­ 8
The equation of a graph is y = x? + 10x + 21
Write x? + 10x + 21 in completed square form.
T Find the coordinates of the turning point of the graph.
nn Find the roots of the equation x* + 10x +21 =0
Qa Sketch the graph of y = x? + 10x + 21

oO Write x? ­ 7x + 10 in completed square form.

T Find the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of y = x* = 7x + 10
Nn Solve the equation x* ­ 7x + 10=0
a Sketch the graph of y =x? = 7x + 10

The equation of a graph is y = x = 6x + 12

a Find the intercept on the y­axis.
b Find the turning point of the graph.
c Sketch the graph of y = x? = 6x + 12
d Explain why the graph shows that the equation x? ­ 6x + 12 = 0 has no solution.
a Find the turning point of the graph of y = x? + 20x + 40
b Sketch the graph of y = x? + 20x + 40
Find the smallest possible value of x ­ 25x + 100

The equation of a curve is y = x? + bx + ¢ where b and c¢ are constants.

The intercept on the y­axis is (0, 14).

The turning point of the graph is (5, 11)

Find the values of b and c.

16.3 Reciprocal graphs

A reciprocal equation has the form y =
Examples of reciprocal equations are: y= ! y= 4Ty ms 3
x
All reciprocal graphs have a similar shape and some symmetry properties.

286 16.3 Reciprocal graphs

£ &

Example 4
Complete the table to draw the graph of y = 1 for­4=x<4.

Bo 1]2[3]a
i
Values are rounded to two decimal places, as it is unlikely that you could plot a value more
accurately than this. The completed table looks like this.

x ­4 ­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3 4
a 0.25 ( ­0.33 | ­0.5 ­1 ­ 1 0.5 0.33 | 0.25

There is no value for x = 0 because 1/0 is undefined.

The graph plotted from these values is shown in A. This does not include much of the graph
and does not show the properties of the reciprocal function. If you take x­values from ­0.8 to
0.8 in steps of 0.2, you get the next table.

­08 | ­06 | ­04 | ­0.2 | 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

­1.25 | ­1.67 | ­25 ­5 5 2.5 1.67 | 1.25

Plotting these points as well gives the graph in B.

A OS B

ME

0 2 3 4% Y 2_8,;4%
1 1
= ­2

3 3
­4 ­4
­5 5
The graph in B shows these properties.
¢ The lines y = x and y = —x are lines of symmetry.
* The closer x gets to zero, the nearer the graph gets to the y­axis.

* Asx increases, the graph gets closer to the x­axis.

The graph never actually touches the axes, it just gets closer and
closer to them.

These properties are true for all reciprocal graphs.

— E.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 287

 EXERCISE 16C
&® a Copy and complete the table to draw the graph of y = 2 for­4<x=4,
Xr

0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4

10 4 1 0.5
b Use your graph to find the y­value when x = 2.5.
¢ Use your graph to solve the equation 2. 7.
xX

d Use your graph to solve the equation 2 =­1.25.

a Copy and complete the table to draw the graph of y = 2 for­20 = x = 20.

0.2 0.4 0.5 1 2 5 10 15 20

25 10 2.5 0.25
b On the same axes, draw the line y = x + 10.
¢ Use your graph to solve the equation 2 =x+ 10.

Draw a graph of y = 2 for­4<x <4.

Use a table of values like the one in question 1.

a Complete this table.

b Draw agraphofy= 2 for ­20 = x = 20.

¢ On the same axes, draw the line with the equation 2x ­ 10.
d Use your graph to solve the equation 20 =2x­10.

16.4 More graphs [#1

Cubic graphs
A cubic function or graph is one that contains a term in x*. The following are examples of
cubic graphs.

y=x* y=x+3x y=2+2+x4+1

The techniques used to draw them are exactly the same as those for quadratic and reciprocal graphs.
For example, here is a table of values and graph of y = * =x? = 4x + 4

­3 [25 | =2 | ­15 | ­0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

­20.00| ­7.88 | 0.00 | 4.38 | 6.00 | 5.63 | 4.00 | 1.88 | 0.00 |­0.88 | 0.00 | 3.38 | 10.00

288 16.4 More graphs

This graph has two turning points.
These have approximate coordinates of (­1, 6) and (1.5, ­0.9).

b Draw a graph of y=2+2

x

x ­4 ­3 ­2
a 2.25 2.44 3 2.44 | 2.25

There is no value for x=0

b To see what happens near x = 0 find more values of y.
‘ Ify=0.50r­0.5 then x = 18 so (0.5, 18) and (­0.5, 18) are I
on the curve.
If x is a large positive or negative value, the curve is close
to the line x=2
The line x = 2 is called an asymptote to the curve.
If y is large, the curve is close to the y­axis (the line x = 0).
The y­axis is also an asymptote.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 289

 EXERCISE 16D B
1 Draw the graph of y = ¥® for­2 = x = 2.

@ a Complete the table to draw the graph of y = 0.5: for ­2.5 < x < 2.5.

­25| ­2 |­15| <1 |[­05 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

­1.69 0.00 7.81
b Use your graph to solve the equation 0.5% = 6.
3 a Complete the table to draw the graph of y = +* + 3 for ­2.5 < x < 2.5.

b
mm ­25(
­12.63
­2 |­15| 1
2.00
Use your graph to solve the equation
[­05

+*
0
3.00 | 3.13
+ 3 = 0.
0.5 1 1.5 2
11.00
2.5

a Complete the table to draw the graph of y= x*­ 2x + Sfor­2 < x < 2.

oT
­ 2 [15]
1.00 | 4.63
­1 | ­05 0
5.00 | 4.13
Use your graph to solve the equation + ­ 2x + 5 = 3.
0.5 1 1.5 2

Nn
Use your graph to find the root of the equation x*­2x­2=0
Qa Use the graph to find the approximate coordinates of the turning points.

a Complete this table of values for y = x* ­ x* ­ 6x

­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3 4
0 ­6
© Draw a graph of y = x* — x? ­ 6x
Nn Use your graph to solve the equation +*­ x? ­6x+5=0
a Use your graph to find the coordinates of the turning points on the graph

a Complete this table of values for y = 2 Give the values to 2 decimal places.

1 2 3 4 5
2.22
20
b Draw a graph of y==­for­5 <x <5.
¢ What are the asymptotes of the curve?

a Complete this table of values for y = 1% ­0.5x.

oo LC
4.25
5 6

b Draw a graph of y=1%­05cfora<x<s.

7
­1.46
8

¢ Use the graph to solve the equation 1 ­0.5x=0.

290 16.4 More graphs

8 This is a sphere.

The diameter is x cm.

The volume is ine cm’.

a Draw a graph of y = tx’ for 6 <x < 10.

Use a scale of 2 cm to 1 unit on the x­axis and 2 cm to
100 units on the y­axis.
b Use your graph to find the diameter of a sphere with
a volume of 300 cm?3.
9 The volume of this cuboid is 1000 cm3.

The top is a square of side x cm.

The height is y cm.

a Show that y=1990
¥ 1000
b Draw a graph of y= —==for 5 <x < 10.
Use a scale of 2 cm to 1 unit on the x­axis and 2 cm to 10 units
on the y­axis

This is a cuboid. The end is a square of side x cm.

The length is 5 cm greater than the side of the square end.

The volume of the cuboid is x(x + 5) cm?3.

xem

x+5cm
xem

a Draw agraphof y= ¥(x +5) for0 =< x <6.

Use a scale of 2 cm to 1 unit on the x­axis and 2 cm to 100 units on the y­axis
b Use your graph to find the sides of the cuboid when the volume is 200 cm?.
n a Complete this table of values of y = x + 4/x

­5 ­4 ­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3 4 5
­5 5 5.8

oT Draw the graph of y = x + 4/x

Nn Draw the line y = x on your graph.
Q Explain why y = x is an asymptote to the curve.
oT Find another asymptote.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 291

 Chapter 16 . Topic 5

16.5 Exponential graphs [80

PE 0 rrr r i000 rrr rrr rr rrr trtteeeriitotinseinsnenensensteesneessssensossseansss

There are 2000 monkeys in a forest. Scientists say that the numbers are increasing by 40% each year.
This is an example of exponential growth. The multiplier is 1.4. Advice and Tips
After one year there will be 2000 x 1.4 = 2800 monkeys. Ignore the decimal
After two years there will be 2800 x 1.4 or 2000 x 1.42 = 3920 fraction, you need only
monkeys. consider whole monkeys.
After x years there will be 2000 x 1.4" monkeys.
Here is a table of values.

J 0 1 2 3 4 16000 |­
UN 2000 | 2800 | 3920 | 5488 | 7683
Check that 3920 x 1.4 = 5488 and sry
5488 x 1.4 = 7683. 1
12000 4———
A graph shows how the population of monkeys
changes over time. 100004
The graph shows that the population reaches §
10 000 after nearly five years. 2 8000+
&
Graphs of exponential growth always have this a
shape. 6000 1­
As the value of x increases, the value of y
4000+
increases and the graph gets steeper.

2000

0
0

( 1)
Example 6
Atmospheric pressure is measure in units called hectopascals (hPa).
It decreases as height above sea level increases.
At sea level atmospheric pressure is 1000 hPa.

It decreases by 12% for every kilometre increase in height.

a Draw a graph to show how atmospheric pressure changes, up to a height of six kilometres.
b At what height is the atmospheric pressure half the value at sea level?

292 16.5 Exponential graphs

 “The multiplier for a decrease of 12% is 0.88. 100% — 12% = 88% = 0.88
At a height of x km the pressure is 1000 x 0.8* hPa.
Height above sea | Pressure y (hPa)
level x (km)
0 1000 ­— .
1 1000 x 0.88 = 880 Inscuintt) hase
2 1000 x 0.882 = 774 rye
3 1000 x 0.88" = 681
4 681 x 0.88 = 600
5 600 x 0.88 = 528
6 464
This graph shows the values.

1C I EEN EET ERENT ENE BEE

ERESNE SS 151 1 ad re

­ 1. ail i

Eh [3
Ve 600 Hr TH TEE

* #0011 1 Sew HH : ­
SSS Eamaz susan nn daanas Ansmann
zoo {tHE HFEF
EES SESE EAE NEE
FH ver
JY EEen Esse pau pounsEARS
soanskV
cunts sass
­_rn ra
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Height above sea level

b Half the pressure at sea level is 500 mPa.

From the graph, when y = 500, x = 5.4.
The height is 5.4 km.
The graph in the example shows exponential decay.
As the value of x increases, the value of y decreases and the graph gets less steep.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 293

 EXERCISE 16E
w A company buys some new machinery for $96 000.

The value of the machinery halves every year.

a Copy and complete this table.

Years 0 1 2 3 4
96

b Draw a graph to show how the value falls.

The price of a car is $25 000 when it is new.

The value falls by 20% per year.
a Show that the value after one year is $20 000.
b Copy and complete this table.

0 1 2 3 4
25000 20 000
¢ Use the table to draw a graph showing the fall in value of the car.
d How long is it until the car is worth half its original value?

The population of a country in 2015 is 60 million.

The population increases by 15% every ten years.

a Copy and complete this table to show the predicted population.
Years 2015 | 2025 | 2035 | 2045 | 2055

60 69

b Draw a graph to show how the population changes.

¢ Estimate the year when the population will reach 100 million.
Mira has shares worth $500.

Their value increases by 30% each year.

a Copy and complete this table.

0 1 2 3 4 5
500 1856
b Draw a graph to show how the value of the shares increases.
¢ How long does it take for the value of the shares to double?

294 16.5 Exponential graphs

2 There are 20 mice in a population.

Mice breed very quickly. The number of mice doubles every month.
a Draw a graph to show how the number of mice increases over six months.
b How long will it be until there are 200 mice?
6 Abram puts $400 in a bank.

After one year it is worth $480 dollars.

a What is the annual percentage increase?
b The value increases exponentially. Draw a graph to show how the value increases over
four years.
¢ Use the graph to find the value after 2.5 years.

oo» Marcus buys a picture for $5000.

The value is decreasing exponentially by 10% a year.
a Copy and complete this table to show the fall in value of the picture.

Years 1 2 3 4 5
Value ($) 4050 2952
b Draw a graph to show how the value falls over eight years.
¢ How long does it take for the picture to halve in value?
8 This graph shows the rise in value of an investment.
Vv

($)

Value

0 xX
0 Time (years)

Mario says, ‘The value increases all the time so this is exponential growth.’

Explain why Mario is not correct.

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 295

 Chapter 16 . Topic 6

The graph shows the number of bacteria in a population that is growing exponentially.

1000

800

ERENEEE EEE
§ 00­T rT
3 Tr AT
a 4004+

»
200 FF

Hours

a What was the initial population?

b Work out the percentage growth of the population each hour.
¢ How long did the population take to triple in size?
Barak buys a motor bike for $1000.

The graph shows the fall in value 1000 TST TTI A TT TT

of the bike. a ­ HHH
a Show that the value halves 3 5° GEEEREEEENENE SHEE EE EE
every two years. ob EE WERE EE ==
b Work out the percentage fall in the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
value of the bike every year. Years .

16.6 Estimating gradients &™

LAA AAA AA A A AA AAA AE AE A EE EE EEE EE EE EE ER RR a II m™™mM™™M™

The gradient of a curve varies from point to point. At points on this curve to the left of A or to
the right of B the gradient is positive.

|A I)

Between A and B the gradient is negative.

296 16.6 Estimating gradients

The curve is steepest near C, D or E and the gradient there will have the greatest magnitude.
You can estimate the gradient at any point on a curve by drawing a tangent at that point. This is
a straight line that touches the curve at that point and has the same gradient. You can find the
gradient of the tangent, which is a straight line, by drawing a triangle.

3 fp:
Example 7 a
Find the gradient at the point P with the 3 A #
coordinates (7, 1.5). 2
ios roll /
Draw a tangent at point P. / A,
Draw a triangle and find the differences vis: i bg i vy
between the x­coordinates and 3 4 !yidifference =3
y­coordinates. ­­ 8 |
ient = differenceiny 3_ 3 1x difference »= 3
gradient Tierehce ins 3 1
The gradient of the curve at P is 1.
Se that at A and B the gradient is 0. P)

EXERCISE 16F
"The straight line is a tangent to the curve at the point P 7)
with coordinates (2.5, 1). ]
Find the gradient of the curve at P. fs /
= y ——

Ph RLY.=
rs oe HO 2 0
| 9­1 2 3 4 [*

+a A and B have coordinates (­1, 1.5) and (3, 2).

Tangents to the curve have been drawn at A and B.

Calculate the gradient of the curve at A and at B.

3 a Use this table of values to draw a graph of y for 0 = x = 4.

0 1 2 3 4
2 1.5 2 3.5 6
b Draw a tangent to the curve at the point (3, 3.5).
¢ Estimate the gradient of the curve at the point (3, 3.5).
d At which point is the gradient of the curve 0?

Chapter 16: Graphs of functions 297

 Copy and complete this table of values for 0.1.3.

X 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

0.1x° 0.01 | 0.1 0.8

TUTDraw a graph of y = 0.14% for 0 = x = 3.

Nn Draw a tangent to the curve at (2, 0.8).
Qa Estimate the gradient of the curve at (2, 0.8).

a Copy and complete this table of values for y = 2°.

­2 ­1 0 1 2
0.25 1
TT Draw a graph of y =2* for­2 = x =< 2.
Nn
Draw a tangent to the curve at (0, 1).
Qa Estimate the gradient of the curve at (0, 1).

a Copy and complete this table of values for 2.

2 3 4 5 6

1.25 0.83

b Draw a graph of y = 3 for2 =x <6.

X
¢ Estimate the gradient of the curve at (4, 1.25).

Check your progress

Core
* | can construct tables of values of functions of the form:
­ +2 +ax+b
­ alx
¢ | can draw and interpret graphs of such functions
* | can solve quadratic equations approximately using a graph

Extended
* | can construct tables and draw graphs of functions of the form ax" and simple sums of these,
wheren=­2,­1,0,1,20r3
* | can construct tables and draw graphs of functions of the form
* | can solve approximately equations related to such graphs
* | can draw and interpret graphs representing exponential growth or decay
* | can recognise, sketch and interpret linear, quadratic, cubic, reciprocal and exponential graphs
* | can recognise turning points and asymptotes on a graph
* | can estimate the gradient of a curve by drawing a tangent

298 16.6 Estimating gradients

 1 Patterns in number : ­
sequences CORE sequence, term, difference, consecutive

& 2 The nthtermofa CORE coefficient, linear sequence, nth term,

sequence quadratic sequence, cubic sequence ™
3 General rules from
patterns CORE rule, patterns

4 Further sequences EXTENDED exponential sequence

ERA / 5 RPT BE 5
— In this chapter you will learn how to: :

Lh
7 Calculate: © Find the nth term of linear, quadratic, TRE

; : cubic and exponential sequences and

e Continue a given number sequence. (C2.7 : Sa
a

and E2.7) simple combinations of these. (E2.7)

® Recognise patterns in sequences Ira

and relationships between different

77

sequences, including the term to term

rule. (C2.7 and E2.7)
® Find the nth term for linear sequences,
and for simple quadratic and cubic pp
sequences. (C2.7 and E2.7)
 v > 5 den ­
3 Er b¥ 4 NR

Why this chapter matters

Patterns often appear in numbers. Prime numbers, square numbers and multiples all form
patterns. Mathematical patterns also appear in nature.
' There are many mathematical patterns Tr
that appear in nature. The most famous
y of these is probably the Fibonacci series.
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
This is formed by adding the two
previous terms to get the next term.
The sequence was discovered by the
Italian, Leonardo Fibonacci, in 1202,
when he was investigating the breeding
| patterns of rabbits!
Since then, the pattern has been found in
many other places in nature. The spirals
found in a nautilus shell and in the seed
heads of a sunflower plant also follow the Fibonacci series.

{ Fractals form another kind of pattern.

Fractals are geometric patterns that are continuously repeated on a smaller and smaller scale.
#% A good example of a fractal is this: start with an equilateral
triangle and draw an equilateral triangle, a third the size of the
#7 original, on the middle of each side. Keep on repeating this and
you will get an increasingly complex­looking shape.
= The pattern shown here is called the Koch snowflake. It is named
after the Swedish mathematician, Helge von Koch (1870­1924).

ATE JES
mdi

Nive

AS S$Ua

=power
—
Fractals are commonly found in nature, a good example being
the complex patterns found in plants, such as the leaves of a fern.
.

LH

EY i
iq Chapter 17: Number sequence 301 ©
 Chapter 17 . Topic 1

17.1 Patterns in number sequences

A number sequence is an ordered set of numbers with a rule for finding every number in the
sequence. The rule that takes you from one number to the next could be a simple addition or
multiplication, but often it is more tricky than that. You always need to look very carefully at the
pattern of a sequence.
Each number in a sequence is called a term and is in a certain position in the sequence.

Look at these sequences and their rules.

3, 6, 12, 24, ... doubling the previous term each time ... 48, 96, ... the term to term rule is
‘multiply by 2*
2,5, 8, 11, ... adding 3 to the previous term each time ... 14, 17, ... the term to term rule is
‘add 3’
1, 10, 100, 1000, ... multiplying the previous term by 10 each time ... 10000, 100000 the term
to term rule is ‘multiply by 10’
80, 73, 66, 59, ... subtracting 7 from the previous term each time ... 52, 45, ... the term to term
rule is ‘subtract 7
These are all quite straightforward once you have looked for the link from one term to the
next (consecutive terms). This link is called the term to term rule.

The differences usually form a number sequence of their own, so you need to find the sequence of
the differences before you can expand the original sequence.

302 17.1 Patterns in number sequences

EXERCISE 17A
® Look at these number sequences. Write down the next three terms in each and state
the term to term rule.
a 1,35,7.. b 2,4,6,8,..
n 5, 10, 20, 40, ... d 1,3927..
oo 4,10, 16, 22, ... f 3,8,13,18,...
a 2, 20, 200, 2000, ... h 7,10, 13, 16, ...
TT 150, 141, 132, 123, ... j 5,15,45,135,...
x 400, 200, 100, 50, ... I 1,5,25,125,...
® By considering the differences in these sequences, write down the next two terms in
each one.
a 1,247.1,.. ­ 1,25, 10,17, ...
1.3, 7,13, 2%... 1, 4,10, 19, 31, ...
SI

1,9, 25,4981, ... 1,2,7 32157, ...

TN

1,3, 23, 223, 2223, ... A 1,2,4,578,10,...

23,5912. j 3.8,18,33,53,.
@® Look at the sequences below. Find the term to term rule for each sequence and write
* down its next three terms. >»

a 3,6,12,24, ... 3,915 21, 7 “i

»n 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, ... av 50,47, 44, 4, ... ‘
oo 2,5,10, 17, 26, ... w»­ 5.6, 8, 11, 15, 20, ...
a 5, 7, 8, 10, 1, 13, rer 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, ...
­
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, ves 1,23,4,..
k 100, 20,4, 0.8, ... _——T 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.125, ...

® Look carefully at each number sequence.

Find the next two numbers in the sequence and
try to explain the pattern.
a 1,123,5,8,13,..
b 1,4,9, 16, 25, 36, ...
c 3,4,7,1,18,29,...
d 1,8, 27 64,125, ...
® The sequence of triangular numbers builds up like this.

On A 1 3

Find the next four triangular numbers.

Chapter 17: Number sequences 303

 Chapter 17

w The sequence of hexagonal numbers builds up like this.

The first term that these two sequences have in common is 17.
8, 11, 14, 17, 20, .....
1.5.9, 13, 17, .....

What are the next two terms that the two sequences have in common?

Here are the first few terms of two sequences.

2,58, 11,14, ....
3,6,9, 12,15, .....
Will the two sequences ever have a term in common? Yes or no?
Justify your answer.

Here are two sequences.

100, 95, 90, 85, ...
3,10,17, 24, ...

Write down all the numbers that will occur in both sequences.

17.2 The nth term of a sequence

OBR NRINNINIRIINNINININRNRNININNNRRNIINRRNRRNNNsERNOREIOROORISOIRRSIOIRORTDYS

Finding the rule

When using a number sequence, you sometimes need to know, say, its 50th term, or even a higher
term in the sequence. To work out these terms, you need to find the rule that produces the sequence
in its general form.

It may be helpful to look at the problem backwards. That is, take a rule and see how it produces a
sequence. The rule is given for the general term, which is called the nth term.

304 17.2 The nth term of a sequence

( Haamiple 2
The nth term of a sequence is 3n + 1, wheren=1, 2, 3,4, 5,6, ....
Write down the first five terms of the sequence. .

Substitutingn=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in turn:
B3x1+1),(3x2+1),(3x3+1),B3x4+1),(3x5+1),...
4 7 10 13 16
So the sequence is 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, ... .
$y
Notice that in Example 2 the difference between each term and the next is always 3, which is the
coefficient of n (the number attached to n). Also, the constant term is the difference between the
first term and the coefficient, that is, 4­3 = 1.

EXERCISE 17B
® Here are the nth terms of some sequences. Write down the first five terms of each sequence.
a 2n+1forn=1,2,3,4,5 b 3n­2forn=1,2,3,4,5
c Sn+2forn=1,23,4,5 d n’forn=1,23,4,5
e ”“+3forn=1,23,4,5 f 20­2nforn=1,23,4,5
LA Write down the first five terms of the sequence
that has as its nth term:
a n+3 b 3n­1 CcSn­2
d n?­1 e 4n+5 f 45­3n
The nth term of a sequence is 100 — 6».
a Work out the first four terms.
b Work out the first term that is less than zero.

Write down the first four terms of the sequence for which the nth term is:
an? b n?+2 c 2n?
d 4n?­1 e 200­n? f ”
Write down the first four terms of a sequence for which the nth term is:
an b n+1 c n­2
d 323­1 a v f 109­n3
A haulage company uses this formula to calculate the cost of transporting » pallets.
For n <5, the cost will be $(40n + 50)
For 6 = n = 10, the cost will be $(40n + 25)
For n = 11, the cost will be $40»
a How much will the company charge to transport 7 pallets?
b How much will the company charge to transport 15 pallets?

Chapter 17: Number sequences 305

 ¢ A company is charged $170 for transporting pallets. How many pallets did they transport?
d Another haulage company uses the formula $50x to calculate the cost for
transporting » pallets.
At what value of n do the two companies charge the same amount?

® The nth term of a sequence is 3n + 7.

The nth term of another sequence is 4n ­ 2.
These two series have several terms in common but only one term that is common and has the
same position in the sequence.

Without writing out the sequences, show how you can tell, using the expressions for the nth
term, that this is the 9th term.

Finding the nth term of a linear sequence

In a linear sequence the difference between one term and the next is always the same.

For example:
2,5, 8, 11,14, ... difference of 3
The nth term of this sequence is given by 3n— 1.
Here is another linear sequence.
5, 7,9, 11, 13, ... difference of 2
The nth term of this sequence is given by 2n + 3.
So, you can see that the nth term of a linear sequence is always of the form An + b, where:

JT Wt
nth term is 7n. "
i § ­

lw 1
Lal, TET
(BF « WOW od Wwe 12 > H

306 17.2 The nth term of a sequence

Quadratic and cubic sequences
The square numbers are:
1,4,9, 16, 25, 36, ...
The nth square number is »2.
So, for example, the 15th square number is 152 = 225.

The cube numbers are:

1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ...

The nth cube number is n3.

So, for example, the 7th cube number is 72=7 x 7 x 7 = 343.
Other sequences can be formed from square and cube numbers.
~
Example 4
Find the nth term of this sequence.
5,8, 13, 20, 29, ...

The differences between terms are 3, 5, 7, 9, ...

These are not the same, so it is not a linear sequence.
Compare the sequence with the square numbers.
5 8 13 20 29
1 El 9 16 25

You can see that each term is four more than a square number.
The nth term of this sequence is n? + 4.

A sequence that is based on square numbers is called a quadratic sequence.

­
Example 5
Find the nth term of this sequence.
0,7, 26, 63, 124

The differences are not equal. It is not linear.

Compare the terms with the square numbers and the cube numbers.
Sequence 0 7 26 63 124
Square numbers 1 4 9 16 25
Cube numbers 1 8 27 64 125

Each term is one less than a cube number.

The nth term of the sequence is n> ­ 1.

A sequence that is based on cube numbers is called a cubic sequence.

Chapter 17: Number sequences 307

 EXERCISE 17C
3 Find the next two terms and the nth term in each of Advice and Tips
these linear sequences.
a 3,57,91,.. b 5,9 13,17,21, ... hr a
c 8,613,618, 23,28, ... d 2,8, 14, 20, 26, ... term.
e 5,8,11,14,17, ... f 209, 16, 23, 30, ...
g 27,25,23,21,19, ... h 42, 38, 34, 30, 26, ...
1 2.5.8 19,145: J 2:12,22, 32, ...
k 8,12, 16, 20, ... 1 4,9,14,19, 24, ...

Find the nth term and the 50th term in each of these linear sequences.
a 4,7,10,13, 16, ... b %911,18,15,....
¢ 36.8%2.. d 1.59.13.17,...
e 2,10, 18, 26, ... f 5,6,72809,..
g 6,11,16, 21, 26, ... h 3,11,19, 2735, ...
i 1,4,7.10,13,.... ] 21,24; 27,30, 33, ...
k 12,19, 26, 33, 40, ... 1 1,917 25.33, ...
For each sequence a to j, find:
i the nth term ii the 100th term.
a $813.92, b 3579113...
c. 4,7 1.13, 16, ... d 8,10, 12, 14, 16, ...
& 9,13 17.24... f 6,11,16, 21, ...
g 0369 22,.. h 2,8, 14, 20, 26, ...
i % 15,28, 31, .» bio 25,27, 29,34, ...

An online CD retail company uses this price chart. The company charges a standard basic price
for a single CD, including postage and packing.

n 112|3|4|5]|6|7]|@|9|0|1N|1R2]|1B|M4]|15
SUCICERCINN 10 | 18 | 26 [34 | 42 | 49 | 57 | 65 | 73 | 81 | 88 | 96 [104112120
a Using the charges for 1 to 5 CDs, work out an expression for the nth term.
b Using the charges for 6 to 10 CDs, work out an expression for the nth term.
¢ Using the charges for 11 to 15 CDs, work out an expression for the nth term.
d What is the basic charge for a CD?
Here are some quadratic sequences. Work out the nth term of each one.
a 149 1525, « b 26 1, 18 27...
c 2,818.32. 90, .... d 03,815 24

308 17.2 The nth term of a sequence

 Chapter 17 . Topic 3

. Here are some cubic sequences. Work out the nth term of each one.
a 1,8, 2764,.. b 11,18,37,74, ...
c 05,4,135,32, ... d 10, 80, 270, 640, ...

< Work out the nth term of each of these sequences.

a 6,789 10, ... b 6,9, 14, 21, 30, ... c 6,13, 32,69, 130
d 6,11,16,21,26,... e 5,20,45,680,125,... f 5,40, 135, 320, 625, ...

17.3 General rules from patterns

MAAR RR EEE A EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE ER yy xa xy ay I mnmmMmMmmmMmMmm mT TT

Many problem­solving situations that you are likely to meet involve number sequences. So you need
to be able to formulate general rules from given number patterns.
—
Example 6
The diagram shows a pattern of squares building up.

LLL LT
a ‘How many squares will there be in the nth pattern?

b Which pattern has 99 squares in it?

a First, build up a table for the patterns.

Pattern number 1 2 3 4 5
Number of squares 1 3 5 7 9
Looking at the difference between consecutive patterns, you can see it is always two
squares. So, use 2n.

Subtract the difference 2 from the first number, which gives 1 ­2 = ­1.
So the number of squares on the base of the nth pattern is 2n ­ 1.
b Now find n when 2n­ 1 = 99:
2n­1=99

2n=99 + 1=100
n=100+2=50
The pattern with 99 squares is the 50th.
J
When you are trying to find a general rule from a sequence of diagrams, always set up a table to
connect the pattern number with the number of the variable (squares, matches, seats, etc.) for which
you are trying to find the rule. Once you have set up the table, it is easy to find the nth term.

Chapter 17: Number sequences 309

 EXERCISE 17D
ER A pattern of squares is built up from matchsticks as shown.
—_——

CI TET]
BN L
a Draw the fourth diagram.
b Copy and complete this table.
Pattern number 1 2 3 4
Number of squares 1 5 9
¢ How many squares are in the nth diagram?
d How many squares are there in the 25th diagram?
e With 200 squares, which is the biggest diagram that Advice and Tips
could be made?
Write out the number
A pattern of triangles is built up from matchsticks. sequences to help you see

A OSEADLLLT
a Draw the fifth set of triangles in this pattern.
b Copy and complete this table.
Pattern number 1 2 3 4 5
Number of matches 3
[2] How many matchsticks are needed for the nth set of triangles?
[­8 How many matchsticks are needed to make the 60th set of triangles?
If there are only 100 matchsticks, which is the largest set of triangles that could be made?

310 17.3 General rules from patterns

3) A conference centre had tables each of which could sit six people.
AWA
d D
UU
1

When put together, the tables could seat people as shown.

A001) O.0 a0 nn
dQ Dg D
VI UW VV NEY UJ
2 3

a How many people could be seated at four tables put together this way?
b Copy and complete this table.

Number of tables 1 2 3 4
Number of seats 6
¢ How many people could be seated at n tables put together in this way?
d At a conference, there were 50 people who wished to use the tables in this way.
How many tables would they need?

­ Prepacked fencing units come in the shape shown, made of four pieces of wood.

Biman
When you put them together in stages to make a fence, you also need joining pieces, so the
fence will start to build up as shown below.

a How many pieces of wood would you have in a fence made up in:
i five stages ii nstages iii 45 stages?
b | made a fence out of 124 pieces of wood. How many stages did | use?

Chapter 17: Number sequences 311

 ® Regular pentagons of side length 1 cm are joined together to make a pattern, as shown.

1 2 3 4

Copy this pattern and write down the perimeter of each shape. Put the results in a table.
a What is the perimeter of patterns like this made from:
i six pentagons ii n pentagons iii 50 pentagons?
b What is the largest number of pentagons that can be put together like this to have a
perimeter less than 1000 cm?
Lamp­posts are put at the end of every 100 m stretch of a motorway, as shown.

1 2 3

a How many lamp­posts are needed for:

i four 100 m stretches
iin 100 m stretches
ili 8 km of this motorway.
b A new motorway is being built. The contractor has ordered 1598 lamp­posts. How long is
this motorway?
A school dining hall had trapezium­shaped tables. 2
Each table could seat five people, as shown here. of No
[o] [o]

When the tables were joined together, as shown below, the individual tables could not seat as
many people.
[o] [o] o [2] fe] [e] [e] o

[o] o [e] o [0] [e] [e] [o] [o) [e]

1 2 3

"a In this arrangement, how many could be seated if there were:

i four tables
ii ntables
iii 13 tables?
b For an outside charity event, up to 200 people had to be seated.
How many tables arranged like this did they need?

312 17.3 General rules from patterns

. When setting out tins to make a display of a certain height, you need to know how many tins
to start with at the bottom.

5 &&
a How many tins are needed on the bottom if you wish the display to be:
i five tins high
iin tins high
iii 18 tins high?

If the display is » tins high, the total number of tins is T= pins 1)

b Show that this formula gives the correct answer if n= 2 orn = 3.
¢ How many tins will be needed to make a stack 10 tins high?

ry) These are the instructions that were used to draw the patterns below.
For pattern 1, draw an equilateral triangle, mark the midpoints of each side and draw and
colour in the equilateral triangle formed by these points.

­ For pattern 2, repeat this with the three white triangles remaining.

For pattern 3, repeat this with the nine white triangles.

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3

The pattern is called a Sierpinski triangle and is one of the earliest examples of a fractal type
pattern.

Pattern 4 is completed in the same way.

a Copy and complete the table for patterns 1, 2 and 3.
Pattern 2 3 4
ULB CRUELTES 9

Coloured triangles 4

b Use the numbers in the first 3 columns of the table to help you complete column 4.
Explain your method.

Chapter 17: Number sequences 313

 Chapter 17 . Topic 4

0 Thom is building three different patterns with matches.

He builds the patterns in steps.
Step | Step 2 Step 3

­ NNN INIKIN
we [LL TT
SN LNT LNT
a Draw step 4 for each pattern.
b Complete this table for pattern 1.

Step 2 3 4

nN How many matches are needed for step » of pattern 1?

Qa How many matches are needed for step n of pattern 2?
0 How many matches are needed for step n of pattern 3?
­­ What is the total number of matches needed for step n? Write your answer as simply
as possible.

17.4 Further sequences | &

AA RARE ELE EE EE EEE EEE EEE EEE EL EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE RE EE RR RRR srr

Look at these sequences.

6, 24, 96, 384, 1536, ...

48,24, 12,6, 3, 1.5, .
In the first, you multiply each term by four to find the next one.
In the second, you multiply each term by 0.5 (or divide it by 2) to find the next term.

The nth term of the first sequence is 1.5 x 4". You can write this as 1 = 1.5 x 4".
1, is mathematical shorthand for the nth term.
Check: The first term is 1.5 x 4 = 6 (you can write this as 1, = 6); the third term is
1.5x 4% = 1.5 x 64 = 96 (1, = 6).
The nth term of the second sequence is 96 x 0.5". You can write this as 7, = 96 x 0.5".
Check: The first term is 96 x 0.5 = 48 (1, = 48); the third term is 96 x 0.53 = 96 x 0.125 = 12 (r;=12).

96 x 0.5" can also be written as >. Check that this is correct.

These sequences are called exponential sequences. In these sequences, » is an exponent or power.

314 17.4 Further sequences

Ia
Example 7
This is the start of an exponential sequence.
11, 12.1, 13.31, 14.641, ...

Work out the nth term.

The multiplier from one term to the next is always the same.
12% 13.31 _ 14.641 _
we arr, 1331
The nth term is a x 1.1" where a is a number.
The firsttermis 11soax 1.1=11 a | 10.
11
The nth term is 10 x 1.1".

Sequences may be a combination of different types of sequence.

For example, look at this sequence.

3,i8,'15,24; 35; .....

It is not linear, because the differences are not all the same.
It is not exponential because the multipliers are not all the same.

Compare the sequence with the square numbers.

1 2 3 4 5
Sequence 3 8 15 24 35
n? 1 4 9 16 25
Difference between 2 4 6 8 10
sequence and 2
You can see that the difference is 2n each time.

The nth term is n? + 2n. You can write this as 1, =n? + 2n.
Check: If n = 5 then n? + 2n = 25 + 10 = 35 which is the fifth term (1, = 35).

EXERCISE 17E
» Find the next term in each of these exponential sequences.
a 12,36, 144, ... b 13,39, 117, 351, ... c 2,10, 50, 250, ...
d 20, 24, 28.8, 34.56, ... e 4,80, 1600, 32000, ... f 240, 120, 60, 30, ...
g 1000, 200, 40, 8, ... h 162, 108, 72, 48, ...

Here are the nth terms of some sequences. In each case, find the first term (r,) and the
fourth term (z,).
n

a 6 b 8x2" c 5x3 d 40x 0.5" e 81x (3

Chapter 17: Number sequences 315

 3 Work out the nth term of each of these sequences and write it in the form 7, =
a 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, ... b 3,6,12, 24,48, ...
c 6,18,54,162,.... . d 120, 60, 30, 15, ..
e 45, 40.5, 36.45, 32.805, ... f 80, 100, 125, ...
Selina has $5000 savings. She expects her savings to increase by 40% each year.

Years from now 0 1 2 3 4

Savings ($) 5000 | 7000 | 9800
a Work out the two numbers missing from the table.
b Work out an expression for her savings after » years.
Find the nth term of each of these sequences.
8 2,510,17,26,... b 7,10, 15, 22,31, «. c 0, 26,12 20, ...
d 3,12,27,48,75,... e 1,10,25,46,73,... f 4,14,30,52, 80, ...
These are the first four triangular numbers.

a Find the next two triangular numbers.

b Find the nth term of this quadratic sequence.
2, 6, 12, 20, 30, ...
¢ Use your answer from part b to find an expression for the nth triangular number.
Q Work out the 20th triangular number.

e Show that 1275 is a triangular number.

Find the nth
term of each of these sequences and write it in the form 1, =
a 0,7 26,63, 124, ... b 51,58, 77,114,157, ...
¢ 2,10, 30, 68, 130, . d 4,14, 36, 76, 140, .

dX 4
Here are some triangles made from oranges.

316 17.4 Further sequences

 If these oranges are put in four layers they make a tetrahedron.

a Find the number of oranges in a tetrahedron with four layers.

The number of oranges in a tetrahedron with n layers is Sl + D(n+2).
b Check that this expression gives the correct answer with n = 4.
¢ Ashopkeeper has 100 oranges. He wants to display them in a tetrahedron.
Work out the largest number of layers he can have.
d Show how to use the formula to add the first 20 triangular numbers.
9 Here is a sequence.

6, 16, 30, 48, 70, ...

The nth term of this sequence is given by 1, = an + bn? where a and b are numbers.
a By looking at the first term, show that a + b= 6.
­ b Use the second term to find another equation involving a and b.
¢ Solve the equation from parts a and b simultaneously to find the nth term of the
sequence.

Check your progress

Core
* | can continue a given number sequence
* | can recognise patterns in sequences, including a term to term rule
* | can find and use the nth term of a linear sequence
* | can find and use the ath term of a simple quadratic or cubic sequence

Extended
* | understand subscript notation for the terms of a sequence
* | can find and use the nth term of an exponential sequence
* | can find and use the nth term of a simple combination of different types of sequences

Chapter 17: Number sequences 317

Chapter 1 8

Indices

Key words

Using indices index, indices, power, power 1, power 0

Negative indices negative index, reciprocal

Multiplying and dividing

with indices

Fractional indices EXTENDED

Understand the meaning and rules of Use and interpret fractional indices,
indices. (C1.7 and E1.7) e.g. solve 32° = 2. (E2.4)
Use and interpret positive, negative and
zero indices. (C2.4 and E2.4)
Use the rules of indices. (C2.4 and E2.4)
 Indices are a useful way to write numbers. They show how different numbers are related
\
to one another and they can make it easier to multiply or divide, or to compare the sizes

\
of different numbers.
You probably already know about powers of numbers from Chapters 5 and 9.
You use find powers of 10 when you write numbers in standard form, such as 3.7 x 106 or

\
8.92 x 10­5.

J
The first is 3 700 000 and the second is 0.000 08 92.

Using powers is a useful ‘short cut’.

For example, the centre of the galaxy Andromeda |

is 24 000 000 000 000 000 000 km from our Sun.

It is much easier to write 24 x 108!

You will also find powers in squares and cubes such as 72 a

and 143, — vo

Remember that 72 = 7 x 7 and 14% = 14 x 14 x 14. This also a

saves time in writing out the numbers. rr
The small number that shows the power is called an index.

* In 72the index is 2 and in 143 the index is 3.

* In3.7 x 10° or 8.92 x 10­5 the indices are 6 and ­5.
‘Indices’ is the plural of index. In the examples above 2, 3,6 « i
and ­5 are indices. p>
Jug}

14 14

In this chapter you will discover more useful ways to use indices. You might be surprised to find
you can write fractions using indices. You can probably see how 8 can be written as a power of
two (2°) but it is not so obvious how i can also be written as a power of two.
|
Ww

Warning
The word index has a number of other meanings in English. For example, you will find an index
at the back of this book. In this chapter the word is always used to mean a power.

Chapter 18: I
/: J —
 18.1 Using indices
An index is a convenient way of writing repetitive multiplications. The plural of index is indices.
The index tells you the number of times a number is multiplied by itself. For example:
45=4x4x4x4x4x4 six lots of 4 multiplied together (call this ‘4 to the power 6)
6°=6x6x6x6 four lots of 6 multiplied together (call this ‘6 to the power 4)
B=7x7x7

122=12x 12
ol Ea)

iv 12¢

­­_

iV5x5x5x5x5x5x5

i 7B=7x

To work out 57 on your calculator use the power key.

=EESED=78 125

Two special powers

Power 1
Any number to the power 1 is the same as the number itself. This is always true so normally you do
not write the power 1.
For example: 5'=5 32'=32 (­8)'=­8
—

320 18.1 Using indices

Power zero
Any number to the power 0 is equal to 1.
For example:

50=1 320=1 (­8)0°=1

You can check these results on your calculator.

EXERCISE 18A
Write these expressions using index notation. Do not work them out yet.
a 2x2x2x2 b 3x3x3x3x3
c 7x7 d 5x5x5
e 10x10x10x10x 10x 10 x 10 f 6x6x6x6
g 4 h 1xTxTx1x1x1x1
i 05x05x0.5x0.5 j 100x100 x 100
Write these power terms out in full. Do not work them out yet.
a 34 b 9 c 62 d 10°
e 21° f 8 g 0.13 h 2.52
i 0.73 j 1000?
Using the power key on your calculator (or another method), work out the values of the
power terms in question 1.

Using the power key on your calculator (or another method), work out the values of the
power terms in question 2.

A storage container is in the shape of a cube. The length of the container is 5 m.

To work out the volume of a cube, use the formula:

volume = (length of edge)?
Work out the total storage space in the container.

Write each number as a power of a different number.

The first one has been done for you.
a 32=25 b 100 c 8 d 25
Without using a calculator, work out the values of these power terms.
a 20 b 4 c 5° d 1° e 123%
The answers to question 7, parts d and e, should tell you something special about powers
of 1. What is it?

Write the answer to question 1, part j as a power of 10.

Write the answer to question 2, part j as a power of 10.

Chapter 18: Indices 321

 Chapter 18 . 1

” Using your calculator, or otherwise, work out the values of these power terms.
a (­1)° b (1)
c (1)? d (­1)?
e (FH)
­ Using your answers to question 11, write down the answers to these power terms.
a (­1)8 b 1)"
c (1% d (­1)%
e (­1)1%6

C1 The number 16777 216 is a power of 2.

Itis also a power of 4, a power of 8 and a power of 16.

Write the number as a power of 4, a power of 8 and a power of 16.

18.2 Negative indices

AAR ALAR AA AA A RE A EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE ER yy yy mI mmm

A negative index is a convenient way of writing the reciprocal of a number or term. (That is, one
divided by that number or term.) For example:

Here are some other examples.

1 a1 5
ag. VAs alla

EXERCISE 18B
@® Write each of these in fraction form. Advice and Tips
a 53 b 67 c 10° d 3? e 87 If you move a power from
f 9 g w? h r i x» ji 4m top to bottom, or vice versa
its sign changes. A negative
(Y] Write each of these in negative index form.
power means a reciprocal:
1 1 A 3 1 it does not mean the
. 32 . 5 c 103 a m € Id answer is negative.

322 18.2 Negative indices

» Change each expression into an index form of the type shown.
a All of the form 2

i 16 ii =
2
1
iii 16 iv ­8

b All of the form 10"

1

i 1000 . ii 10
­
iii: 100
1
iv 1 million

¢ All of the form 5"

1
i 125 ii 5
1 1
iii 2% iv 525

d All of the form 3”

1

i 9 ii 27
1
fii 31 iv ­243

­ Rewrite each expression in fraction form.

‘a 5x3 b 6r' c Im?
d 44 e 10y5 f Ld
g mn! h ir i &3

ji
. Write each fraction in index form.
a 37 10 5
b F 4 2 lw
­

. Find the value of each number.

a x=5
i «2 ii x3 iii 4x!
b r=4
i 8 ii rr? iii 54
Cc m=2
i md ii mS iii 9m™
d w=10
i wh ii w3 iii 25w2
Two different numbers can be written in the form 2~,

The sum of the numbers is 40.

What is the difference of the numbers?

——

Chapter 18: Indices 323

 Chapter 18 . 1

­ x and y are integers.

2­y3=0
Work out possible values of x and y.

You are given that 87 = 2097 152.

Write down the value of 87.

Put these in order from smallest to largest:

x5 xs x0
a when x is greater than 1
b when x is between 0 and 1
¢ when x =­10.
M=38

Write the following in terms of M

a 3°
b 37
c 3°

18.3 Multiplying and dividing

with indices
When you multiply powers of the same number or variable, you add the indices. For example:
39x 35=3(4+5 = 39

2x 24x25=21
10% x 1072 = 10?
103x107" =10"4
a xa =al+)

When you divide powers of the same number or variable, you subtract the indices. For example:
drad=a*I=g'=q
bt +b? = p73
104+ 102 = 106

1072 +1074 = 10?

a +a* =a»

324 18.3 Multiplying and dividing with indices

When you raise a power to a further power, you multiply the indices. For example:
(@P=a?*3=ab
(@) =al
(a) = a”
(a) =a

Here are some examples of different kinds of expressions that use powers.
2a® x 3a® = (2 x 3) x (a? x a?)
=6 x a® = 64°
4a?h? x 2ab? = (4 x 2) x (a? x a) x (b® x b?)
= 8a%p°
12a° + 3a? =(12 + 3) x (a® + @®)
=4ad3
(2a? =(2P x (@®*=8 x a®
= 84°

EXERCISE 18C
® Write these as single powers of 5.
a 5x5? b 5x52 c 52x54
d 56x53 e 52x53
® Write these as single powers of 6.
a 6°:6? b 6*+6* c 64:67
d 63+6* e 63+6°
wn Simplify these and write them as single powers of a.
a a’xa b axa? c ad*xdd
d «+a? e asa f &+d
® a axa'=a"
Write down a possible pair of values of x and y.
b a*+a=a"
Write down a possible pair of values of x and y.
*® Write these as single powers of 4.
a (4% b (4% c (4%
d (43)? e (4­2)­3 f (47)°

Chapter 18: Indices 325

 . Simplify these expressions.
a 2a%x3d® b 34*x 3a?
c (2423 d ­2a? x 34°
e ­4a3 x­2a° f ­2a*x 5a
@® Simplify these expressions. Advice and Tips
a 6a
"% 24? b
5
124° + 3a 2 ,Deal with ” numbers and

¢ 154° + 5a d 1842+ 3a" indices separately and do

e 244° = 6a2 f 300+ 64° not confuse the rules.
For example: 124° + 4a?
® Simplify these expressions. =(12 +4) x (a® + a?)
a 24% x 4a3h
b 5a?h* x 2ab3
¢ 6a%h® x 5a%5
d 12a%* + 6ab
e 2443p + 3273
Simplify these expressions.
6a?
2ab
b 2a?be? x 6abc3
4ab?c
" 3abc x 4a3b?c x 6¢2
9a?be
Write down two possible:
a multiplication questions with an answer of 12x%y%
b division questions with an answer of 12x25,
a, b and c are three different positive integers.
What is the smallest possible value of a?h3¢?

82=4

Find the following in terms of A

a 8% b 81
c 8f d 27
| x"=y
a Show that x2"! = yy?
b Find a similar expression for x21

326 18.3 Multiplying and dividing with indices

Indices of the form }
Consider the problem 7* x 7 = 7. This can be written as:
7x +1) = 7

%=7" 22x=1= x=}

If you now substitute x = ] back into the original equation, you see that:
7 x 72 =7

This makes 7 the same as \7.

You can similarly show that 7 is the same as 37. And that, generally:
# = ¥x (nth root of x)
So in summary:
Power 1 is the same as positive square root.
Power 1 is the same as cube root.
Power ! is the same as nth root.
For example:
49? =V49=7
1
83=8=2
1
100004 = 10000 = 10

362 V36
Lud6
Wn" "
If you have an expression in the form H you can calculate it as = and then write it as a fraction.

eExample 3 R
Write at as a fraction.

g­
You can find the power of the numerator and denominator separately.

s| = 25}
=
5
u ” FF

Chapter 18: Indices 327

 EXERCISE 18D
oy Evaluate each number.
a 25! b 100% c 641 d 81 e 625
1

f 27 g 64 h 1000° i 125 ji 512

k 144 | 400% m 6254 n 81 o 100000°
p 729 q 32 ro 10247 s 12060 t 216°
u 167 v 873 w 817% x 31257
1

y 10000007
Evaluate each number.
25 100 64 811
a [5 b (36 « [5 d [35
25 27 8 1000
«BF t(Z 0 575) h (1ST
64 512
Ce
1
Use the general rule for raising a power to another power to prove that + is equivalent to Ux.
Which of these is the odd one out?

6% eat gt
Show how you decided.

Imagine that you are the teacher.

1
Write down how you would teach the class that 277 is equal to 1
3
Fos J
Find values for x and y that make this equation work.

Solve these equations.

a 2'=8 b 8=2 c 4'=1 d 16*=4
e 1000=10 f 81*'=3 g 16'=2 h 125'=5
i 1000'=10 j 400*=20 k 512*=8 I 128'=2

Indices of the form :

Here are two examples of this form.
d=dxdaip 81i= {B13 =33=27
­n
If you have an expression of the form A you can invert it to calculate it as a fraction.

328 18.4 Fractional indices

 Example 4
Evaluate each number. a 1671 ‘b 32%

When dealing with the negative index remember that it means reciprocal.
Work through problems like these one step at a time.
Step 1: Rewrite the calculation as a fraction by dealing with the negative power.
Step 2: Take the root of the base number given by the denominator of the fraction.
Step 3: Raise the result to the power given by the numerator of the fraction.
Step 4: Write out the answer as a fraction.

a Step 1: 1674 = [Lf Step 2: 164 = ¥76 = 2 Step3:2'=2 Step 4: 1674 =

b step 1:3278 = (Lf Step2:32¢=%32=2Step3:2¢=16 Step a: nil

“ ­

( palais 5
Write Ei as a fraction.

=27%
8}

EXERCISE 18E
5) Evaluate these.
a 32 b 125° 4

[4 1296¢ d 243%

@ Rewrite these in index form.

a Ir b m3
[4 2 d NE

3 Evaluate these.
a 8 b 27
[4 16° d 625¢

—_—

Chapter 18: Indices 329

 a Evaluate these.
a 25% b
c 167 d
e 1677 f
g 32° h
Evaluate these.
a 257} b
c 167% d
e 647 f
g 32° h
Evaluate these.
a 1007 b
[4 12578 d
e 4 f
g 27% h 16977
Which of these is the odd one out?

6% eat gt
Show how you decided.

Imagine that you are the teacher.

Write down how you would teach the class that 27% is equal to :

. & . fe:
< [3 d [oof
« &F ! te

0 (&f h [2

a f° b 3°
« af
¢
4 LI h ihfe

330 18.4 Fractional indices

 (aT i ud
87%
. (5 ' zs)
n Simplify these expressions.
a se ° b A xA
c (83) d sds?
e 4 x 5x3 f 4
y /

@2 simplify these.
a ­ b dixd? Cc J
d (2) e (2) f seis?
13 Simplify these.
a xed b Hag [4 axa
a itil ‘ pe
L ¢ Hud
i
®i
Find F in terms of y.

Check your progress

Core
* | understand the meaning of fractional, negative and zero indices
* | can use the rules of indices to simplify numerical expressions such as 2­3 x 24 or (23)?

Chapter 18: Indices 331

 Chapter 1 o

Proportion
Ng

; . direct proportion,
® [Hbsct praporaen constant of proportionality

2 Inverse proportion inverse proportion

© Express direct and inverse proportion in algebraic terms and use this form of expression
to find unknown quantities. (E2.8)

“re
SLE
ae set earsrigl, LALLY pI,
 \
PE

Why this chapter matters

In many real­life situations, variables are connected by a rule or relationship. It may be that as
one variable increases the other increases. Alternatively, it may be that as one variable increases
the other decreases.
In this chapter you will look at how quantities vary when they are related in some way.

LX f
As this plant gets older it becomes taller.

.
­
x

As the storm increases the number of sunbathers decreases. SH

As this car gets older it is worth less (and eventually it is worthless!).

J [ILE vownionn ;
Vv
:
COU CHE
~ .
R
As more songs are downloaded, there is less money left on the voucher.
Try to think of other variables that are connected in this way.
 19.1 Direct proportion El
There is direct proportion between two variables when one variable is a simple multiple of the other.
That is, their ratio is a constant.

For example:
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds There is a multiplying factor of 2.2 between kilograms
and pounds.
Area of a circle = n? There is a multiplying factor of © between the area of a circle
and the square of its radius.
Any question involving direct proportion usually requires you first to find this multiplying factor
(called the constant of proportionality), then to use it to solve a problem.
The symbol for proportion is e<.

So the statement ‘Pay is directly proportional to time’ can be mathematically written as:
pay = time
which implies that:
pay = k x time
where k is the constant of proportionality.
There are four steps to be followed when you are using proportionality to solve problems.
Step 1: Set up the statement, using the proportionality symbol (you may use symbols to represent
the variables).
Step 2: Set up the equation, using a constant of proportionality.
Step 3: Use given information to work out the value of the constant of proportionality.
Step 4: Substitute the value of the constant of proportionality into the equation and use this
equation to find unknown values.
4
7)

Example 1
The cost of an item is directly proportional to the time spent making it. An item taking 6 hours
to make costs $30. Find:
a the cost of an item that takes 5 hours to make
b the length of time it takes to make an item costing $40.

Step 1: Let C dollars be the cost of making an item and r hours the time it takes.
Cet
Step 2: Setting up the equation gives:
C=kt

where k is the constant of proportionality.

334 19.1 Direct proportion

 1
19.

Note that you can ‘replace’ the proportionality sign = with = k to obtain the proportionality
equation.

Step 3: Since C = 30 when t = 6, then 30 = 6k

30
7 k

=k=5

Step 4: So the formuylais C=5t:.

a Whenr=5 C=5x5=25
So the cost is $25.

b When C=40 40=5x¢

>¥=rni=8
LC So the time spent making the item is 8 hours.

EXERCISE 19A
For questions 1 to 4, first find the value of k, the constant of proportionality, and then the formula
connecting the variables.

5 + Tis directly proportional to M. If T= 20 when M = 4, find the value of:

a TwhenM=3
b M when 7=10.
® Wis directly proportional to F. If W = 45 when F = 3, find the value of:
a WwhenF=5
b Fwhen W=90.
Q varies directly with P. If 0 = 100 when P = 2, find the value of:

a QwhenP=3
b P when Q = 300.

a X varies directly with Y. If X = 17.5 when Y = 7, find the value of:

a XwhenY=9
b Ywhen X = 30.

The distance covered by a train is directly proportional to the time taken for the journey.
The train travels 105 kilometres in 3 hours.
a What distance will the train cover in 5 hours?
b How much time will it take for the train to cover 280 kilometres?

Chapter 19: Proportion 335

 The cost of fuel delivered to your door is directly proportional to the mass received.
When 250 kg is delivered, it costs 47.50 dollars.
a How much will it cost to have 350 kg delivered?
b How much would be delivered if the cost were 33.25 dollars?

The number of children who can play safely in a playground is directly proportional to
the area of the playground. A playground with an area of 210 m? is safe for 60 children.
a How many children can safely play in a playground of area 154 m2?
b A playgroup has 24 children. What is the smallest playground area in which they could
safely play?
The number of spaces in a car park is directly proportional to the area of the car park.
a A car park has 300 parking spaces in an area of 4500 m2.
It is decided to increase the area of the car park by 500 m? to make extra spaces.
How many extra spaces will be made?
b The old part of the car park is redesigned so that the original area has 10% more parking
spaces.
How many more spaces than in the original car park will there be altogether if the number
of spaces in the new area is directly proportional to the number in the redesigned car park?

9 The number of passengers in a bus queue is directly proportional to the time that the person
at the front of the queue has spent waiting.

Katya is the first to arrive at a bus stop. When she has been waiting 5 minutes the queue has
20 passengers.

A bus has room for 70 passengers.

How long had Katya been in the queue if the bus fills up from empty when it arrives and all
passengers get on?

Direct proportions involving squares, cubes, square roots

and cube roots
The process is the same as for a linear direct variation, as the next example shows.

336 19.1 Direct proportion

 Step 2: Setting up the equation gives:
C=kr?
where k is the constant of proportionality.
Step 3: C = 0.68 when r= 2. So:
0.68 = 4k
288k» k=0m
Step 4: So the formula is C = 0.172.
a Whenr=24 C=0.17 x 2.42 = 0.98 to 2 decimal places.
Rounding gives the cost as $0.98.
b When C= 1.53 1.53 =0.172

“ieee =V9=
Hence, the radius is 3 cm.

EXERCISE 19B
For questions 1 to 6, first find %, the constant of proportionality, and then the formula connecting
the variables.

@, T is directly proportional to x2. If T = 36 when x = 3, find the value of:

a Twhenx=5 b xwhen T=400.
W is directly proportional to M2. If W = 12 when M = 2, find the value of:
a WwhenM=3 b M when W=75.
E varies directly with VC. If E = 40 when C = 25, find the value of:
a EwhenC=49 b Cwhen E=104.
X is directly proportional to VY. If X = 128 when Y= 16, find the value of:
a XwhenY=36 b Ywhen X =48.
P is directly proportional to f3. If P = 400 when f= 10, find the value of:
a Pwhenf=4 b fwhen P=50.
y is directly proportional to x. If y = 100 when x = 125, find the value of:
a ywhenx=64 b xwhen y=40.
The cost of serving tea and biscuits varies directly with the square root of the number of
people at the buffet. It costs $25 to serve tea and biscuits to 100 people.
a How much will it cost to serve tea and biscuits to 400 people?
b For a cost of $37.50, how many people could be served tea and biscuits?

Chapter 19: Proportion 337

 In an experiment, the temperature, in °C, varied directly with the square of the pressure, in
atmospheres (atm). The temperature was 20 °C when the pressure was 5 atm.
a What will the temperature be at 2 atm?
b What will the pressure be at 80 °C?

The mass, in grams, of ball bearings varies directly with the cube of the radius, measured in
millimetres. A ball bearing of radius 4 mm has a mass of 115.2 g.
a What will be the mass of a ball bearing of radius 6 mm?
b A ball bearing has a mass of 48.6 g. What is its radius?

The energy, in joules (J), of a particle varies directly with the square of its speed, in m/s. A
particle moving at 20 m/s has 50 J of energy.
a How much energy has a particle moving at 4 m/s?
b At what speed is a particle moving if it has 200 J of energy?
The cost, in dollars, of a trip varies directly with the square root of the number of miles
travelled. The cost of a 100­mile trip is 35 dollars.
a What is the cost of a 500­mile trip (to the nearest dollar)?
b What is the distance of a trip costing 70 dollars?
A sculptor is making statues.

The amount of clay used is directly proportional to the cube of the height of the statue.

A statue is 10 cm tall and uses 500 cm? of clay.

How much clay will a similar statue use if it is twice as tall?

The cost of making different­sized machines is proportional to the time taken.

A small machine costs $100 and takes two hours to make.

How much will a large machine cost that takes 5 hours to build?

The sketch graphs show each of these proportion statements.

a yea? b yx € yor
A B Cc
yi ya yi

0 x 0 x 0 x

Match each statement to the correct sketch:

338 19.1 Direct proportion

 Chapter 19. Topic 2

5 Here are two tables.

Match each table to a graph in question 14.

TE 123
a 3 | 12 | 27

b 11273
3[69

19.2 Inverse proportion [

LARA ALR ERA EERE EE EE EEE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EEE RENN

There is inverse proportion between two variables when one variable is directly proportional to
the reciprocal of the other. That is, the product of the two variables is constant. So, as one variable
increases, the other decreases.

For example, the faster you travel over a given distance, the less time it takes. So there is an inverse
variation between speed and time. Speed is inversely proportional to time.
1 k
Sx—­andsoS==
r T
which can be written as ST = k.

fF Snanie 3
M is inversely proportional to R. If M = 9 when R = 4, find the value of:
a MwhenR=2 b Rwhen M =3.

Step 1: Mo :
Step 2: Setting up the equation gives:
k

where k is the constant of proportionality.

Step 3: M=9whenR=4.509="%
=29I%x4=k=2k=36
36
Step 4: The formula is M= ¥

a When R =2, then i = = 18

b When M = 3, then 3 =3% = 38 = 36 = R = 12

Chapter 19: Proportion 339

 EXERCISE 19C
For questions 1 to 6, first find the formula connecting the variables.

<l Tis inversely proportional to m. If T= 6 when m = 2, find the value of:

a Twhenm=4 b mwhenT=4.8.
2 Wis inversely proportional to x. If W = 5 when x = 12, find the value of:
a Wwhenx=3 b xwhen w=10.
3 Q varies inversely with (5­1). If Q = 8 when r = 3, find the value of:
a OQwhenr=10 b twhen Q=16.
. M varies inversely with 2. If M = 9 when = 2, find the value of:
a Mwhent=3 b rwhenM = 1.44.
W is inversely proportional to VT. If W = 6 when 7 = 16, find the value of:
a WwhenT=25 b Twhen W=2.4.
y is inversely proportional to the cube of x. If y = 4 when x = 2, find the value of:
a ywhenx=1 b xwhen y=.
The grant available to a group of students was inversely proportional to the number of
students. When 30 students needed a grant, they received $60 each.
a What would the grant have been if 120 students had needed one?
b If the grant had been $50 each, how many students would have received it?
While doing underwater tests in an ocean, scientists noticed that the temperature, in °C,
was inversely proportional to the depth, in kilometres. When the temperature was 6°C, the
scientists were at a depth of 4 km.
a What would the temperature have been at a depth of 8 km?
b At what depth would they find the temperature at 2°C?

A new engine had serious problems. The distance it went, in kilometres, without breaking
down was inversely proportional to the square of its speed in metres per second (m/s).
When the speed was 12 m/s, the engine lasted 3 km.
a Find the distance covered before a breakdown, when the speed is 15 m/s.
b On one test, the engine broke down after 6.75 km. What was the speed?
In a balloon it was noticed that the pressure, in atmospheres (atm), was inversely proportional
to the square root of the height, in metres. When the balloon was at a height of 25 m, the
pressure was 1.44 atm.
a What was the pressure at a height of 9 m?
b What would the height have been if the pressure was 0.72 atm?

340 19.2 Inverse proportion

n The amount of waste from a firm, measured in tonnes per hour, is inversely proportional to
the square root of the area of the filter beds that clean it, in square metres (m2). The firm
produces 1.25 tonnes of waste per hour, with filter beds of size 0.16 m2.
a The filter beds used to be only 0.01 m2. How much waste did the firm produce then?
b How much waste could be produced if the filter beds were 0.75 m??

2 Which statement is represented by the graph? A

Give a reason for your answer.

A yeux

§ pd
x
C yo Vx se

3 In the table, y is inversely proportional to the cube root of x.

Complete the table, leaving your answers as fractions.

8 27
1 Nl

Check your progress

Extended
* | understand the terms direct and inverse proportion
* | can express direct and inverse proportion in algebraic terms
* | can use this form of expression to find unknown quantities

Chapter 19: Proportion 341

 Chapter 2 0

Linear programming

rn i boundary, region, included, origin,

1 Graphical inequalities EXTENDED dasha Bia, solic line

| 2 More than one inequality EXTENDED required

3 Linear programming linear programming

© Represent inequalities graphically. (E2.6)

© Use this representation in the solution of simple linear programming problems. (E2.6)

£
p

hi

Lo

———
wr
Why this chapter matters
The theory of linear programming has been used by many companies to reduce their costs and
increase productivity.
The theory of linear programming
was developed at the start of the
Second World War in 1939.

It was used to work out ways to

supply armaments as efficiently as
possible. It was such a powerful
tool that the British and Americans
did not want the Germans to know
about it, so it was not made public
until 1947.

George Dantzig was one of the

inventors of linear programming.
He came late to a lecture at
University one day and saw two
problems written on the blackboard.
He copied them, thinking they were
the homework assignment.
He solved both problems, but apologised to
the lecturer later as he found them a little
harder than the usual homework, so he
took a few days to solve them and was late
handing them in.
The lecturer was astonished. The problems
he had written on the board were not
homework but examples of ‘impossible
problems’. Not any more!

Armoured ­ _— Optimal solution

cars yy
 20.1 Graphical inequalities El
CE ttt 00ers rrr rrr tir ir errr retest nertenineseiessnessensesnessnssssssssss
A linear inequality can be plotted on a graph. The result is a region that lies on one side or the
other of a straight line. You will recognise an inequality by the fact that it looks like an equation but
instead of the equals sign it has an inequality sign: <, >, <, or =.
The following are examples of linear inequalities that can be represented on a graph.
y<3 x>7 ­3<y<5 y=2x+3 2x+3y<6 y=x
The method for graphing an inequality is to draw the boundary line that defines the inequality. This is
found by replacing the inequality sign with an equals sign. When a strict inequality is stated (< or >),
the boundary line should be drawn as a dashed line to show that it is not included in the range of
values. When = or = is used to state the inequality, the boundary line should be drawn as a solid line
to show that the boundary is included.
After the boundary line has been drawn, shade the unwanted region.
To confirm on which side of the line the region lies, choose any Advice and Tips
point that is not on the boundary line and test it in the inequality.
If it satisfies the inequality, that is the side required. If it doesn't, You should shade the
the other side is required. unwanted region of the
graph, leaving the region
Work through the six inequalities in this example to see how the that satisfies the
procedure is applied.
inequality unshaded.

( : =)
Example 1
Show each inequality on a graph.
a ys3 b x>7 € 3<y<5
d ys2x+3 @ 2x+3y<6 f y<x
a Draw the line y = 3. Since the inequality is stated y
as the line is solid. Test a point that is not on the line. The
=<, 3 ys3
origin is always a good choice if possible, as 0 is easy to test.
Putting 0 into the inequality gives 0 =< 3. The inequality is satisfied *
and so the region containing the origin is the side we want.
Shade the region on the other side of the line.
b Since the inequality is stated as >, the line x>7
is dashed. Draw the line x = 7. y
Test the origin (0, 0), which gives 0 > 7. This is not true, so you want :
the other side of the line from the origin. ol
Shade the unwanted region as shown.

344 20.1 Graphical inequalities

¢ Draw the lines y = ­3 (solid for <) and y=5
gs
(dashed for <).
Test a point that is not on either line, say (0, 0). Zero is between
­3 and 5, so the required region lies between the lines. ­ ­3=<y<5
Shade in the unwanted regions, outside these lines.

Draw the line y = 2x + 3. Since the inequality is y

‘stated as =, the line is solid.
Test a point that is not on the line, (0, 0). Putting these x­ and of
y­values in the inequality gives 0 < 2(0) + 3, which is true. So the
region that includes the origin is what you want.
Shade in the unwanted region on the other side y
of the line. y=2+3

Draw the line 2x + 3y = 6.

The easiest way is to find out where it crosses the. es

: o
If x=0, 3y=6 = y = 2. Crosses y­axis at
Hy=0,2x=6=x=3.. $ x­axis
Draw

Test a point that is not on the line, say (0, 0). : TH tt Ia

Is it true that 2(0) + 3(0) < 6? The answer is yes, so the origin is dK
in the region that you want. os
2x+3y<6

Shade in the unwanted region on the other side

of the line.

Draw the line y = x. Since the inequality is stated

as <, the line is solid.
This time the origin is on the line, so pick any other point, say |»
(1, 3). Putting x = 1 and y = 3 in the inequality gives 3 =< 1. This : fo
is not true, so the point (1, 3) is not in the region you want. :
Shade in the region that includes (1, 3), the unwanted region. T

Chapter 20: Linear programming 345

 EXERCISE 20A
CE a Draw the line x = 2 (as a solid line).
b Use shading to show the region defined by x =< 2.
(@ a Draw the line y = ­3 (as a dashed line).
b Use shading to show the region defined by y > ­3.

Draw the line x = ­2 (as a solid line).

b Draw the line x = 1 (as a solid line) on the same grid.
Use shading to show the region defined by ­2 < x < 1.
Draw the line y = ­1 (as a dashed line).
b Draw the line y = 4 (as a solid line) on the same grid.
Use shading to show the region defined by ­1 < y < 4.

On the same grid, draw the regions defined by these inequalities.

i ­3=x=<6
ii ­4<y<5
Are these points in the region defined by both inequalities?
i (2,2)
ii (1,5)
iii (­2,­4)

Draw the line y = 2x ­ 1 (as a dashed line).

Use shading to show the region defined by y < 2x­ 1.

Draw the line 3x ­ 4y = 12 (as a solid line).

Use shading to show the region defined by 3x ­ 4y =< 12.

Draw the line y = 1x + 3 (as a solid line).

Use shading to show the region defined by y = Ix +3.

Use shading to show the region defined by y < ­3.

a Draw the line y = 3x ­ 4 (as a solid line).

b Draw the line x + y = 10 (as a solid line) on the same diagram.
¢ Shade the diagram so that the region defined by y = 3x ­ 4 is left unshaded.
d Shade the diagram so that the region defined by x + y < 10 is left unshaded.
e Are these points in the region defined by both inequalities?
i 2,1)
i (2,2)
ii (2, 3)

346 20.1 Graphical inequalities

When you have to show a region that satisfies more than one inequality, it is always clearer to shade
the regions not required, so that the required region is left blank.

[rm 2 ¢ a
a On the same grid, show the regions that represent each inequality by shading the unwanted
regions.

i. .x>2
ii y=2x

ilix+y<8
b Are these points in the region that satisfies all three inequalities?
i 3,9
ii (2,6) we an .
ii (3,3 “= LN
( ) h = FEAR Te ow bmi af” A

y Ci § eT
ail y ii
10 10 10
8 8 Bs
6 6 — 6 4:
4 4 a 1 4 Ue:
2 2 : 2 “a
­ lL, .
0 24681012x 0 2 4681012«x 0 2 4681012%
i The region x > 2 is shown unshaded in diagram i.
The boundary line is x = 2 (dashed). L
il The region y = x is shown unshaded in diagram ii.
The boundary line is y = x (solid).
#*

iii The region x + y < 8 is shown unshaded in diagram iii.

The boundary line is x + y = 8 (dashed). The regions have . ~
.
first been drawn separately so that each may be clearly NWhHAWOMON®OO«w .
.
seen. The diagram on the right shows all three regions on — is
> S
the same grid. The white triangular area definestheregion o 1 2 3 4567 89 *
that satisfies all three inequalities.
b i The point (3, 4) is clearly within the region that satisfies all three inequalities.
ii The point (2, 6) is on the boundary lines x = 2 and x + y = 8. As these are dashed lines, they
are not included in the region defined by all three inequalities. So, the point (2, 6) is not
in this region.

iii The point (3, 3) is on the boundary line y = x. As this is a solid line, it is included in the
L region defined by all three inequalities. So, the point (3, 3) is included in this region. 9

Chapter 20: Linear programming 347

 EXERCISE 20B
Draw the line y = x (as a solid line). Advice and Tips
b Draw the line 2x + 5y = 10 (as a solid line) on the same Find the points where the
diagram.
line crosses each axis.
Draw the line 2x + y = 6 (as a dashed line) on the same
diagram.
a Shade the diagram so that the region defined by y = x is left unshaded.
0 Shade the diagram so that the region defined by 2x + 5v = 10 is left unshaded.
= Shade the diagram so that the region defined by 2x + y < 6 is left unshaded.
QQ
Are these points in the region defined by these inequalities?
i (1,1) ii 2,2 iii (1,3)
On the same grid, draw the regions defined by the following inequalities. (Shade the
diagram so that the overlapping region is left blank.)
i y>x­3 ii 3y+4r<24 iii x=2
Are these points in the region defined by all three inequalities?
i (1,1) ii (2,2) iii (3,3) iv (4, 4)
On a graph draw the lines y =x, x+ y=8 and y= 2.
oO Label the region R where y < x, x + y < 8 and y => 2. Shade the region that is not required.
On a graph draw the lines y =x­4, y= 0.5x and y = ­x.
b Show the region S where y = x­ 4, y < 0.5x and y = ­x. Shade the region that is
not required.
< What is the largest y­coordinate of a point in 5? A
d What is the smallest y­coordinate of a point in §?
4
e What is the largest value of x + y for a point in §?
3
Explain how you would find which side of the line represents 2
the inequality y < x + 2. 4
The region marked R is bounded by the lines x + y = 3, 0
y=lr+3andy=5x­15. 01 2 3 4
a What three inequalities are satisfied in region R?
b What is the greatest value of x + y in region R?
4 What is the greatest value of x ­y in region R?

348 20.2 More than one inequality

 20 5
20.3 Linear programming &
LAER AE EEE A EA A EE A EAE AE EEE A EE EL EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EEE EEE ENN

There are practical situations that give rise to inequalities that can be shown on a graph. Solving
problems in this way is called linear programming.
cExample 3 .
)
A boat trip costs $20 for adults and $10 for children.

Suppose there are x adults and y children on the trip.

a There must not be more than 10 people on the trip.
Explain why x + y = 10.

b The money taken for tickets must be at least $120.

Explain why 2x + y = 12.
¢ Show the region satisfied by both these inequalities.
d What is the smallest number of adults that should be carried?

a The total number of passengersisto,

The total must be 10 or less so x+y =< 10.
b The total number of dollars taken is 20x + 10.
This must be at least 120 so 20x + 10y = 120.
Divide both sides by 10 to get 2x + y = 12. $e foAmly arid
¢ Negative numbers on the axes are not needed.
First draw the lines with equations x + y= 10 and 2x + y = 12, 2 I
The first crosses the axes at (10, 0) and (0, 10). 10 Sau 5
The second crosses the axes at (6, 0) and (0, 12). §
Shade the regions that are not required. :
The solution must be in the unshaded region R. 3 . Sef =10
d The smallest x­coordinate in this region is at (2, 8). 0 In: ­
02 4" 6 8 10127
y x must be at least 2 so there must be at least 2 adults. 4

Chapter 20: Linear programming 349

 EXERCISE 20C
A man buys x cartons of milk and y bottles of water.
a Explain what x = 3 means.
b Write an inequality to show that he buys at least 2 bottles of water.
¢ He cannot carry more than a total of 8 bottles and cartons. Write this as an inequality.
d Draw a graph to show possible values of x and vy.
There are x cars and y vans in a car park.
a There are no more than 10 vehicles (cars and vans) in the car park.

Write an inequality to show this.

b Cars pay $2 and vans pay $5 to park. At least $30 was paid in total.
Write an inequality to show this.
¢ Show the two inequalities on a grid.
d What is the largest possible number of cars?
e What is the smallest possible number of vans?

x girls and y boys are at a children's party.

There are more girls than boys.

The number of girls is fewer than twice the number of boys.

There are fewer than 12 children at the party.
a Write down three inequalities to represent each of the statements above.
b Show the region indicated by these inequalities.
Shade the areas that are not included.
¢ What is the largest possible number of girls at the party?
A house is home to x cats and y dogs.

There are at least 6 animals.

There are no more than 12 animals.
There are more dogs than cats.
There are at least two cats.
a Write down four inequalities from these sentences.
b Show the region that gives possible values of x and y by shading the area that is
not required. ’
¢ What is the smallest possible number of dogs? .
d What is the largest possible number of cats?

350 20.3 Linear programming

5 At a concert, x people bought seats near the front for $15 and y people bought seats
near the back for $10.
a Ticket sales were at least $600. Show that 3x + 2y = 120.
b No more than 50 tickets were sold. Write an inequality for this.
¢ Show the region which represents these inequalities on a grid.
d What is the largest possible number of back seats sold?
6 A company has a fleet of coaches in two sizes. There are x large coaches and
y small coaches.
a Write an inequality for each of these statements.
i The total number of coaches must not exceed 15.
ii There must be at least 5 coaches in total.
iii The number of small coaches must not be less than half the number of large coaches.
b Explain in words the meaning of y < x + 2.
¢ Label the region R to show the four inequalities in parts a and b.
Shade the area which is not required.
d If there are 6 large coaches, how many small coaches could there be?
Give all the possible values.

EY In a football league a team score 3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw and none for a loss.
a If a team wins x matches and draws y matches, write down an expression for the total
number of points gained.
b Wayne knows these facts about his team’s performance so far this season.
¢ They have gained at most 18 points.
* They have more wins than draws.
* They have at least two draws.
Write an inequality, using x and y, for each of these three statements.
¢ Show on a graph the region where the three inequalities are satisfied.
d List all the possible numbers of wins and draws for Wayne's team.

Check your progress

Extended
* | can represent inequalities graphically
* | can use graphical representations to solve simple linear programming problems

Chapter 20: Linear programming 351

Chapter 2 1

Functions

1 Function notation EXTENDED function

2 Inverse functions EXTENDED inverse

3 Composite functions EXTENDED composite

4 More about composite

. EXTENDED
functions

In this chapter you will learn how to:

——

Use function notation, e.g. f(x) = 3x ­ 5, f: x — 3x ­ 5 to describe simple functions. (E2.9)

Find inverse functions f (x). (E2.9)
Form composite functions as defined by gf(x) = g(f(x)). (E2.9)
 ' —h CN,
Why this chapter matters
Notation is important in mathematics. Try writing an equation or formula in words instead of
symbols and you will see why notation makes things easier to understand.

a If you drop a coin, how long does it take to reach the ground?
That
—
depends on the height you drop it from. We say that the time taken is a
function of the height.
a= By dropping the coin from different heights and measuring the time it
takes to fall, it would be possible to find a formula for the time in terms of 1)
J the height.
Here are some other examples where one variable is a function of another. PY
* The cost of posting a parcel is a function of its mass.
* The time taken for a journey is a function of the distance travelled. @
= * The stopping distance of a car is a function of its speed.
* The cost of a second hand car is a function of its age.
* The time taken to download a computer file is a function of the size of the file.
AE The idea of an inverse occurs frequently in mathematics. It is not a difficult idea and it is a useful
one.’Putting a hat on and taking it off are inverse operations. Switching a light on and switching
it off are also inverse operations.

EE

=
Here are some examples of inverse operations in mathematics.
* Add 3 and subtract 3.
* Multiply by 5 and divide by 5.
* Rotate 90° clockwise and rotate 90° anticlockwise.
* Square a number and find the square root of the
square number.
It is not always possible to find an inverse. Sadly the inverse
of breaking a glass does not exist.
 Chapter 21. Topi

21.1 Function notation EJ

0 rrr rte r rrr rrr rr rir errr ir rrr eonnitreeesseessnsenesssssessssnssscssss

You are familiar with equations written in x and y, such as y = 3x— 4 or y = 2x2 + 5x ­ 3.
These equations are showing that y is a function of x. This means that the value of y depends on the
value of x so that y changes when x changes.
Sometimes it is useful to use a different notation to show this. You could write the first equation
above as f(x) = 3x ­ 4 and refer to it as ‘function f'.
It is then easy to show the result of using different values for x. For example:
‘the value of f(x) when x is 5’ can be written as (5).
Sof(5)=3x5­4=11
f(1) means ‘the value of f(x) when x is 1’
Sof()=3x1­4=­1
and f(­1) =­7
If there are different functions in the same problem they can be represented by different letters, for
example:
g(x) = 2x? + 5x ­ 3 or ‘function g".

Sometimes instead of f(x) = 3x — 4 you may see f: x — 3x ­ 4. These two forms mean exactly the same
thing.

EXERCISE 21A
9 f(x) = 2x + 6. Find the value of:
a f(3) b (10) [4 d f(­4) e f(­1.5).

2 glx) = 2+ 1 Find the value of:

2
a g(0) b g(3) c g(10) d g(­2) e g(­)).
3 f: x = x= 2x + 1. Find the value of:
a f(2) b f(­2) [4 (100) d f(0) e f().
Ks g: x — 2% Find the value of:
a g(2) b g(5) c a(0) d g(­1) e g(­3).
5 h(x) = +l Find the value of:

a h(2) b h(3) c h(­1) d h(0) h(1.

a If f(a) = 20, what is the value of a?

b If f(b) = 0, what is the value of b?
c If f(c) = ­5, what is the value of ¢?

354 21.1 Function notation

@ o=\r+3
a Find the value of g(33).
b If g(a) = 10, find the value of a.
c¢ If g(b) = 2.5, find the value of b.

@ f(9=2c­8and g(y)=10­x.
a What is the value of x for which f(x) = g(x)?
b Sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x). At what point do they cross?

hex 1241 kix—> 27­1

a Find the value of h(6).

b Find the value of k(­1).
¢ Solve the equation h(x) = k(3).
d Solve the equation k(x) = h(­12).

21.2 Inverse functions [8

IEEE AEE EEE EE NE EE EE EE ENE EE EEE EE EE EE ENE EEE EE EE EEE EN EE EE EE NE EEE EE EE EE EE EEE NNER ERNE RENN N]

Suppose f(x) = 2x + 6.

Then f(1) = 8, (3) = 12 and f(­4) = ­2.

The inverse of f is the function that has the opposite effect and ‘undoes’ f. You write the inverse
of fas f.
Since f above means ‘multiply by 2 and then add 6’, the inverse will be ‘subtract 6 and then
divide by 2":

(0)1 co 6
= ="
Sof'(8)=1,f"12) =3 and f­'(­2) = ­4.
You can find the inverse by following these steps.
Step 1: Write y = f(x)

y=2x+6
Step 2: Rearrange to make x the subject. y­6=2x

oni.
2
Step 3: Replace y by x in the result. fl) == 3 6

Chapter 21: Functions 355

 Find f(x) for each of these functions.
a f()=x+7 b f(x) =8x
c fo =¢ d f(x) =x­3
fx— 3 + 6. Find the value of:
a fa) b (8)
c f(­2) d (5).
Find f(x) for each of these functions.

a fl) =3­2 b f(x) =4(x­5)

c f(x) _x+4
= 5 d f(x) _(3x­6)
=—

e fl) =3C+4) f f(y) =43

glx) = at 3 Find the value of:

a g'3) b g'(2)
c g'(0).

f(x) = 10­x
a Find an expression for f(x).
b What do you notice about f(x) and f(x)?

Find f(x) for each of these functions.

a fl) = b fn) =20­1

¢ flo) =—2—
x+1

f(x) =2x­4
a Find f(x).
b On the same axes draw graphs of y = f(x) and y = f(x).
¢ Where do the lines cross?

f(x) _X+5
= 2

Solve the equation f(x) = f(x).

(x) =3x­2

Find an expression for f(x).

356 21.2 Inverse functions

Consider a function given by f(x) = 2x.
So f means ‘double it’.
f2)=4
f(3)=6
(5) =10
and f(­3)=­6
Now suppose you have another function, g, and g(x) = x­ 3.
So g means ‘subtract 3'.

94) =1
g(6)=3
g(10)=7
and g(­6)=­9
Now put those side by side to make a composite function.

f2Q)=4 and g@)=1

f3)=6 and g(6)=3
f(5)=10 and g(10)=7
f(­3)=­6 and g(­6)=­9
In words they mean:
Start with 2, double it, subtract 3, the answer is 1.
Start with 3, double it, subtract 3, the answer is 3.
Start with 5, double it, subtract 3, the answer is 7.
Start with ­3, double it, subtract 3, the answer is ­9.
You can write that in symbols as: Advice and Tips
gf(2) =1 gf means “first f, then g'.
gf(3)=3
af(5) =7
gf(­3) =­9

Chapter 21: Functions 357

 3 Example 1
h(x) = x2 and k(x) = x + 4. Find:
a kh(3) :
b kh(­2)
c hk(5)

a h means ‘square it’ and k means ‘add 4".

kh(3) means ‘start with 3, square it, then add 4".
Sokh(3)=32+4=94+4=13
b kh(­2)=(­2)+4=4+4=8
¢ hk(5) is the other way round.
It means ‘start with 5, add 4, then square it’.

hk(5) = (5 +4)? =92 = 81

Gan
Look again at the functions f and g you considered earlier.

f(x) =2xand g(x) = x­3

gf(x) means “first double x, then subtract 3’. So you can write:
gf(x) =2x­3
What about fg(x)?
That means ‘first subtract 3, then double it’. So you can write:
fax) = 2(x­3)
Looking at example 1, h(x) = x? and k(x) = x + 4.
Then kh(x) =x? + 4

and hk(x) = (xv + 4)?

EXERCISE 21C
@® s(x) =x+4 and t(x) = 3
a Find the value of s(2) and ts(2). b Find the value of s(3) and ts(3).
¢ Find the value of s(6) and ts(6). d Find an expression for ts(x).
e Find the value of t(2) and st(2). f Find the value of t(3) and st(3).
g Find the value of t(~10) and st(­10). h Find an expression for st(x).
@& c(x) = x3 and d(x) = 2x.
a Find the value of d(3) and cd(3). b Find the value of d(5) and cd(5).
¢ Find an expression for cd(x). d Find the value of c(4) and dc(4).
e Find an expression for dc(x).

358 21.3 Composite functions

 Chapter 21. Topic 4

r(x) =Vx and a(x) = 2x + 1

a Find the value of a(0), a(4) and a(12). b Find the value of ra(0), ra(4) and ra(12).
¢ Find an expression for ra(x).

m(x) = 3x
a Find the value of m(2) and mm(2). b Find the value of m(4) and mm(4).
¢ Find an expression for mm(x).

5 f(9=3randg()=x­6
a Find an expression for fg(x). b Find an expression for gf(x).
6 a(x) =x+4and bx) =x­7

Show that ab(x) and ba(x) are identical.

21.4 More about composite

functions E0)
LAA AAR AAR ER EE A AL AE A EE A RA A A EE EA EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE ENN

Suppose f(x) =x* + 2and g(x) = 2x ­ 3.

Is it possible to find an expression for gf(x)?
Start with a value of x, say x = 3.
f3)=32+2=11

Now apply g to that answer.

g(1)=2x11­3=19
So gf(3)=19
gf(x) means ‘start with x, apply f, and then apply g to the answer.’
If you start with x and ‘apply f’ you get x2 + 2.
Now take that answer and ‘apply g’, double it and subtract 3.
gf(x) =2(x2+2)­3
Now simplify that.
gf(x) =2(x2+2)­3
=22+4­3
=2x2 +1

So gf(x)=22+1

Check this works when x is 3.

of(3)=2 x 32+ 1
=18+1
= 19 as before.

Chapter 21: Functions 359

 EXERCISE 21D
® f(x) =*=3andgy)=3r+ 1

Find the value of:

a fg(3)
b gf(3)
c fg(6)
d gf(6).
f(x) =x2 ­ x and g(r) =3+3
Find the value of:

a fg(4)
b gf(4)
c fg(1)
d gf(1).
f(x) =2*and g(x) = 2x­1

Find the value of:

a gf(2)
b fg(2)
c ff(3)
d gg(6).
f(x) =3x+1and g(x) =2x­2
a Find an expression for gf(x). Write your answer as simply as possible.
b Find an expression for fg(x). Write your answer as simply as possible.
In each case find an expression for fg(x). Write your answer as simply as possible.
a f(x)=x?and g(x) =3r+4
b f(x)=2x+3and g(x) =3x­4
c f()=3+4and g(x) = 4x ­2
d f(x)=12­xand g(x) =2x +8

h(x) = 10­x and k(x) = 20 ­ x

Find an expression for:

a hk(x)
b kh(x)
c kk(x).

360 21.4 More about composite functions

@ nrw=2andk=12
X

Find an expression for:

a hh(x)
b hk(x)
c¢ kh(x)
d kk(x).
8 m(x) = 2+ 2x and n(x) = 2x­1
a Find the value of mm(2).
b Show that nn(x) =4x­3.
¢ Show that mn(x) = 4x2 ­1

f(x) = 4 and g(x) = 3x + 1.

a Find an expression for fg(x).
b Find an expression for gf(x), writing your answer as a single fraction.
10 hx) = 124 and k(x) = 3x—5
Find:

a hk)
" b hh).
@) suppose f(x) = 0.5(x +9).
a Show that f(1) = 5.
b Find the value of (5).
¢ Find f(b) where b is the answer to part b.
d Continue in this way, using the last answer as the next value of x, to find the next
six values.
e What is happening to the answers?
2 What happens in question 11 if you start with f(25) instead of f(1)?

Check your progress

Extended
* | can use function notation to describe simple functions
* | can find inverse functions
* | can find composite functions

Chapter 21: Functions 361

 Topics Level Key words

1 The gradient of a curve gradient

2 More complex curves derivative, differentiate, differentiation

3 Turning points turning point, maximum, minimum

In this chapter you will learn how to:

« Differentiate integer powers of x and simple sums of these. (E2.13)

© Understand the idea of a derived function. (E2.13)
© Use the derivatives of functions of the form ax”, and simple sums of not more than three of
these. (E2.13)
+ Determine gradients, and turning points (maxima and minima) by differentiation and
relate these to graphs. (E2.13)
+ Distinguish between maxima and minima by considering the general shape of the graph.
| ­ (E2.13)
Why this chapter matters
When you look at a graph, it shows you how changes in one variable lead to changes in another.
Differentiation helps us to find the rate at which this change happens.
When you look at a straight line graph you can easily calculate the gradient which tells you how
quickly one variable changes compared to another. But when the line on a graph is curved, the
gradient is changing all the time. Using differentiation you can calculate the gradient and so
work out how quickly change is happening at any point.

For example:
* When you walk up a hill your height compared to ground level changes with respect to your
position on the slope
* When you drive a car your position and your velocity vary with respect to time
* The brightness of a light bulb varies depending on the electric current flowing through it
* Hot drinks cool down and ice melts at different rates as time passes

We can use differentiation to understand how changes like this happen.

A form of differentiation was used in Ancient Greece and China. In the seventeenth century CE a
German mathematician called Leibniz and an English scientist, Isaac Newton, started to develop
the form of differentiation we use today.
Differentiation is now an essential tool in almost all areas of science, including engineering,
physics, chemistry, biology, economics and computer science.

Chapter 22: Differentiation 363

 22, 1 The gradient of a curve EN
rr rrr rrr rr rrr er rr rr Nr arse rr Ir rire eraser enenessensssssnssnsssnnses
This is a graph of y = x2 — 3x + 4. | 4
|
What is the gradient at the point P(3, 4)?
In an earlier chapter you learnt how to find the gradient by drawing a
tangent to the curve at P. It is hard to do this accurately and we need to |
draw the graph first.
We will now look at another method.
The point A(4, 8) is on the curve.
The gradient of the straight line PA is
differencein y ­ coordinates _ 8 ­ 4 =i | +—1
differencein x ­ coordinates ~ 4­3 (| A
The line PA is steeper than the tangent so the gradient of the curve at P is less than 4.
Suppose A is a point on the curve closer to P.

If Ais (3.5, 5.75) Then the gradient of PA is 575­4 3.5

35­3
If Ais (3.1, 4.31) Then the gradient of PA is a3! =2 =31
­

If Ais (3.01, 4.0301) Then the gradient of PA is 9391­4 _ 3 oy

As A gets closer to P, the gradient of PA approaches 3.
It is reasonable to assume that the gradient of the tangent at P(3, 4) is 3
This method could be used at any point on the curve and it will show the following:
The gradient at any point on the curve y = x = 3x + 4 is 2x ­ 3.
For example, at (3, 4) the gradientis2x3­3=3
at (4, 8) the gradientis2x4­3=5

at (1, 2) the gradientis2 x 1 = 3 = ­1

Looking at the graph should convince you that these seem to be reasonable values.

The notation we use to represent the gradient of a curve is 7 (read it as “dee y by dee x"). So the
4

tangent to the curve on the graph shows that:

fy=x2­3x+4
dy
p =2x­3

This is the case for all equations of this form. So the general result is:
If v=al + bx +c

then dy =2ax +b
dx

_—

364 22.1 The gradient of a curve

 22 .1
We can use this to calculate the gradient at any point on a quadratic curve. We no longer
need to draw the graph and this method can be used for any point on the curve.
£ 2)
Example 1
A curve has the equation y = 0.522 + 4x ­ 3

a Find the gradient at (0, ­3) and at (2, 7).

b Find the coordinates of the point where the gradient is 0.

a Using the general result above, if y = 0.5x% + 4x ­ 3, INO PY RD

then LD =2x050+4 oO IT aN
=> L=xsa

If x=0,% = 044 = 4. The gradient at (0, ­3)is4

if x=2,% =24+4=6.The gradient at (2, 7) is 6

b If the gradient is 0, then 2=0
=x+4=0

= x=­4

fx=­4,y=

» A curve has the equation y = x? ­ 2x.

a Copy and complete this table
of values:
b Sketch the graph of y = 1% ­ 2x.
¢ Find 2.
d Find the gradient of the curve at (3, 3).
e Find the gradient of the curve at (4, 8).
f Find the gradient at two more points on the curve.
g At what point on the graph is the gradient 0?
h By looking at your graph, check that your answers to parts d, e, f and g seem sensible.

2 y=x2­6x+15
. ody
a in
Find =.yr

b Find the gradient at (0, 15).

¢ Find the gradient at (5, 10).

d Find the coordinates of the point where the gradient is 2.

­—

Chapter 22: Differentiation 365

 Chapter 22 . Topic 2

3 y=2x2­10

a Find ©
ind yr, b Find the gradient at (2, ­2).
¢ Find the gradient at (­1, ­9). d Find the point where the gradient is 12.
a This is the graph of y = 4x ­ x?
dy
Find ==,
a dx
b Find the gradient at each point where the
curve crosses the x­axis.
¢ Where is the gradient equal to 2?
d Where is the gradient equal to 1?
Find “ for each of the following:
a y=x24+x+1 b y=x­7x+3
€ y=4x2­x+6 d y=0.32­15x+72
e y=6­2x+x? f y=104+3x­2
g y=2x+5 h y=4
If y = (x + 8)(x ­ 2) what is or

Find 2 for each of the following:

a y=2x(x+1) Advice and Tips
b y=(x+2)(x+5) First multiply out the
c y=(r+3)(x­3) brackets.
8 A curve has the equation y =x? + 2x­5
a Where does the curve cross the y­axis?
b What is the gradient of the curve at that point?

22.2 More complex curves [EN

AAA AAR A A A ER AE A AA EE EE EE EE ENN rr I I III ITTY

You have seen that if y = x2 then a = 2x

This table shows the value of & for some other curves.

ya dx
1 0 — Thelines y = 1 has gradient 0
% 1 — The line y = x has gradient 1
bo 2x’

366 22.2 More complex curves

 4 322
fd 43
There is a general pattern here:

If y=" then 2 = per!

We call & the derivative of y with respect to x.

If a is a constant and y = ax” then & = any"!

For example, if y = 5x2 then & =5 x 2x = 10x. If y = 4x3 then dr = 1222,

If y=6 then & = 0. So the line with equation y= 6 is horizontal and has gradient 0.

(Example 2
What is the gradient of the curve with equation y = x3 ­ 3x2 + ¢

D_32­644

r=2, =3x22­6x2+4=4
DL

The gradient at (2, =5)

is.
The proces

Differentiate x3 to get 3x2

­ 3x2 to get ­ 6x } 2 +4 ­
) ! oy pe ­ ay er
Differentiate = 3x2 ­ 6x
Differentiate 4x to get 4 » | Ate rmbt! GR
Differentiate 7toget0 | Tp CN
Note the minor change to the wording so that it now says “We call 2. the deriva
x . it : — 4
ee

EXERCISE 22B
» The equation of a curve is y = 2x3.
a Find dy
or

b Find the gradient of the curve at (1, 2) and (2, 16).

@® The equation of a curve is y = x3 ­ 6x2 + 8x.

I ’
a Find ys

b Show that (0, 0), (2, 0) and (4, 0) are all on this curve.
¢ Find the rate of change of y with respect to x at each point in part b.

Chapter 22: Differentiation 367

 3 This is a graph of y = 0.5x3 — 3:2 + 4x
. ody
a Find =—

b Find the gradient at each point

where the graph crosses the x­axis.

@ Find @ for each of the following:

a y=24 b y=23+52­8
Cc y=523­2x+4 d y=5­x­22
e y=334+5:­7 ff y=10­23
g y=x(3­1) h y=23(x +3)
5 This is a sketch of the curve y = x4 ­ 442.

YA
Nol Io scale

EZ DN
|.
Find the gradient at the points where the curve meets the x­axis.

Thisisa graph of y=x* = 2:3 + 1 — —

a Show that the gradient at (0, 1) is 0
b Find the gradient at (­1, 4) BIE 0 HEN
¢ Find the gradient at (2, 1)

A curve has the equation y = » ­5x +4. |

|
Show that there are two points on the curve where therateof —— 1
change of y with respect to x is 4. Find the coordinates of the
two points.

This is a graph of the curve y = 3+ and the tangent at (2, 1)

Find the equation of the tangent at (2, 1)

368 22.2 More complex curves

 Chapter 22 . Topic 3

9 The equation of a curve is y = x* ­ 2ax where a is a constant.

When x = 2 the gradient of the curve is ­12

a Find the value of a
b Find the gradient when x= 4

22.3 Turning points [1&1

A point where the gradient is zero is called a turning point.

A and B are turning points. A |

At any turning point @ 0 + ve
dx . gradient
A is called a maximum point because it is higher
than the points near it. /
B is called a minimum point.

Example 3

dx
At a turning point 2 = 0: “el. —
= 3x?­12=0
= 3x2=12
= x2=4
SV ARTA aly!

= x=20r­2
Wi ews are | La
fx=2,y=8­24+4=­12 = (2,12) isa turning point
fx=­2,y=­8+24+4=20 = (­2,20)isa turning point
¥
A rough sketch makes it look likely that
(<2, 20) is a maximum point and (2, ­12) 2.200, 20I
is a minimum point. pe

If you are not sure, check the gradient on i

each side of the point. | ~

rls (2, 412)

Chapter 22: Differentiation 369

 For (2, ­12):

x 1.9 2 21
dy :
ax ­1.17 0 1.23
’ “

gradient | negative 0 positive

This is 3 x 2.12­ 12
(2, ­12) is a minimum point.

Because the gradient changes (from negative to zero to positive) as

we move from left to right, (2, ­12) must be a minimum point.
For (­2, 20):

Xx ­2.1 ­2 “=1.9 |
dy 5 3 (­2, 20]
x 1.23 0 1.17

gradient | positive 0 negative

(­2, 20) is a maximum point.

Because the gradient changes (from positive to zero to

negative) as we move from left to right, (­2, 20) must be a
maximum point.
3 Here is a sketch of the curve. (2,­12)

EXERCISE 22C
1 y=x2­4x +3 .
ody
a Find
Find 2
==,
b Show that the curve has one turning point and find its coordinates.
¢ State whether it is a maximum or minimum point.
2 a Find the turning point of the curve y = x? + 6x ­ 3.
b Is it a maximum or a minimum point?
3 y=145x­22
a Find 2.
b Find the turning point of the curve.
¢ Is ita maximum or a minimum point?
a The curve y = x3 + 1.5x2 ­ 18x has two turning points.
Find their x­coordinates.

370 22.3 Turning points

5 This is a sketch of y = x3 — 3x2 | Not to scale
a Find 2,
b Solve the equation a =0. : . N
¢ Find the coordinates of the two turning points IE
shown on the graph.
6 yv=x2­3x­10
a Show that the graph crosses the x­axis at (­2, 0) and (5, 0).
b Find &
¢ Find the turning point of the curve. Is it a maximum or a minimum?
d The curve has a line of symmetry. What is the equation of this line?
29 The curve y = 18x2 — x4 has three turning points.
a Find their coordinates.
b Sketch the graph.

8 The equation of a curve is y = 2x3 ­ 6x + 4.

a Find 2
X
b Find the turning points of the curve and state whether each one is a maximum or
a minimum point.
9 A rectangle has a perimeter of 30 cm.

15 ­x

are.

usual way.

a Explain why, if one side of the rectangle is x cm, the other will be (15 ­ x) cm.
Suppose the area of the rectangle is A cm? then A = x(15 ­ x).
TT Find a
Nn Find the turning point of the graph A = x(15 ­ x).
Q Is the turning point a maximum or a minimum?
on What do the answers to ¢ and d tell you about the
area of the rectangle?

Check your progress

Extended
* | understand the idea of a derivative of a function
* | can find the derivatives of functions of the form ax" and simple sums of these where
n=0,1230r4

* | can apply differentiation to find gradients

* | can apply differentiation to find turning points
* | can discriminate between maximum points and minimum points
—

Chapter 22: Differentiation Nn

 Examination questions: Algebra
AAA AR EA EER EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EL EE EE EE EE EE RE RR yy yy Im mmm

Past paper questions reproduced by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education.

Other exam­style questions have been written by the authors.

PAPER 1
. r®
a Simplify —. nl
2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 17 Q3 Oct/Nov 2015

@ a s=4r+ 3u
Calculate s when r = 2.6 and u = ­0.4. [2]
b Solve 5x­7=10. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q19 Oct/Nov 2015

a a Write down the next term in each of these sequences.

is 9 13 17 U!
ii3 6 12 24 (1
b Here are the first four terms in a different sequence.
2 7 12 17
Find an expression for the nth term of this sequence. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 17 Q22 Oct/Nov 2015

® a Maria travels by bus to the shopping mall.

She leaves home at 1150 and arrives at the shopping mall at 1217.
How many minutes does it take Maria to travel from home to the shopping mall? yl]
Shopping mall—s5 + TTT — Py
. —

Distance from
home (km)
2 i

Home —=0
1400 1415 1430 1445 1500 1515 1530 1545 1600
Time

Maria walks home from the shopping mall.

The travel graph shows part of her journey.
i Maria stops at her friend's house on the way home.
How far from the shopping mall does her friend live? [1

372 Examination questions: Algebra

 Examination questions: Algebra
ii Maria leaves her friend's house at 1455.
She walks the rest of the way home at a constant speed of 4km/h.
Complete the travel graph. (2)
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q20 Oct/Nov 2015

Simplify.
6uw3 x 4uwb [2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q10 May/June 2015

a Factorise.
3w2­2w [1
b Expand and simplify.
2x +3) + 5­7) [2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q13 May/June 2015

Solve the equation.

[2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q6 May/June 2014

Solve the simultaneous equations.

"Sx+2y=16
3x­4y=7 [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q20 Oct/Nov 2014

a Find the value of 5x2 when x = ­4. [2]

b Make x the subject of the formula y = 5x2. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 17 Q21 Oct/Nov 2014

a Simplify the expressions.

i pPxp’ (1
ii P+p8 (1
b (MB) =n"
Find the value of k. (1
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q16 May/June 2014

Rearrange this equation to make b the subject.

b
a=—­­9 [2
5
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q9 May/June 2013

Here are the first four terms of a sequence.

4 Nn 18 25
Write down an expression for the nth term. [2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q10 May/June 2013

Examination questions: Algebra 373

 Examination questions: Algebra

­ a Which two of these have the same value?

2 3 (3) (F o=
b Simplify.
[2]

i axa? (1
ii 24H" + 6b* [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q18 May/June 2013

a Multiply out the brackets.

5(x + 3) nl
b Factorise completely.
12xy­ 3x2 (2
c Solve.
5x­24=51 (2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q19 May/June 2013

374 Examination questions: Algebra

 Examination questions: Algebra
PAPER 3

® a i Complete the table of values for y = 8 — x2. [2]

­3 ­2 ­1 0 1 2 3

­1 8 7 ­1

ii On the grid, draw the graph of y=8 ­ x? for­3 = x = 3. [4]

¥

12
1
01)!

9
Hg
Lord

6
JBL a bi

HA Hi
SHE Hii
te fee
: Hi i z 3 EE 3

#52553 seas 81
52­14 ESSE5 ESSERE: : H

iii Write down the equation of the line of symmetry of the graph. [1]
iv Use your graph to solve the equation 8 ­ x2 = 0. [2]
b i On the grid, plot the points (­2, 8) and (2.5, ­1).
Draw a straight line through these points. [2]
ii Find the equation of your line in the form y = mx + ¢. [3]
ili Write down the co­ordinates of the point of intersection of your line
with y = 8 ­ x2. 1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q6 Oct/Nov 2014

a a In 2001 Arnold was x years old.

Ken is 34 years younger than Arnold.
i Complete the table, in terms of x, for Arnold's and Ken's ages. [3]

Arnold's age x
Ken's age

ii In 2013 Arnold is three times as old as Ken.

Write down an equation in x and solve it. [4]

Examination questions: Algebra 375

 b Solve the simultaneous equations.
3x+2y=18
2x­y=19 [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q10 May/June 2013

ah Diagram 1 Diagram 2 Diagram 3 Diagram 4

Diagrams 1 to 4 show a sequence of shapes made up of lines and dots at the intersections of
lines.
a i Complete the table showing the number of dots in each diagram. [3]
Diagram 1 2 3 4 5 6
Dots 3 8 13
ii Write down the rule for continuing the sequence of dots. (1]
iii Write down an expression, in terms of n, for the number of dots in Diagram n. [2]
iv Find the number of dots in Diagram 15. [1]
b The dots are joined by sloping lines and horizontal lines.
i Diagram 1 has 2 sloping lines and Diagram 2 has 6 sloping lines.
Find the number of sloping lines in Diagrams 3 and 4. [2]
ii Write down an expression, in terms of n, for the number of sloping lines in
Diagram n. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q9 Oct/Nov 2014

a The cost, $C, of hiring a meeting room for n people is calculated using the
formula C = 80 + 5n.
i Calculate C when n = 12. [2]
ii Maria pays $230 to hire the meeting room.
Work out the number of people at the meeting. [2]
iii Make n the subject of the formula C = 80 + Sn. [2]
b Expand and simplify 2(3x + 4) ­ 3(2 ­ x). [2]
¢ Solve the simultaneous equations.
3x+y=13
2x +3y=18 (3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 37 Qa Oct/Nov 2012

376 Examination questions: Algebra

. a Simplify x® + x2.
1
b PY | 27
Simplify
mpi £ |.
— [2]
:
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q11 Oct/Nov 2014

» Make x the subject of the formula.

y=(x­43>2+6 [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q7 May/June 2014

Examination questions: Algebra 377

 Examination questions: Algebra
PAPER 2

ER Factorise completely.
a ax + ay+3cx + 3c¢y [2]
b 3a¢?­12? [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q9 Oct/Nov 2015

@ Simplify.
x? ­16
x2 ­3x­4
[4
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q15 Oct/Nov 2015

f(x) = 3 glx) =3x­5 h(x) =2x + 1

Work out
a ff(2), [2]
b gh(x) and simplify your answer, [2]
¢ h(x), the inverse of h(x). [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q21 Oct/Nov 2015

go |

iH TH CEE I=
A ETT FR a
0 rey
0 1 2
Time (minutes)

A tram leaves a station and accelerates for 2 minutes until it reaches a speed of
12 metres per second.
It continues at this speed for 1 minute.
It then decelerates for 3 minutes until it stops at the next station.
The diagram shows the speed­time graph for this journey.
Calculate the distance, in metres, between the two stations. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q10 May/June 2015

Find the nth term of each sequence.

a 4, 8 12,16, 20, ....... [1]
b 11,20,35,56, 83, .... [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q11 May/June 2015

378 Examination questions: Algebra

 Examination questions: Algebra

Write down the 3 inequalities which define the unshaded region. [4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q15 May/lune 2015

® Factorise completely.
a yp + yt + 2xp + 2xt [2]
b 7(h+k?­21(h +k) [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q20 May/June 2015

® Solve the simultaneous equations.

*0.4x­5y = 27
2x+02y=9 [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q12 Oct/Nov 2014

9 Write as a single fraction in its simplest form.

2_ 2
x x+1 [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q8 May/June 2014

10 Factorise completely.
a ax+ay+ bx + by [2]
b 3(x­12+(x­1) (2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q10 May/June 2014

n Solve the inequality for positive integer values of x.

2 sxe [4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q15 May/June 2014

@ a =p
Find the value of p. [2]
­
b simplify £9. [3]
qt x q*

Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q16 may/June 2014

Examination questions: Algebra 379

 PAPER 4

a a Calculate 297. [1
b Find the value of x in each of the following.
i 2x=128 [1
il 2x x29=213 (1
iii 29: 2'=4 4)
iv 2=32
(1
c¢ i Complete this table of values for y = 2. [2]
­3 ­2 ­1 0 1
0.125 0.5 2
ii On the grid, draw the graph of y = 2* for­3 = x = 3, [4]
y

ND

LO

NWA
sweea
snes

—­

poze

3 | 2 ~1
To ! BFC

5d

iii Use your graph to solve 2* = 5. (1]

iv Find the equation of the line joining the points (1, 2) and (3, 8). [3]
v By drawing a suitable line on your graph, solve 2* ­2 ­x = 0. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q2 Oct/Nov 2015

a a Factorise x2 ­ 3x — 10.
(2]
x+2
b i Show that wees +=3 = 3 simplifies to 2x2­2x­3 = 0. (3]
Xx: X

ii Solve 2x2­2x­3=0.
Give your answers correct to 3 decimal places.
Show all your working. [4]
c simplif xe :
2x+3 x
PY +2 [4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q8 Oct/Nov 2015

380 Examination questions: Algebra

 Examination questions: Algebra

B a fw=2x­3 gW= —L +2 h(x) = 3"

i Work out fd). [1]
ii Work out fh(­I). [2]
iii Find f'(x), the inverse of f(x). [2]
iv Find ff(x) in its simplest form. [2]
v Show that the equation f(x) = g(x) simplifies to 2x? ­3x­6 = 0. [3]
vi Solve the équation 2x? ­3x­6 = 0.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
Show all your working. [4]

b Simplify x2 ­3x+2
(4]
x2 +3x­10
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q10 May/June 2014

® 1 11 mE
J
| |
Ll J 7 ­ i. st

I. [111
| |
Diogram | Diagram 2 Diagram 3 Diagram 4

The first four diagrams in a sequence are shown above.

"The diagrams are drawn using white squares [] and grey squares El
a Complete the columns in the table for Diagram 4 and Diagram n. [6]
Diagram 2 3 4 n

Number of white squares 20 28

Number of grey squares 1 4
Total number of squares 21 32 (n+ 1)(n+5)
b Work out the number of the diagram which has a total of 480 squares. [2]
¢ The total number of squares in the first n diagrams is In + pn? + gn.

i Use n=1in this expression to show that p + ¢ = 1 : [1]

ii Use n = 2 in the expression to show that 4p + 2¢ = 305. [2]

iii Find the values of p and 4. (3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q9 Oct/Nov 2014

Examination questions: Algebra 381

SEE 0 S. BFTLE aE NW “a
angles at a point, angles on straight lines, >
1 Angle facts
opposite angles, vertically opposite angles
corresponding angles, alternate angles,
2 lel li lines
Parallel allied
: angles, interior
i angles

3 Angles in a triangle equilateral triangle, isosceles triangle,

right­angled triangle :

4 Angles in a quadrilateral quadrilateral, parallelogram, rhombus, kite,

trapezium

polygon, regular polygon, external angles,

5 Regu pojgens pentagon, hexagon, octagon, square

6 irregular polygon, heptagon, nonagon,

Irregular polygons
decagon
W
7 Tangentsand diameters radius, tangent, point of contact, diameter,
semi­circle Ba.

8 Angles in a circle arc, circumference, segment, subtended WF

cyclic quadrilateral, opposite segment,

9 Cyclic quadrilaterals > =<
supplementary
Ay

10 Alternate segment by tangent, chord, major segment, minor segment y

theorem major arc, minor arc, alternate segment

| A OW ~~ EAE bE ob ™ UAW ay Ww

® Calculate unknown angles using the Use in addition the following geometrical g
following geometrical properties: properties:
(a) angles at a point (a) angle properties of irregular polygons E
(b) angles at a point on a straight line and (b) angle at the centre of a circle is twice
intersecting straight lines the angle at the circumference
(c) angles formed within parallel lines (c) angles in the same segment are equal
(d) angle properties of triangles and (d) angles in opposite segments
quadrilaterals are supplementary; cyclic 1
(e) angle properties of regular polygons quadrilaterals
(f) angle in a semi­circle (e) alternate segment theorem. (E4.7)
(g) angle between tangent and radius of a E
circle. (C4.7 and E4.7)
¢­­ SY 1 INA XY
Angles describe an amount of turn around a point. It is important to be able to measure them
and understand their properties.

» In a regular polygon all the angles are the same size and all the sides are the same length.
The shape of the polygon depends on how many angles and sides it has:
* atriangle has 3 sides and 3 angles
EER

* asquare has 4 sides and 4 angles

* apentagon has 5 sides and 5 angles
* a hexagon has 6 sides and 6 angles.

El.

AES

AY

Some shapes fit together better than others because

­."
of the size of their angles.
Bees construct their hives from hexagon shapes, which
can join together without gaps.

Squares and rectangles also fit together easily, which makes them
an ideal shape to use in building.
In this chapter you will look at angles, the shapes they form, and
their properties.
 23.1 Angle facts
A EE I I IPA A,

Angles on a line
The angles on a straight line add up to 180°.

a c If

a+ b=180° c+d+e+f=180°
Draw an example for yourself (and measure all the angles) to show that the statement is true.

Angles at a point
The sum of the angles at a point is 360°. For example:
a+b+c+d+e=360°

Again, check this for yourself by drawing an example and

measuring the angles.
Sometimes equations can be used to solve angle problems.

Opposite angles
Opposite angles are equal.
Soa=cand b=d.

(4

Sometimes opposite angles are called vertically opposite angles.

EXERCISE 23A
w Calculate the value of x in each diagrams. .
Advice and Tips
a y b srassrsseng
wz Never measure angles in
x questions like these.
53° Diagrams in textbooks are
4 not usually drawn
accurately. Always calculate
angles unless you are told
to measure them.

384 23.1 Angle facts

 e

78° /
x 43°

x 122°

Write down the value of x in each of these diagrams.

a b C
Xx
105°
a.
a / xX

In the diagram, angle ABD is 45° and angle CBD is 125°.

hat
Decide whether ABC is a straight line.

* Write down how you decided.

A B
Calculate the value of x in each of these diagrams.
b Cc
x­10°
60° 130° L
x+ 40° X= 10°
70°

Calculate the value of x in each of these diagrams.

a b c
10x
204 15°
3. x+ 10° x + 20°
p L_

Calculate the value of x first and then calculate the value of y in each of these diagrams.
a b C
2x + 30°
Sx
3x­20° 2­80" AY y
y
4x
x+50°

Chapter 23: Angle properties 385

 Shalini has a collection of tiles.
Advice and Tips
They are all equilateral triangles and are all the same size.
All the angles in an

ARK,
equilateral triangle are

.
She says that six of the tiles will fit together and leave no gaps.

Explain why Shalini is correct.

­ Work out the value of y in the diagram.

2x

70° y
Xx

w Theratioa:b=2:3

Work out the values of a and b.

23.2 Parallel lines

AAA AAA EEA a A EE EE EE TENN RRR RR ar

Angles in parallel lines > oA b

The arrowheads indicate that the lines are parallel and the
line that crosses the parallel lines is called a transversal.

Notice that eight angles are formed. ­ f

: SR
Angles like these are called corresponding angles ¢
> (Look for the letter F).
Corresponding angles are equal.

386 23.2 Parallel lines

Angles like these are called alternate angles
3 (Look for the letter 2).
Alternate angles are equal.

Angles like these are called allied angles or interior angles

5 : (Look for the letter C).
Allied angles add to 180°.

EXERCISE 23B
0) State the sizes of the lettered angles in each diagram.
a b C
y­

® State the sizes of the lettered angles in each diagram.

: 50°
JE
“7
SN CAN bo

Chapter 23: Angle properties 387

 [cy State the sizes of the lettered angles in these diagrams.
a b
114°
(]

w Calculate the values of x and y in these diagrams.

a \ — b [4
X ­ 3x + 10°
y
x+30° — A. 4x ­ 207
\ ” 7 »

® Calculate the values of x and y in these diagrams.

2 llr a A
SN y A AA ‘
\ = AN AN A
be
4 5 5x S—1T

2­407 ­ —— il
Son
77 »
~\

The company needs to know the size of the angle marked x on the diagram.
Work out the size of the angle labelled x.

® In the diagram, AE is parallel to BD.

Work out the size of the angle labelled a.

388 23.2 Parallel lines

 N Ww

®
xX L /

B
/ ay D

The line XY crosses the parallel lines AB and CD at P and Q.

a Work out the size of angle DQY. Give reasons for your answer.
b This is Vreni's solution.

AnglePOD = 64° (corresponding angles)

So angle DQY = 124° (angles on a line = 190°)
She has made a number of errors in her solution.
Write out the correct solution for the question.
® Use the diagram to prove that the three angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
SNS

SER
er

­ Prove that p + ¢g + r= 180°.

>>
P
r

7
q
>>

ABCD is a parallelogram.
AB is parallel to CD and DA is parallel to CB.
Prove that the opposing angles of the parallelogram are the same size.

Chapter 23: Angle properties 389

 23. 3 Angas in a triangle
EE Nr Nr Nl erate rr rrr lr Ir rr rr rs lI rs sans nNestscsssosntsnssnsonnnss

a+b+c=180°
You can prove this by drawing a line through C parallel to AB.

a=d (alternate angles)

b=e (alternate angles)
d+e+c=180° (angles on a straight line)
Soa+b+c=180°

Special triangles
Equilateral triangle Isosceles triangle
An isosceles triangle is a
60° triangle with two equal
sides and, therefore,
with two equal interior
angles (at the foot of
60° 60° the equal sides).
An equilateral triangle is a triangle with X x:

all its sides equal. Therefore, all three

interior angles are 60°.
Notice how to mark the equal sides
and equal angles.
Right­angled triangle
A right­angled triangle has
A an interior angle of 90°.
a+ b=90°

390 23.3 Angles in a triangle

EXERCISE 23C
wm Find the size of the angle marked with a letter in each of these triangles.

® Do any of these sets of angles form the three angles of a triangle? Explain your answer.
35°, 75°, 80°
50°, 60°, 70°
55°, 55°, 60°
ano 60°, 60°, 60°
0 35°, 35° 110°
“~~ 102°, 38°, 30°

El In the triangle on the right, all the interior angles are the same 5 A

a What is the size of each angle? x

b What is the name of a special triangle like this? ­
¢ What is special about the sides of this triangle?
x ¥
Gc

@® In the triangle on the right, two of the angles are the same.
a Work out the size of the lettered angles.
b What is the name of a special triangle like this?
¢ What is special about the sides AC and AB of this triangle?

Cc

. Find the size of the angle marked with a letter in each of these diagrams.

[4

55°
82°

110° b c 80°
27°

Chapter 23: Angle properties 391

 Chapter 23

® What is the special name for triangle DEF? D

_\wr
Show all your working to explain your answer.

30° F \

® The diagram shows three intersecting straight lines. 80°

Work out the values of a, b and c. X
115°
Give reasons for your answers. CA

w By using algebra, show that x = a + b.

Q
a

60°

a b°
X A B Y

ABC is a triangle and XABY is a straight line.

Find a formula for b in terms of a.

23.4 Angles in a quadrilateral

J Aap,

The four angles in any quadrilateral add up to 360°.

a+b+c+d=360°

You can check this by dividing the quadrilateral into two triangles.
The six angles of the triangles are the same as the four angles of the
quadrilateral.
Sum of angles of a quadrilateral = 180° + 180° = 360°

392 23.4 Angles in a quadrilateral

 Example 1
Three angles of a quadrilateral are 125°, 130° and 60°.
Find the size of the fourth angle.

125 + 130 + 60 + x = 360

315+ x=360
x=360­315
x=45
So the fourth angle is 45°.
\_ J
Special quadrilaterals
B
A parallelogram has opposite sides that are parallel. s en > _
Its opposite sides are equal. Its diagonals bisect each other.
Its opposite angles are equal: that is, angle A = angle C and
angle B = angle D A
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all its sides equal.
Its diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
Its diagonals also bisect the angles at the vertices.

A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of equal adjacent sides.

Its longer diagonal bisects its shorter diagonal at right angles.
The opposite angles between the sides of different lengths are equal. $)

A trapezium has two parallel sides. g ­

The sum of the interior angles at the ends of each non­parallel side is 180°.

angle A + angle D = 180° and angle B + angle C = 180° D —> Cc

fl

Example 2
Find the size of the angles marked x and y in this parallelogram.

Va Vs
* = 55° (opposite angles are equal) and y = 125° (x + y = 180°) 3

Chapter 23: Angle properties 393

 EXERCISE 23D
I) Find the sizes of the lettered angles in these quadrilaterals.

a b ­ — [4
FN { ‘ 1 135°

7 0° > b 75° e
>

@ Calculate the values of x and y in each of these quadrilaterals.

a b Cc >
\/ > x+10 4y+5

TB
2­10 2­5
A —> ­
­

El Find the value of x in each of these quadrilaterals and state what type of quadrilateral it
could be. All angles are in degrees.
a A quadrilateral with angles x + 10, x + 20, 2x + 20, 2x + 10
b A quadrilateral with angles x ­ 10, 2x + 10, x ­ 10, 2x + 10
¢ A quadrilateral with angles x ­ 10, 2x, 5x ­ 10, Sx ­ 10
d A quadrilateral with angles 4x + 10, 5x ­ 10, 3x + 30, 2x + 50

The diagram shows a parallelogram ABCD.

A B
—­

D —>>— c
Work out the value of x, marked on the diagram.

394 23.4 Angles in a quadrilateral

 napter 23

. Dani is making a kite and wants angle C to be half of angle A. A

Work out the size of angles 8 and D. Ya

cy This quadrilateral is made from two isosceles triangles.

They are both the same size.

Find the value of y in terms of x. Y/N

» The four angles of a quadrilateral are in the ratio 1:2:3:4

Calculate the four angles.

23.5 Regular
LAER RE A EE EE EE EE EEE EEE EE
polygons
EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EF FE EE EN EEE NY

Regular polygons
Here are five regular polygons.

Square
4 sides
OOPentagon
5 sides
Hexagon
6 sides
OO
Octagon
8 sides pop vi
10

A polygon is regular if all its interior angles are equal and all its sides are the same length.

A square is a regular four­sided shape that has an angle sum of 360°.

So, each angle is 360° + 4 = 90°.
The angles of a regular polygon

Lines from the centre of a regular pentagon divide it Kr

into five isosceles triangles. LJ

72 \ 56°
The angle at the centre is 360° so the angle of each isosceles triangle: /\54° 547\/
at the centre is:
360° +5=72°

Chapter 23: Angle properties 395

 The other angles in each triangle are identical so each one is:

(180­72) + 2 = 54°
So each interior angle of a regular pentagon is:
2 x 54° = 108°
There is also an exterior angle at each vertex. It is:

­ 108 = 72°
180 os 108
Notice that 72° = 360° + 5. \ Ll)
General result 1% 72°
If a regular polygon has n sides each exterior angle is 360°
I
If you want to find the interior angle of a regular polygon it may be easier to find the exterior angle
like this first. Then subtract it from 180° to find the interior angle.

Regular polygon Number of sides | Exterior angle | Interior angle

Equilateral triangle 3 120° 60°
Square 4 90° 90°
Pentagon 5 72° 108°
Hexagon 6 60° 120°
Octagon 8 45° 135°

( Example 3
2
Calculate the size of the exterior and interior angle for a regular 12­sided polygon
(a regular dodecagon).

Exterior angle = = = 30°

interior angle = 180° ­ 30° = 150°

\Q o/
EXERCISE 23E
@ Each diagram shows an interior angle of a regular polygon. For each polygon, answer
these questions.
i What is the size of its exterior angle?
ii How many sides does it have?
iii What is the sum of its interior angles?

a b c

135°
. 160° 165°

396 23.5 Regular polygons

= Each diagram shows an exterior angle of a regular polygon. Advice and Tips
For each polygon, answer these questions.
i What is the size of its interior angle? sum is calculated as _
ii How many sides does it have? (number of sides — 2) x 180°.

iii What is the sum of its interior angles?

24°

None of these angles can be the interior angle of a regular polygon. Explain why.
a b (4 d

aia
_— er 169°

None of these angles can be the exterior angle of a regular polygon. Explain why.
a ­ b 7 c PF d

Draw a sketch of a regular octagon and join each vertex to the centre.

Calculate the value of the angle at the centre (marked x).

What connection does this have with the exterior angle?

Is this true for all regular polygons?

. The diagram shows part of a regular polygon.

Each interior angle is 144°.
a What is the size of each exterior
angle of the polygon? 144°
b How many sides does the polygon
have?
a Show that it is possible to draw a regular polygon with an interior angle of 170°.
b Show that it is not possible to draw a regular polygon with an interior angle of 169°,

Chapter 23: Angle properties 397

 23.6 Irregular polygons ES
AAA AAA A EE EE A

Interior
angle

The exterior angles of any polygon add up to 360°.

Interior angles
You can find the sum of the interior angles of any polygon by splitting it into triangles.
Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon

Two triangles Three triangles Four triangles Five triangles

Since you already know that the angles in a triangle add up to 180°, you find the sum of the interior
angles in a polygon by multiplying the number of triangles in the polygon by 180°, as shown in this
table.

Shape Name Sum of interior angles

4­sided Quadrilateral | 2 x 180° = 360°
S5­sided Pentagon 3 x 180° = 540°
6­sided Hexagon 4 x 180° = 720°
7­sided Heptagon 5 x 180° = 900°
8­sided Octagon 6 x 180° = 1080°
9­sided Nonagon 7 x 180° = 1260°
10­sided | Decagon 8 x 180° = 1440°
As you can see from the table, for an n­sided polygon, the sum of the interior angles, §,
is given by the formula:

S=180(n ­ 2)°

398 23.6 Irregular polygons

Exterior angles
As in regular polygons the sum of all the exterior angles in an
irregular polygon is 360° but their sizes may not be the same.
The size of any specific exterior angle = 180° — the size of its adjacent angle
interior angle. ) Exterior angle

EXERCISE 23F
¥ Calculate the sum of the interior angles of polygons with these numbers of sides.
“a 10sides b 15 sides
¢ 100 sides d 45 sides
D Find the number of sides of polygons with these interior angle sums.
a 1260° b 2340°
c¢ 18 000° d 8640°
=» Calculate the size of the lettered angles in each of these polygons.

Chapter 23: Angle properties 399

 5 What is the name of the regular polygon in which the interior angles are twice its
exterior angles?

Wesley measured all the interior angles in a polygon. He added them up to make 991°,
but he had missed out one angle.
a What type of polygon did Wesley measure?
b What is the size of the missing angle?
In the triangle ABC, angle A is 42° and angle B is 67°.
i Calculate the value of angle C.
ii What is the value of the exterior angle at C?
iii What connects the exterior angle at C with the sum
of the angles at A and B?
Prove that any exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum
of the two opposite interior angles.
Two regular pentagons are placed together.

Work out the value of a.

A joiner ismaking tables so that the shape of each one is

half a regular octagon, as shown in the diagram.
He needs to know the size of each angle on the top.

What are the sizes of the angles?

23.7 Tangents and diameters

ad PT YY

A tangent is a straight line that touches a circle at one point only.

This point is called the point of contact.

A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point

of contact. ­
The radius OX is perpendicular to the tangent AB.

400 23.7 Tangents and diameters

The diameter of a circle divides it into two semi­circles. >
Every angle at the circumference of a semi­circle that is subtended by [A
the diameter of the semi­circle is a right angle.

<a

Example 5
0 is the centre of a circle. AP and BP are tangents.
Calculate the angle at P.

The angles at A and B are right angles.

OAPB is a quadrilateral so the interior angles add up to 360°.
Angle P is 360 — (90 + 90 + 154) = 26°.

EXERCISE 23G
­® In each diagram, 7P and 7Q are tangents to a circle with centre 0. Find each value of x.

a P ­ T b Pp T
d
C
70°
. 52¢
Xx

o o >
Q pe
ZB
3 T
T
2 Each diagram shows a tangent to a circle with centre 0. Find the value of x and y in each case.
a v b N c

§ 3 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and AB is Advice and Tips
a tangent to the circle at C.
Look for isosceles
Explain why triangle BCD is isosceles triangles
Give reasons to justify your answer. » D

ed 327

Chapter 23: Angle properties 401

 23.8 Angles in a circle EID
GE Nt rN rrr errr tet rr rrr INN rere NsnsrnNersseesensesssencrsssosssssecsns

Here are two more theorems you need to know about angles in circles.
If you draw lines from each end of an arc to the centre of a circle they form an angle at the centre.
The arc has subtended an angle at the centre. C
The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the
circumference that is subtended by the same arc.
This diagram shows the angles subtended by arc AB.
angle AOB = 2 x angle ACB

Angles subtended at the circumference in the same segment of a

circle are equal.

Points C,, C,, C; and C, on the circumference are subtended by

the same arc AB.
So angle AC,B = angle AC,B = angle AC,B = angle AC,B

CH

Example 6
0 is the centre of each circle. Find the sizes of angles marked a and b in each circle.

a a= 35° (angles in same segment)

b=2 x 35° (angle at centre = twice angle at circumference)
=70°
b With OP = 0Q, triangle OPQ is isosceles and the sum of the angles in this
triangle = 180°
So a + (2 x 25°) = 180°

a=180°­(2 x 25°)
= 130°

b=130° + 2 (angle at centre = twice angle at circumference)

= 65°
Ce J
—

402 23.8 Angles in a circle

 Example 7
0 is the centre of the circle. POR is a straight line.
Find the size of the angle labelled a.

angle POT = 180° ­ 72° = 108° (angles on straight line)

The reflex angle angle POT = 2 x 108°
(angle at centre = twice angle at circumference)
= 216°
a + 216° = 360° (sum of angles around a point)

a =360°­ 216°
­ ge = 144°

EXERCISE 23H
cH Find the value of x in each of these circles with centre O.

ZT

vs os
ws) (2
>

> (7

BEB
“

® Find the value of x in each of these circles with centre 0.

w21

MD ([@ &
105° §

5
Chapter 23: Angle properties 403
 @ In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle. Calculate these angles.
a Angle ADB.
b Angle DBA
¢ Angle CAD

a In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle. Calculate these angles.

a Angle EDF
b Angle DEG
¢ Angle EGF

5 In the diagram XY is a diameter of the circle and angle AZX is a.

Ben says that the value of a is 50°.

Give reasons to explain why he is wrong. 110°

404 23.8 Angles in a circle

 Chapter 23

In the diagram, O is the centre and AD is the diameter

of the circle.
Find the value of x.

8 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and

angle CBD is x. _

Show that the reflex angle AOC is 2x, giving reasons to

explain your answer.

9 A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle with centre O.

Angle ABO is x* and angle CBO is y°. A
a State the value of angle BAO.
b State the value of angle AOD.
¢ Prove that the angle subtended by the chord AC at the centre A
of a circle is twice the angle subtended at the circumference.
D

23.9 Cyclic quadrilaterals ES

LEAR ERE EEE EE A EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EF EE ENT EE EE EE NEE EK

There are two segments between points P and Q.

a is the angle in one segment.
b is the angle in the opposite segment.
Angles in opposite segments add up to 180°.
These angles (a and b) are supplementary.
Proof: a + b= jc + Jd = }(c + d) =} x 360 = 180°

A quadrilateral whose four vertices lie on the circumference of a circle

is called a cyclic quadrilateral.

The sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°.

a+c=180°and b +d = 180°

Chapter 23: Angle properties 405

 EXERCISE 231
@® Find the sizes of the lettered angles in each of these circles.

Find the values of x and y in each of these circles. Where shown, 0 marks the centre of the
@ nc:

Find the values of x and y in each of these circles. Where shown, © marks the centre of the
circle.

406 23.9 Cyclic quadrilaterals

5 Find the values of the angles labelled with letters in each of these circles with centre O.

6 The cyclic quadrilateral PORT has angle ROQ equal to 38° where O is the centre of the circle.
POT is a diameter and parallel to QR. Calculate these angles.
a Ror
b ORT
c OPT

7 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle.

a Explain why 3x ­ 30° = 180°.

b Work out the size of angle CDO, labelled y on the diagram.
Give reasons in your working.

8 ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral within a circle centre 0 and angle AOC is 2x°.

a Write down the size of angle ABC.

b Write down the size of the reflex angle AOC.
¢ Prove that the sum of a pair of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°,

407
 Chapter 23

9 In the diagram, ABCE is a parallelogram. 8

Prove that angle AED = angle ADE.

Give reasons in your working.

Two circles touch at D.

ADE and CDG are straight lines.

Explain why angles ABC and EFG must be

equal in size.

23.10 Alternate segment

theorem FE
CO 0 rts errr r rr rrr rrr rrr rrr eeterirttsrIscerssninnoeenestessesssssnsessssesssnsnsse
PTQ is the tangent to a circle at 7. The segment containing angle TBA 8
is known as the alternate segment of angle PTA, because it is on the other side
of the chord AT from angle PTA. A
The angle between a tangent and a chord through the point of
contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
angle PTA = angle TBA P T Q
a

Example 8

a angle A7S = 80° (angle in alternate segment)

oi angle TSR = 70° (angle in alternate segment) y

408 23.10 Alternate segment theorem

EXERCISE 23]
 a ATB is a tangent to each circle with centre 0. Find the size of each lettered angle.

A T B

XY is a tangent to the circle at A.

BCX is a straight line.

Show that triangle ACX is isosceles.
Give reasons to justify your answer.

AB and AC are tangents to the circle at X and Y.

Work out the size of angle XYZ.

Give reasons to justify your answer.

410 23.10 Alternate segment theorem

 PT is a tangent to a circle with centre O.
AB are points on the circumference. Angle PBA is x°.

8 A

B 1
a Write down the value of angle AOP in terms of x.
b Calculate the angle OPA in terms of x.
¢ Prove that the angle APT is equal to the angle PBA.

Check your progress

Core
* | can calculate unknown angles using the following geometrical properties:
angles at a point
angles on a straight line
angles formed within parallel lines
angle properties of triangles
angle properties of quadrilaterals
angle properties of regular polygons
an angle in a semi­circle
the angle between a tangent and a radius of a circle

Extended
* | can calculate unknown angles using the following geometrical properties:
angle properties of irregular polygons
angles in the same segment are equal
the angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference
angle properties of a cyclic quadrilateral
the alternate segment theorem

Chapter 23: Angle properties an

 Measuring and right angles, acute angles, obtuse angles,
CORE

Bearings bearing, three­figure bearing

Nets net, cube, cuboid, prism, pyramid, vertex

Congruent shapes COR congruent

Congruent triangles congruent

similar, enlargement, linear scale factor,

Similar shapes z
corresponding angles, corresponding2 sides;

7 Areas of similar triangles area scale factor

eae EE. EN
8 Areas and volumes of
i a solid shapes, volume scale factor
similar shapes

® Use and interpret the geometrical terms: point, Use the relationships between
line, parallel, bearing, right angle, acute, obtuse areas of similar triangles, with
and reflex angles, perpendicular, similarity and corresponding results for similar
congruence. (C4.1 and E4.1) figures. (E4.4)
® Calculate lengths of similar figures. (C4.4 and E4.4) Extend to volumes and surface
Use and interpret vocabulary of triangles, areas of similar solids. (E4.4) \
quaderilaterals, circles, polygons and simple solid Use the basic congruence criteria
figures including nets. (C4.1 and E4.1) for triangles (SSS, ASA, SAS, RHS).
® Calculate lengths of similar figures. (C4.4 and E4.4) (E4.5)
Interpret and use three­figure bearings
measured clockwise from the North (that is
000°­360°). (C6.1 and E6.1) |
Recognise congruent shapes. (C4.5)
|
Thales of Miletus (624­547 sce) was a Greek philosopher. Mathematicians believe he was the first
person to use similar triangles to find the height of tall objects.
Thales discovered that, at a
particular time of day, the
height of an object and the
length of its shadow were
the same. He used this to
calculate the height of the
Egyptian pyramids.

You can apply the geometry of triangles to

calculate heights. You can do this with an
instrument called a clinometer. This means you
can find the heights of trees, buildings and
towers, mountains and other objects which are
difficult to measure physically.

Astronomers use the geometry

of triangles to measure the
distance to nearby stars. They
use the Earth’s journey in its
orbit around the Sun.
They measure the angle of
the star twice, from the same
point on Earth, but at opposite
ends of its orbit. This gives
them angle measurements at a
known distance apart and from
this triangle they can calculate
the distance to the star.

Telescopes and binoculars also

use the geometry of triangles.

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 413

 24, 1 Measuring and drawing angles
ER
A,

A whole turn is divided into 360° or four right angles of 90° each.

b4
An acute angle is less than one right angle.

== \
An obtuse angle is between one and two right angles (30° and 180°).

bo
A reflex angle is between two and four right angles (180° and 360°).

Two lines are perpendicular if the angle between them is 90°.

When you are using a protractor, it is important that you:

* place the centre of the protractor exactly on the corner (vertex) of the angle
* lay the baseline of the protractor exactly along one side of the angle.
You must follow these two steps to obtain an accurate value for the angle you are measuring.

You should already have discovered how easy it is to measure acute angles and obtuse angles, using
the common semicircular protractor.

414 24.1 Measuring and drawing angles

i

Example 1
Measure the angles ABC, DEF and reflex GHI in the diagrams below.

Acute angle ABC is 35° and obtuse angle DEF is 145°.

To measure reflex angles, such as angle GH, it is easier to use a circular protractor if you have one.
Note the notation for angles. ou J
wi

Cc

Angle ABC, or ZABC, means the angle at B between the lines AB and BC.

1s Reflex angle
ng GHI is 305°

——

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 415

 EXERCISE 24A
® Use a protractor to measure the size of each marked angle.

Check that your answer is

sensible. If an angle is
reflex, the answer must
be over 180°.

d A good way to measure a

reflex angle is to measure
the acute or obtuse angle
and subtract it from 360°.

Use a protractor to draw angles of these sizes.

a 30° b 125° c 90° d 212° e 324° f 19° g 171°
Find three pairs of perpendicular lines from the C
following: AC, AD, AE, BE, CE, CF. B D

A E

It is only safe to climb this ladder if the angle between

the ground and the ladder is between 72° and 78°.

Is it safe for Oliver to climb the ladder?

416 24.1 Measuring and drawing angles

 Chapter 24 . 1

An obtuse angle is 10° more than an acute angle.

Write down a possible value for the size of the obtuse angle.

Use a ruler and a protractor to draw these triangles accurately. Then measure the unmarked
angle in each one.
a b [4

60° 40°
7 cm LL 40° WU) N
Sem

24.2 Bearings
LARA A A ARE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE Ry RR RR III

The bearing of a point B from a point A is the angle through which you turn clockwise as you change
direction from due north to the direction of B.
For example, in this diagram the bearing of B from A is 060°.
N

A bearing can have any value N N N

from 0° to 360°. It is usual to give all H
bearings as three figures. This is D
known as a three­figure bearing. So, po
in the example on the previous page, 10°
the bearing is written as 060°, using g G
three figures. Here are three more c 330°
examples. F
D is on a bearing F is on a bearing H is on a bearing
of 048° from C of 110° from E of 330° from G

There are eight bearings that you should know. They are shown in the diagram.

270° 090°

180°

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 417

 4
Example 2
A, B and C are three towns.
Write down the bearing of B from A
and the bearing of C from A.

The bearing of B from A is 070°.

Big bearing of C from A is 360° — 115° = 245°,

EXERCISE 24B
» Look at this map. By measuring angles, find the bearings of:

N G
LJ
A
[ J]

em

[lw] =

oe

wo T from D
UT D from E
Nn M from D
Oa G from A
0 M from G
­­ T from M.
Draw sketches to illustrate these situations.
a Cis on a bearing of 170° from H.
b Bis on a bearing of 310° from W.

A is due north from C. B is due east from A. B is on a bearing of 045° from C. Sketch the layout
of the three points, A, B and C.
­ The Captain decided to sail his ship around the four sides of a square kilometre.
a Assuming he started sailing due north, write down the next three bearings he would use
in order to complete the square in a clockwise direction.
b Assuming he started sailing on a bearing of 090°, write down the next three bearings he
would use in order to complete the square in an anticlockwise direction.

418 24.2 Bearings

 pL
. The map shows a boat journey around an island, starting and finishing at S. On the map,
1 centimetre represents 10 kilometres. Measure the distance and bearing of each leg of
the journey.
Copy and complete this table. Leg | Actual distance Bearing
1
2
3
4

5
:

| Scale: 1 em = 10 km

The diagram shows a port P

and two harbours X and Y on
the coast.
a A fishing boat sails to X from P.
What is the three­figure
bearing of X from P?
b A yacht sails to Y from P.
What is the three­figure bearing of Y from P?

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 419

 ® Draw diagrams to solve these problems.
a The three­figure bearing of A from B is 070°. Work out the three­figure bearing of
B from A.
b The three­figure bearing of P from Q is 145°. Work out the three­figure bearing of
Q from P.
¢ The three­figure bearing of X from Y is 324°. Work out the three­figure bearing of
Y from X.

The diagram shows the position of Kim's house H and the college C.
N

H Scale: 1 cm represents 200 m

a Use the diagram to work out the actual distance from Kim's house to the college.
b Measure and write down the three­figure bearing of the college from Kim's house.
¢ The supermarket S is 600 m from Kim‘s house on a bearing of 150°.
Mark the position of S on a copy of the diagram.
Chen is flying a plane on a bearing of 072°.

He is told to fly due south towards an airport.

Through what angle does he need to turn?

A, B and C are three villages in a bay. 7

They lie on the vertices of a square. —_—

The bearing of B from A is 030°.

Work out the bearing of A from C.

24.3 Nets
ARE EE EE EE RR rr II Im Imm ™m

You should know these solid shapes:

A cube has six square faces.

A cuboid has rectangular faces. 1

420 24.3 Nets

A prism has a uniform cross­section.

Triangular prism Hexagonal prism

A pyramid has a polygon­shaped base. The other faces are triangles and meet at the vertex.

LH DO
Square­based pyramid Pentagon­based pyramid

Each of these solid shapes can be made from a net.

A net is a flat shape which can be cut out and folded to make a solid shape.
(5 rd)
Example 3
Sketch the net for:

a cube b square­based pyramid.

a This is a sketch of a net for a cube.

b This is a sketch of a net for a square­based pyramid.

_ ,
EXERCISE 24C
RE Draw, on squared paper, an accurate net for each of these cuboids.
a b 4
2
on 3 cm 4 cm
3em
4 cm 4.cm

S5cm S5ecm

4 cm

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 421

 ® Bashira is making an open box from card. dem _~]
This is a sketch of the box. EE EE TES

Bashira has a piece of card that measures 15 cm by 21 cm. 7 cm

Can she make the box from this card?

® The shape on the right is a triangular prism. Its ends are

isosceles triangles and its other faces are rectangles.
Draw an accurate net for this prism. Use squared paper.

4cm

Sem

Jem
Draw the nets of these shapes.

Ly b
: |
1 em 4 cm
4 cm
Sem 1em

Cuboid

Square­based pyramid
E
¢ d

3 em
Sem & cy
D Sem Cc y
Square­based pyramid, with ’ .
point E directly above point A
abe Rightangled triangular prism

» Here is a net for a cube.

How many different nets here af VE

can you draw for a cube? How many anyou find

i) Which of these are nets for a square­based pyramid?

a b c

422 24.3 Nets

24.4 Congruent shapes
LAER EEE A EEE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EN ENN]

Two­dimensional shapes that are exactly the same size and shape as each other are congruent.
For example, although they are in different positions, the triangles below are all congruent, because
they are all exactly the same size and shape.

NZ
Congruent shapes fit exactly on top of each other. So, one way to see whether shapes are congruent
is to trace one of them and check that it covers the other shapes exactly. For some of the shapes, you
may have to turn your tracing paper over.
&

Example 4 |
= =I
Which of these shapes is not or

EXERCISE 24D B
® State whether the — in each oP a to f are congruent or not.

NF TA
A> Da
Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 423
 @ Which figure in each group, a to ¢, is not congruent to the other two?

Lb =
a = =
V
Draw a square PQRS. Draw in the diagonals PR and QS. Which triangles are congruent to each
other?

Draw a rectangle EFGH. Draw in the diagonals £G and FH. Which triangles are congruent to
each other?

Draw a parallelogram ABCD. Draw in the diagonals AC and BD. Which triangles are congruent
to each other?

Draw an isosceles triangle ABC where AB = AC. Draw the line from A to the midpoint of BC.
Which triangles are congruent to each other?

24.5 Congruent triangles EI

EE EE I TT ITT IT IT IS

Two shapes are congruent if they are exactly the same size and shape.

For example, these triangles are all congruent.

NT
Notice that the triangles can be differently oriented (reflected or rotated).

424 24.5 Congruent triangles

Conditions for congruent triangles
Any one of the following four conditions is sufficient for two triangles to be congruent.

Condition 1 )
All three sides of one triangle are equal to the corresponding sides of the other triangle.

~,

24cm % 22cm Ne
/ Nx! 3cm J
Jem ok
24cm

This condition is known as SSS (side, side, side).

Condition 2
Two sides and the angle between them of one triangle are equal to the corresponding sides and
angle of the other triangle.

4 4cm
4cm 3 cm
a
3em

This condition is known as SAS (side, angle, side).

Condition 3
Two angles and a side of one triangle are equal to the corresponding angles and side of the
other triangle.

V,
Scm

35° 70% 4 cm or 35° 70% 5 cm

4 cm \/ y

This condition is known as ASA (angle, side, angle) or AAS (angle, angle, side).
Condition 4
Both triangles have a right angle, an equal hypotenuse and another equal side.

9 cm

4.cm

This condition is known as RHS (right angle, hypotenuse, side).

Note that SSA (or ASS) does not show congruency.

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 425

 Notation
Once you have shown that triangle ABC is congruent to triangle POR by one of the above conditions,
it means that:
A Q
angleA=angleP? AB=PQ
angle B=angleQ BC=QR
C B R
angle C=angleR AC=PR
p

In other words, the points ABC correspond exactly to the points POR in that order. Triangle ABC is
congruent to triangle POR can be written as AABC = APQR.

€ fy
Example 5
ABCD is a kite. Show that triangle ABC is congruent to triangle ADC.

AB=AD

BC=CD
AC is common
So AABC = AADC (S55)

bY

EXERCISE 24E
& The triangles in each pair are congruent. State the condition that shows that the triangles'are
congruent.

a b c
3cm
OO 5cm 4 cm
S5cm Sem Sem 7 cm
: 7 cm 35° 70%,
3cm 8cm Bem
4 cm
/
d e f
65cm
— 20 4 of NZ iio 2225 6.5 cm / 80° >
21°
7 cm 65cm po P­.
LT " /2 je
4cm

@ The triangles in each pair are congruent. State the condition that shows that the triangles are
congruent and say which points correspond to which.
a AB€ where AB=8cm, BC=9cm, AC=7.4cm
POR where PQ=9cm, QR =7.4 cm, PR=8 cm

426 24.5 Congruent triangles

 Chapter £4

b ABC where AB=5 cm, BC = 6 cm, angle B = 35°

POR where PQ = 6 cm, OR = 50 mm, angle Q = 35°

Triangle ABC is congruent to triangle POR, angle A = 60°, angle B = 80° and AB = 5 cm. Find these:
a angle”? b angleQ c¢ angleR d PQ
ABCD is congruent to PORS, angle A= 110°, angle B = 55°, angle C = 85° and RS = 4 cm. Find these:
a angle” b angleQ c¢ angleR d angleS e CD
Draw a rectangle, EFGH. Draw in the diagonal EG. Prove that triangle EFG is congruent to
triangle EHG.

Draw an isosceles triangle (ABC) where AB = AC. Draw the line from A to X, the midpoint of
BC. Prove that triangle ABX is congruent to triangle ACX.

In the diagram, ABCD and DEFG are squares.

Use congruent triangles to prove that AE = CG.

Jez says that these two triangles are congruent because two angles
and a side are the same.
Explain why he is wrong. e

24.6 Similar shapes

Ey Dp

Two shapes are similar if one is an enlargement of the other.

Corresponding angles of similar shapes are equal.
These shapes are similar. Their corresponding angles are equal.

18cm

8cm 12¢m

The ratio of their corresponding sides is 2 : 3.

The linear scale factor is 3 because the lengths in shape B are 3 of the corresponding lengths in shape A.
—

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 427

 a.

Example 6
These two shapes are similar.
H
9? cm 9 cm
Cc
ycm |
B D

10 em =

AT 12em E ge Te
Find the values of x and y.

Look for two corresponding sides where you know the lengths.

AE corresponds to FJ and the lengths are 12 cm and 15 cm.

The scale factor is 5 = 1.25.
12
To find the value of x (GF) from the length given for BA:

x=1.25x AB
=1.25x 10
=125

x=125cm
To find the value of y (CD) from the length of HI:
HI=125xy

9=125xy

y=i% band N
=72
y=72cm
\

EXERCISE 24F oo
a These diagrams are drawn to scale. What is the linear scale factor of the enlargement in
each case?

* HAHN b HHH TTL1

ENE EEEEE |ESNEEEC CANES
S—— . —E_a

­ i. 4 1 Is |. ¥
f | ­ I SN —b I
{1 |
{ |

p———y—— | ee Su |TE SE

I]
1 14 |
T [1 1

428 24.6 Similar shapes

® Are the shapes in each pair similar? If so, give the scale factor. If not, give a reason.

a 5cm 20 ecm b
3cm 12cm
12cm

S5cm

® a Explain why these triangles are similar. A

£3
b Give the ratio of the sides. Son y—
¢ Which angle corresponds to angle C?
d Which side corresponds to side QP? =

­ a Explain why these triangles are similar.

b Which angle corresponds to angle A?
¢ Which side corresponds to side AC? ­

A“ = Cc

» a Explain why triangle ABC is similar to triangle AQR.

b Which angle corresponds to the angle at B?
¢ Which side of triangle AQR corresponds to side AC of triangle ABC?
Your answers to question 4 may help you.

® In the diagrams a to d, each pair of shapes are similar but not drawn to scale.
a Find the value of x.
P
A

[ pd ­
B Rpd Q
b Find the values of x and y.

10cm

40.5 cm
yecm

4 cm 18 em

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 429

 Chapter 24

¢ Find the values of x and y.

9 cm

66cm
16.2 cm

13cm x

d Calculate the length of QR.

A 10 cm B
P Q
7 cm
6cm
S R
D (a

a Explain why all squares are similar.

b Are all rectangles similar? Explain your answer.

Sean is standing next to a tree.

His height is 1.6 m and he casts a shadow that has

a length of 2.4 m.

The tree casts a shadow that has a length of 7.8 m. 16m

Use what you know about similar triangles to work

out the height of the tree, /.

24.7 Areas of similar triangles E

ARERR RE EA EE EE EEE ENN NR a yr yr I mI mmm, TTT TTT

If two triangles have the same angles then they are similar.
Triangles ABC and DEF are similar.

E 18 em F

430 24.7 Areas of similar triangles

The linear scale factor is 18 = 1.5. The area scale factor is 1.52 = 2.25.
If the area of triangle ABC is 40 cm? then the area of DEF is 40 x 2.25 = 90 cm?.
If the linear scale factor is k, then the area scale factor is 42.

EXERCISE 24G
& These triangles are similar.

p E

=, RN
LE 7 « ¥ 20 cm F
a What is the linear scale factor?
b The area of triangle ABC is 20 cm?.
Calculate the area of triangle DEF.
2 These are equilateral triangles.

12cm

a
=
Explain why they are similar.
b The area of the larger one is 60 cm? (to 1 significant figure)
Calculate the area of the smaller one.
EE The area of triangle ABC is 7 cm?. D
Calculate the area of triangle ADE.

A E
S5cm c
hl 12cm

KS The area of triangle ABD is 25 cm?. A

Calculate the area of the trapezium CBDE. 8 ‘eri

B D
8 cm

¢ > E

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 431

 5 P is enlarged by a linear scale factor of 1.2 to make Q.

Q is enlarged by a linear scale factor of 1.2 to make R.

The area of Q is 100 cm?2.

x1.2 x1.2
P Q R

a What is the area of R?

b What is the area of P?
The area scale factor also applies to other
similar shapes.

A and B are regular pentagons.

a Explain why they are similar.
b Calculate the area of B. 10cm 12 em
Area = 172 cm?

’ c
A

Scm xcm ycm

A, B and C are equilateral triangles.

B is four times the area of A.
a What is the linear scale factor?
b What is the value of x?
¢ Cis twice the area of A.
Calculate the value of y.
These shapes are similar.
The smaller one has an area of 210 cm?.

Find the area of the larger one. 26 cm

20 cm

9 A photocopier has a setting for enlargements with a scale factor of 1.41%.

What is special about this particular value?

10 All circles are similar.

If a circle with a diameter of 8 cm has an area of 50.3 cm2, what is the area of a circle with
diameter 6 cm?

432 24.7 Areas of similar triangles

24.8 Areas and volumes of
similar shapes IE
AAR AR ALAR A A A EE EE EE AE A EE EE EE EEE EE EEE El EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EN

You saw that if two shapes are similar and the linear scale factor is k then the area scale factor
is k2.
Two solid shapes are similar if corresponding lengths are in the same ratio and corresponding angles
are equal. In that case the volume scale factor is 43.

Generally, the relationship between similar shapes can be expressed as:

Length ratio «x:y Area ratio 2:2 Volume ratio 13:)3

CExample 7 )
A model yacht is made to a scale of s. of the size of the real yacht. The area of the sail of the
model is 150 cm2. What is the area of the sail of the real yacht?

At first, it may appear that you do not have enough information to solve this problem, but you
can do it like this.

Linear scale factor = 1:20

Area scale factor = 1:400 (square of the linear scale factor)
Area of real sail =400 x area of mode! sail
=400 x 150 cm?
= 60 000 cm? = 6 m?
\_ J
~ \

Example 8
A bottle has a base radius of 4 cm, a height of 15 cm and a capacity of 650 cm3. A similar bottle
has a base radius of 3 cm.
a What is the length ratio?
b What is the volume ratio?
¢ What is the volume of the smaller bottle?

The length ratio is given by the ratio of the two radii, that is 4: 3.
b The volume ratio is therefore 43:33 =64 : 27.
¢ Let v be the volume of the smaller bottle. Then the volume ratio is:

volume of smaller bottle _ v _ 27

volume of larger bottle ~ 650 64
=v= 27 xo
x = 274 cm? (3 significant figures)

" J

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 433

 EXERCISE 24H
@ The length ratio between two similar solids is 2 : 5.
a What is the area ratio between the solids?
b What is the volume ratio between the solids?

The length ratio between two similar solids is 4 : 7.

a What is the area ratio between the solids?
b What is the volume ratio between the solids?

Linear scale Linear ratio Linear Area scale Volume scale

factor fraction factor factor

Ww

5 i
al­| —­
Boles 64

25
i
1000

A shape has an area of 15 cm?. What is the area of a similar shape with lengths that are three
times the corresponding lengths of the first shape?

A toy brick has a surface area of 14 cm?. What would be the surface area of a similar toy brick
with lengths that are:
a twice the corresponding lengths of the first brick
b three times the corresponding lengths of the first brick?

A rug has an area of 12 m?. What area would be covered by rugs with lengths that are:
a twice the corresponding lengths of the first rug
b half the corresponding lengths of the first rug?
A brick has a volume of 300 cm?3. What would be the volume of a similar brick whose lengths
are:
a twice the corresponding lengths of the first brick
b three times the corresponding lengths of the first brick?

A tin of paint, 6 cm high, holds a half a litre of paint. How much paint would go into a similar
tin which is 12 cm high?

A model statue is 10 cm high and has a volume of 100 cm. The real statue is 2.4 m high. What
is the volume of the real statue? Give your answer in m3.

A small tin of paint costs $0.75. What is the cost of a larger similar tin with height twice that
of the smaller tin? Assume that the cost is based only on the volume of paint in the tin.

434 24.8 Areas and volumes of similar shapes

 24 .8
" A small box of width 2 cm has a volume of 10 cm3. What is the width of a similar box with a
volume of 80 cm3?

12 A cinema sells popcorn in two different­sized

tubs that are similar in shape.

Show that it is true that the big tub is

better value.

13 The diameters of two ball bearings are given below.

Work out:
a the ratio of their radii
b the ratio of their surface areas 6 mm 8 mm
¢ the ratio of their volumes.
14 Cuboid A is similar to cuboid B.

The length of cuboid A is 10 cm and the length

of cuboid B is 5 cm.

" The volume of cuboid A is 720 cm?.

Zainab says that the volume of cuboid B must be 360 cm?3.

Explain why she is wrong.

More complex problems on area and volume ratios

In some problems involving similar shapes, the length ratio is not given, so you need to start with the
area ratio or the volume ratio. Then you will need to find the length ratio in order to proceed with
the solution.

igExample mi
9 ih
A manufacturer makes a range of clown hats that are all similar in shape. The smallest hat is 8 cm
tall and uses 180 cm? of card. What will be the height of a hat made from 300 cm? of card?

The area ratio is 180 : 300

Therefore, the length ratio is V180 : Y300 (Do not calculate these yet.)
Let the height of the larger hat be H, then:
H _\300 _ [300
a Vom
¢ =>H=8x a = 10.3 cm (1 decimal place)

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 435

 4 La
Example 10
Two similar tins hold respectively 1.5 litres and 2.5 litres of paint. The area of the label on the
smaller tin is 85 cm?. What is the area of the label on the larger tin?

The volume ratio is 1.5: 2.5

Therefore, the length ratio is ¥1.5 : 32.5 (Do not calculate these yet.)
So the area ratio is (1.52 : R252
Let the area of the label on the larger tin be A, then:
A (252
a= Tis = =r pas? = A=85x iz32.52=119 cm? (3
significant figures)

EXERCISE 241
@® A firm produces three sizes of similar­shaped labels for its products. Their areas are 150 cm?
250 cm? and 400 cm?.

The 250 cm? label fits around a can of height 8 cm. Find the heights of similar cans around
which the other two labels would fit.

A firm makes similar boxes in three different sizes: small, medium and large. These are the
areas of their lids.

Small: 30cm? Medium: 50cm? Large: 75 cm?

The medium box is 5.5 cm high. Find the heights of the other two sizes.

A cone of height 8 cm can be made from a piece of card with an area of 140 cm2. What is the
height of a similar cone made from a similar piece of card with an area of 200 cm??

It takes 5.6 litres of paint to paint a chimney that is 3m high. What is the tallest similar
chimney that can be painted with 8 litres of paint?

A piece of card, 1200 cm? in area, will make a tube 13 cm long. What is the length of a similar
tube made from a similar piece of card with an area of 500 cm??

If a television screen of area 220 cm? has a diagonal length of 21 cm, what is the diagonal
length of a similar screen of area 350 cm??

There are two similar bronze statues. One has a mass of 300 g, the other has a mass of 2 kg.
The height of the smaller statue is 9 cm.
What is the height of the larger statue?

These are the sizes of the labels around three similar cans.
Small can: 24cm? Medium can: 46 cm? Large can: 78 cm?
The medium size can is 6 cm tall with a mass of 380 g. Calculate:
a the heights of the other two sizes b the masses of the other two sizes.

436 24.8 Areas and volumes of similar shapes

 24 8
9 A statue has a mass of 840 kg. A similar statue was made out of the same material but is only
two­fifths the height of the first one. What was the mass of the smaller statue?

10 A wooden model stands on a base of area 12 cm2. A similar wooden model stands on a base
of area 7.5 cm?.

Calculate the mass of the smaller model if the larger one has a mass of 3.5 kg.

Stefan fills two similar jugs with orange juice.

The first jug holds 1.5 litres of juice and has a base diameter of 8 cm.

The second jug holds 2 litres of juice. Work out the base diameter of the second jug.

2 The total surface areas of two similar cuboids are 500 cm? and 800 cm?.

If the width of one of the cuboids is 10 cm, calculate the two possible widths for the
other cuboid.

The volumes of two similar cylinders are 256 cm? and 864 cm?3.

Which of these is the ratio of their surface areas?

a 2:3 b 4:9 c 8:27

Check your progress

Core
* | can measure and draw angles
| can understand and use geometrical terms including right angle, acute angle, obtuse angle,
reflex angle and perpendicular lines
| can understand and use the terms similar and congruent
| know and can use the names of polygons and solid figures including nets
| can calculate lengths in similar figures
| can interpret and use three­figure bearings

Extended
| can use the relationship between the area of similar triangles and similar figures
| can use the relationship between the volumes of similar figures
| can use the relationship between the surface areas of similar figures
| can use the congruence criteria for triangles

Chapter 24: Geometrical terms and relationships 437

Chapter 2 )

Geometrical constructions

. construct, ruler, protractor, compasses,

1 Constructing shapes s P P
set square

2 Scale drawings scale drawing

Measure and draw lines and angles. (C4.2 and E4.2)

Construct other simple geometrical figures from given data using protractors and set
squares as necessary. (C4.2 and E4.2)
Read and make scale drawings. (C4.3 and E4.3)
The answer is that they all work with drawings drawn to scale. This allows them to represent
lengths they cannot easily measure with standard equipment.
— Nyarug

In a scale drawing, one length is used

to represent another.
For example, a map cannot be drawn to
the same size as the area it represents. The
measurements are scaled down, to make a
map of a size that can be conveniently used by
drivers, tourists and walkers.

Architects use scale drawings to show views of

a plannedhouse from different directions.

In computer design, people who design microchips

need to scale up their drawings, as the dimensions
they work with are so small. Use the internet to
research more about how scale drawings are used.
 25.1 Constructing shapes
EE EE srr terre rN errr rrr er Irs ora sensi Nessteeetnensensesessssensssnss

You need to be able to draw a triangle when you are given the lengths of its sides.
You need a ruler and a pair of compasses to do this.

Use a sharp pencil and do not use a pen.

Leave any construction lines on your drawing. Do not erase them.
{

Example 1
Construct a triangle with sides that are 5 cm, 4 cm and 6 cm long.

Step 1: Draw the longest side as the base. In this case, the base will be
6 cm, which you draw along a ruler. (The diagrams in this example are drawn
at half­size.)

Step 2: Draw the second longest side, in this case

the 5 cm side. Open the compasses to a radius of
5 cm (the length of the side), place the point on one
end of the 6 cm line and draw a short faint arc, as
shown here.

Step 3: Draw the shortest side, in this case the 4 cm side.

Open the compasses to a radius of 4 cm, place the
point on the other end of the 6 cm line ar
a second short faint arc to intersect the firs
as shown here.

Step 4: Complete the triangle by joining each end of the

base line to the point where the two arcs intersect.
Note: The arcs are construction lines and so you must leave
them in, to show how you constructed the triangle.
bcm

440 25.1 Constructing shapes

EXERCISE 25A
Draw each triangle accurately and measure the
sides and angles not given in the diagram.
Always make a sketch if
a < b £
4cm one is not given in the
question.
35°
A von B
C |

4 cm

d e Oo
J
70°
8 cm

100°
550
: 6cm . ­ 8 cm N

a Draw a triangle ABC, with AB =7 cm,

BC=6cmand AC=5cm,
b Measure the sizes of angle ABC, angle BCA and angle CAB.
Draw an isosceles triangle that has two sides of length 7 cm and the included angle of 50°.
Measure the length of the base of the triangle.

Make an accurate drawing of this quadrilateral.

Make an accurate drawing of this trapezium.

4.2 cm
1 00° 45°
~~

11.2em
Construct an equilateral triangle of side length 5 cm. Measure the height of the triangle.

Construct a parallelogram with sides of length 5 cm and 8 cm

8 cm and with an angle of 120° between them. Measure the
height of the parallelogram. 120°
Sem h

Chapter 25: Geometrical constructions 441

 = . A rope has 12 equally­spaced knots. It can be laid out
; to give a triangle, like this.
It will always be a right­angled triangle.

Here are two examples of such ropes.

Im Im Im Im 15m 1.5m 15m 15m

4m ém

a Show, by constructing both of the above triangles (use a scale of 1 cm : 1 m), that each is a
right­angled triangle.
b Choose a different triangle that you think might also be right­angled. Use the same
knotted­rope idea to check.
Construct the triangle with the largest area that has a total perimeter of 12 cm.

Anil says that, as long as he knows all three angles of a triangle, he can draw it. Explain why
Anil is wrong.

25.2 Scale drawings

Sesser LARA RR EE EE EE EEN RR RR RR III

A scale drawing is an accurate representation of a real object.

Scale drawings are usually smaller in size than the original objects. However, in certain cases, they are
enlargements. Examples of these are drawings of miniature electronic circuits and very small watch
movements.
You will generally be given the scale being used, for example, ‘1 cm represents 20 m'.

ji =)
Example 2
The diagram shows the front of a kennel. 1 cm on the diagram
represents a measurement of 30 cm. Find:
a the actual width of the front
b the actual height of the doorway.

442 25.2 Scale drawings

 a The actual width of the front is:
4cmx30=120cm

b The actual height of the doorway is:

1.5cm x30=45cm

EXERCISE 25B
Ol Look at this plan of a garden.

Pond Fruit

Trees Lown Vegetables

Scale: 1 cm represents 10 m
a State the actual dimensions of each plot of the garden.
b Calculate the actual area of each plot.
­») Below is a plan for a computer mouse mat. Advice and Tips

Herbert vid the

scale.

Scale: 1 cm represents 6 cm

a How long is the actual mouse mat?

b How wide is the narrowest part of the mouse mat?

iE) Below is a scale plan of the top of Ahmed's desk, in which 1 cm represents 10 cm.

Monitor Book file

Printer

Keyboard Mouse |
mot
Calculator

Chapter 25: Geometrical constructions

 What are the actual dimensions of each of these objects?
a monitor
b keyboard
¢ mouse mat
d book file
e printer
f calculator
The diagram shows a sketch of a garden.

14m

a Make an accurate scale drawing of the garden.

Use a scale of 1 cm to represent 2 m.
b Marie wants to plant flowers along the side marked x on the diagram. The flowers need to
be planted 0.5 m apart. Use your scale drawing to work out how many plants she needs.

State these actual distances, correct to the nearest tenth of a kilometre.

AtoB
To BtoC
Nn CtoD
QO DtoE
0 EtoB
­­ BtoD

444 25.2 Scale drawings

. This sketch shows the outline of a car park.
a Make a scale drawing in which 1 cm
represents 5 m.
120°
23m b What is the length of AB, in metres?

D 30m C
‘vn This map is drawn to a scale of 1 cm to 200 km.
Berlin
Find the distances between:
a Paris and Berlin
b Paris and Rome
Paris Vienna ¢ Rome and Vienna.

Rome

­ This is a scale drawing of the Great Beijing Wheel in China.

The height of the wheel is 210 m.

Which of these is the correct scale?
a 11cm represents 30 cm
b 1 cm represents 7 m
¢ 11cm represents 30 m
d 1 cm represents 300 m

pi .

Check your progress

Core
* | can measure and draw lines and angles
* | can read and make scale drawings
* | can draw a triangle with a ruler and a pair of compasses when | know the lengths of the sides

Chapter 25: Geometrical constructions 445

 Pythagoras’ theorem hypotenuse, Pythagoras’ theorem

; ; 3 ratio, sine, cosine, tangent, opposite side,

Trigonometric ratios ­ ­
adjacent side

Calculating angles inverse

Using sine, cosine and
tangent functions

Which ratio to use

Problems in three
dimensions
Sine and cosine of
obtuse angles obtuse angle
The sine rule and the
cosine rule sine rule, cosine rule, included angle
10 Using sine to find the
area of a triangle TEND area sine rule
11 Sine, cosine and tangent
of any angle

® Apply Pythagoras’ Solve trigonometrical problems in two dimensions

theorem and the involving angles of elevation and depression. (E6.2)
sine, cosine and Extend sine and cosine values to angles between 90° and 180°. (E6.2)
is or oid Recognise, sketch and interpret graphs of simple trigonometric
ol ? ¥ ­ ve vg : functions. Graph and know the properties of trigonometric
——— functions. Solve simple trigonometric equations for values
ox of an angle of a between 0° and 360°. (E6.3)
right­angled triangle. , , A :
(C6.2 and E6.2) Solve problems using the sine and cosine rules for any triangle
and the formula
area of triangle = 1 absin C. (E6.4)
Solve simple trigonometrical problems in three dimensions
including angle between a line and a plane. (E6.5)
How can you find the height of a mountain?

How do you draw an accurate map?

How can computers take an image and make it rotate
so that you can view it from different directions?

How do Global Positioning Systems (GPS) work?

How can music be produced electronically?

The answer is by using the angles and sides of triangles

and the connections between them. This important
branch of mathematics is called trigonometry and is
used in science, engineering, electronics and everyday
life. This chapter gives a brief introduction to trigonometry.

The first major book of trigonometry

was a written by an astronomer called
Ptolemy, who lived in Alexandria,
Egypt, over 1800 years ago.
It has tables of numbers, called
"trigonometric ratios’, used in making
calculations about the positions of
stars and planets.
Trigonometry also helped Ptolemy to
make a map of the world he knew.
Today you no longer need to look ~~
up tables of values of trigonometric
ratios because they are programmed
into calculators and computers.

In the 19th century the French

mathematician Jean Fourier
showed how all musical sounds can
be broken down into a combination
of tones that can be described by
trigonometry. His work makes it
possible to imitate the sound of any
instrument electronically.

Oy ’ Chapter 26: Trigonometry 447

~
 26.1 Pythagoras’ theorem
EF TAF pA,

Pythagoras, who was a philosopher as well as a mathematician, was born in 580sce in Greece. He
later moved to Italy, where he established the Pythagorean Brotherhood, which was a secret society
devoted to politics, mathematics and astronomy.
This is his famous theorem.

Consider squares being drawn on each side of a right­angled

triangle, with sides 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm.
The longest side is called the hypotenuse and is always opposite the
right angle.
Pythagoras’ theorem can then be stated as:
For any right­angled triangle, the area of the square drawn on
the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares
drawn on the other two sides.
The usual description is:
In any right­angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
Pythagoras’ theorem is more usually written as a formula: y
[5 i
A=at +b? 3
Remember that Pythagoras’ theorem can only be used in right­angled triangles. b
EXERCISE 26A
For each of the triangles in questions 1 to 9, calculate the length of the hypotenuse, x, giving your
answers to 1 decimal place.

Qcm

5.1 em
5¢em

EA
4.8 cm

C7 16.e¢m

yas % uN

~­ =

Rt 12cm

‘" How does this diagram show that Pythagoras’ theorem is true?

=
Chapter 26: Trigonometry 449
 By rearranging the formula for Pythagoras’ theorem, you can calculate the
length of one of the shorter sides. Ey
Aza +h? 3
| b
So, a?=c?­b? or b=c2­a?

Find the length of the side labelled x.

x is one of the shorter sides.

So using Pythagoras’ theorem gives:

2=152­112 cm?
=225­121 cm?
= 104 cm?
By x=104 = 10.2 cm (1 decimal place)

EXERCISE 26B
For each of these triangles, calculate the length of the side
labelled x, giving your answers to 1 decimal place. Advice and Tips
a o oe A P——
In these examples you are
finding a short side. You
— need to subtract the
, 17 em " square of the other short
side from the square of
the hypotenuse in every
5 19cm case.
cm

(4 d
6.4 cm

31 em
X 9.cm 25cm

xX

450 26.1 Pythagoras’ theorem

 For each of these triangles, calculate the length labelled x, giving your answers to
fram place.

2m . .
17m

8.5em

®:­ For each of these a calculate the length marked x.

© In question 3 you found sets of three numbers which satisfy a + b? = ¢2.

Can you find any more?

® Calculate the value of x.

48.6 cm
23.4 cm

xcm :

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 451

 26.2 Trigonometric ratios
EAR RR TR ppp,

In trigonometry you will use three important ratios to calculate sides and angles: sine, cosine and
tangent. These ratios are defined in terms of the sides of a right­angled triangle and an angle. The
angle is often written as 6.
In a right­angled triangle:

* the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse and is the longest side
* the side opposite the angle &is called the opposite side
* the other side next to both the right angle and the angle @is called the adjacent side.

Opposite (O)

The sine, cosine and tangent ratios for dare defined as:
sine f= _Opposite cosine f= _Adjacent tangent f= Opposite
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse Adjacent
These ratios are usually abbreviated as:
sin = =9H cos f==A
H tan 6= 2)
A
These abbreviated forms are also used on calculator keys.

You will need to use a calculator to find trigonometric ratios.

Different calculators work in different ways, so make sure you know how to use your model.
Angles are not always measured in degrees. Sometimes radians or grads are used instead. You do
not need to learn about those in your IGCSE course. Calculators can be set to operate in any of these
three units, so make sure your calculator is operating in degrees.
Use your calculator to find the sine of 60 degrees.
You will probably press the keys [sn] 6 Jo]­] in that order, but it might be different on your
calculator.
The answer should be 0.8660...
3 cos 57° is a short way of writing 3 x cos 57°.
On most calculators you do eed to use the x button and you can just press the keys in the way it
swriven: ED 3 © ©) ©
Check to see whether your calculator works this way.

The answer should be 1.63.

452 26.2 Trigonometric ratios

1

Example 3
Find the value of 5.6 sin 30°.

This means 5.6 x sine of 30 degrees.

Remember that you may not need to press the x button.
5.65in30°=2.8
\.

EXERCISE 26C
» Find these values, rounding your answers to 3 significant figures.
a sin43° b sin 56° c sin67.2° d sin 90°
‘a Find these values, rounding your answers to 3 significant figures.
a cos 43° b cos 56° C €0s67.2° d cos 90°

o i What is sin 35°? ii What is cos 55°?

T i What is sin 12°? ii What is cos 78°?
Nn i Whatiscos67°? ii What issin 23°?
Qa What connects the values in parts a, b and ¢?
oO Copy and complete these sentences.
i sin 15° is the same as cos ...
ii cos 82° is the same as sin...
iii sin xis the same as cos ...

Cy Use your calculator to work out the value of each ratio.

a tan 43° b tan 56° c¢ tan 67.2° d tan 90°
e tan45° f tan 20° g tan 22° h tan0°

9 What is so different about tan compared with both sin and cos?

. Use your calculator to work out the value of each ratio.

a 4sin63° b 7 tan 52° ¢ 5tan 80° d 9cos8°
» Use your calculator to work out the values of the these ratios.
5 b 6 2 3 7
sin 63° cos 32° tan 64° 4 tan 42°
Calculate sin x, cos x, and tan x for each triangle. Leave your answers as fractions.
a 3 b \

24

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 453

 26.3 Calculating angles
A

What angle has a cosine of 0.6? You can use a calculator to find out.
‘The angle with a cosine of 0.6 is written as cos™ 0.6 and is called the ‘inverse cosine of 0.6".
Find out where cos™ is on your calculator,

You will probably find it on the same key as cos, but you will need to press HiT} or (inv or (2nd first.

Look to see if cos™ is written above the cos key.

Check that cos™ 0.6 = 53.1301... = 53.1° (1 decimal place)

Check that cos 53.1° = 0.600 (3 decimal places)

Check that you can find the inverse sine and the inverse tangent in the same way.

( Kk
Example 4 :
What angle has a sine of 83

You need to find sin! :

You could use the fraction button on your calculator or you could calculate sin! (3 + 8).
Ifyou use the fraction key you may not need brackets, or your calculator may put them in
automatically.
Try to do it in both of these ways and then use whichever method you prefer.
The answer should be 22.0°.

EXERCISE 26D
Use your calculator to find the answers to these questions. Give your answers to 1 decimal place.

What angles have these sines?

a 05 b 0.785 c 0.64 d 0.877 e 0.999 f 0.707
What angles have these cosines?
a 05 b 0.64 c 0.999 d 0.707 e 0.2 f 07
What angles have these tangents?
a 06 b 0.38 c¢ 0.895 d 1.05 e 2.67 f 438
What happens when you try to find the angle with a sine of 1.2? What is the largest value of
sine you can put into your calculator without getting an error when you ask for the inverse
sine? What is the smallest?

a i What angle has a sine of 0.3? (Keep the answer in your calculator memory.)
ii What angle has a cosine of 0.3?
iii Add the two accurate answers of parts i and ii together.
b Will you always get the same answer to this question, whatever number you start with?

454 26.3 Calculating angles

26.4 Using sine, cosine and
tangent functions
EERE EE EE EE EEE EE El EEE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE RE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EEN

Sine function
Remember sine #= _Opposite Opposite
Hypotenuse
You can use the sine ratio to calculate the lengths of sides and angles in
right­angled triangles.
c BR
Example 5
Find the size of angle 6, given that the opposite side is 7 cm and the hypotenuse is 10 cm.

Draw a diagram. (This is an essential step.)

From the information given, use sine. 10cm
noedel
sin­f= 2 == «07
0. : iE
What angle has a sine of 0.7?
To find out, use the inverse sine function on your calculator.
L sin! 0.7 = 44.4° (1 decimal place)

A
a

Example 6
Find the length of the side marked a in this triangle. 12 cm

Side a is the opposite side, with 12 cm as the hypotenuse, so use sine. 350
sing =
x0
. °o oa
sin 35 12

5 a = 12 sin 35° = 6.88 cm (3 significant figures)

~
Example 7
Find the length of the hypotenuse, A, in this triangle.

Note that although the angle is in the other corner, the opposite side is
again given. So use sine.
(0)
sing =H
: vo _8
sin 52° = 5
8 cont,
| Se h= Te 10.2 cm (3 significant figures)

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 455

 EXERCISE 26E
= 0) Find the size of the angle marked x in each of these triangles.
a b
10cm 8 cm
3em 8cm
1X
3 cm 15cm

@ Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b (4
13 em 8cm “46°
Xx

x 25cm

x Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b [4 A

3 Jem £ 59 ¢m

2) ] {36°
66cm =

‘ea Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.

* 15cm

Cosine function
Hypotenuse
Remember cosine = _Adjacent
Hypotenuse
You can use the cosine ratio to calculate the lengths of sides and angles in Adie
right­angled triangles.
(4 RD)
Example 8
Find the size of angle 6, given that the adjacent side is 5 cm and the hypotenuse is 12 cm.

Draw a diagram. (This is an essential step.)

From the information given, use cosine. 4
A_S5 12 cm
AT
What angle has a cosine of 3?
To find out, use the inverse cosine function on your calculator, g
= 5.4 1 i 18

456 26.4 Using sine, cosine and tangent functions

I

Example 9
Find the length of the hypotenuse, 4, in this triangle.

20 em

The adjacent side is given. So use cosine.

cos @ ­2

cos 40° = x

Sots Soleo20° B=
26.1 cm
ble au
(3 significant figures) J

EXERCISE 26F BN ]
®­ Find the size of the angle marked x in each of — triangles.
Cc
8 cm Be om 100 cm
1 cm
X

Sem 160 cm

®: Find the length of the side marked x in each of these — i

12cm [0

48°/

_— Find the value of x in each of these ensles.

6.5 cm d
oT F \ /
16 cm > 13 em 17 cm

XxX

11 em

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 457

 Tangent function
Remember tangent = Oppasite
Adjacent
; :
You can use the tangent ratio to calculate the lengths of sides and angles —_—
in right­
Opposi
is
angled triangles.
Adjacent

(~

Example 10
Find the length of the side marked x in this triangle.

62°

The side marked x is the opposite side, with 9 cm as the adjacent side, so use tangent.
tanéd =

So x =9 tan 62° = 16.9 cm (3 significant figures)

EXERCISE 26G
® Find the size of the angle marked x in each of these triangles.
a b [4

bcm 20 em

Qcm 15em

@® Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b

(4 d

1Tem Nyul
Xx

458 26.4 Using sine, cosine and tangent functions

 Chapter 26

3 Find the value of x in each of these triangles.

a b

? cm

7 cm

Qcm

3.5cem

26.5 Which ratio to use

LAER RR EE EEE A EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EN EE EE NEN ENE NEN

The difficulty with any trigonometric problem is knowing which ratio to use to solve it.
These examples show you how to decide which ratio you need in any given situation.
Ta. ey ~
Example 11
Find the length of the side marked x in this triangle. 16a

Step 1 Identify what information is given and what needs to be found.

Namely, x is opposite the angle and 16 cm is the hypotenuse. Li
Step 2 Decide which ratio to use. Only one ratio uses opposite and hypotenuse: sine.
Step3 Remember sin 6=2 .
Step 4 Put in the numbers and letters: sin 37° = %
Step 5 Rearrange the equation and work out the answer:
x= 16 sin 37° = 9.629040371 cm
Step 6 Give the answer to an appropriate degree of accuracy:
x =9.63 cm (3 significant figures) J
\
There is no need to write down every step as in Example 11. Step 1 can be done by marking the
triangle. Steps 2 and 3 can be done in your head. Steps 4 to 6 are what you write down.

Remember that you must always show evidence of your working. Any reasonable attempt at
identifying the sides and using a ratio will probably show that you undertand the method, but only
if the fraction is the right way round.
The next examples are set out in a way that requires the minimum amount of working but gets
maximum results.

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 459

 ( Example 12
Find the length of the side marked x in this triangle.

50°
7 cm 4

Mark on the triangle the side you know (H) and

the side you want to find (A).
H 50°
Recognise it is a cosine problem because you have A and H. 7 em
=>
So cos 50 ox 7

x =7 cos 50° = 4.50 cm (3 significant figures)

&
4

Example 13
Find the size of the angle marked x in this triangle.

12cm 7 cm

Mark on the triangle the sides you know.

Recognise it is a tangent problem because you have O and A.
So tanx= 2

“ 7

EXERCISE 26H
® Find the length marked x in each of these triangles.
a b (4
20 40° x
Xx Xx

39° 5 r 48°
50 50

d e f
20 x 40°
52 x
37° d 76°

460 26.5 Which ratio to use

® Find the size of the angle marked x in each of these triangles.

@ Find the value of the angle or length marked x in each of these triangles.
a 5 b [4

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 461

 Chapter 26

a How does this diagram show that tan 6= sin 6,

CT
os &

b How does the diagram show that (sin 6)? + (cos 6)? = 1?
¢ Choose a value for #and check the two results in parts a and b are true.

26.6 Applications of trigonometric

ratios
dd EE EE EE EN EEE yr ry Imm TITTY

P is a point and AB is a straight line.

The shortest distance from P to AB is the length of PN where PN is perpendicular to AB.
The angle PNA is a right angle.
6

Example 14
X — Y
12cm
A

Find the shortest distance from the point A to the line XY.

Draw a right­angled triangle.

B N y
35°
12cm ­

You want to find x.

sin35° = =
12and so x = 12 sin 35° = 6.88 cm (to 3 s.f)
\ PF

462 26.6 Applications of trigonometric ratios

When you look up at an aircraft in the sky, the angle through which your line of sight turns,
from looking straight ahead (the horizontal), is called the angle of elevation.
When you are standing on a high point and look down at a boat, the angle through which
your line of sight turns, from looking straight ahead (the horizontal), is called the angle .
of depression.

TB Horizontal
Angle of
depression
Line of sight /

Angle of Line of sight

elevation
< Horizontal

a )
Example 15
From the top of a vertical cliff, 100 m high, Ali sees a boat out at sea. The angle of depression
from Ali to the boat is 42°. How far from the base of the cliff is the boat?

The diagram of the situation is shown in figure i.

From this, you get the triangle shown in figure ii.
i ii
42°
¥ —_ a RULE TVS
100 m

From figure ii, you see that this is a tangent problem.

1
So tan 42° = er

__100
*=%an az
i = 111 m (3 significant figures)
3

EXERCISE 261
In these questions, give any answers involving angles to the nearest degree.

® 25cm
: 25cm

A 34 34 Cc

ABC is an isosceles triangle.

Find the shortest distance from B to AC.

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 463

 @ B 40cm c

32cm
50°
A D

ABCD is a square. Each side is 40 cm.

P is a point inside the square.
Calculate the distance from P to
a AD
b AB
c CD

=F

Al House

3.8km

A plane takes off and rises at an angle of 21° to the ground.

It flies over a house 3.8 km away from the point where the plane took off.

Find the closest distance between the plane and the house. Give your answer in kilometres
rounded to 2 d.p.
y

>
2­

EWE BE SWE
­2

This is a graph of the line with equation 2x + 3y = 12

Find the shortest distance from the origin to the line.

Erik sees an aircraft in the sky. The aircraft is at a horizontal distance of 25 km from Erik. The
angle of elevation is 22°.
How high is the aircraft?

An aircraft is flying at an altitude of 4000 m and is 10 km from the airport. If a passenger can
see the airport, what is the angle of depression?

A man standing 200 m from the base of a television transmitter looks at the top of it and
notices that the angle of elevation of the top is 65°.

How high is the tower?

464 26.6 Applications of trigonometric ratios

 52°

A boat

a From the top of a vertical cliff, 200 m high, a boat has an angle of depression of 52°.
How far from the base of the cliff is the boat?
b The boat now sails away from the cliff so that the distance is doubled. Does that mean
that the angle of depression is halved?
Give a reason for your answer.

From a boat, the angle of elevation of the foot Nghilicose

of a lighthouse on the edge of a cliff is 34°.
50
a the cliff is 150 m high, how far from the base
[If

of the cliff is the boat?

b If the lighthouse is 50 m high, what would be the ~ he
angle of elevation of the top of the lighthouse ~~ 2°! ­
from the boat? sea

A bird flies from the top of a 12 m tall tree, at an angle of depression of 34°, to catch a worm
on the ground.
.a How far does the bird actually fly?
b How far was the worm from the base of the tree?

Sunil wants to work out the height of a building. He stands about 50 m away from the
building. The angle of elevation from Sunil to the top of the building is about 15°. How tall is
the building?

The top of a ski run is 100 m above the finishing line. The run is 300 m long. What is the angle
of depression of the ski run?

Nessie and Cara are standing on opposite sides of a tree.

30° ?
Nessie 3 Cara

14m 28m

Nessie is 14 m away and the angle of elevation of the top of the tree is 30°.

Cara is 28 m away. She says the angle of elevation for her must be 15° because she is twice
as far away.

Is she correct?
What do you think the angle of elevation is?

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 465

 26.7 Problems in three dimensions
MAA AAA RA AA AAA AR EA EE EE EE EE ER RRR I III TT

To find the value of an angle or side in a three­dimensional figure you need to find a right­angled
triangle in the figure. This triangle also has to include two known values that you can use in the
calculation.
You must redraw this triangle separately as a plain, right­angled triangle. Add the known values and
the unknown value you want to find. Then use the trigonometric ratios and Pythagoras’ theorem to
solve the problem.
a mw
Example 16
A, B and C are three points at ground level. They are in the same horizontal plane. C is 50 km
east of B. B is north of A. Cis on a bearing of 050° from A.
An aircraft, flying east, passes over B and over C at the same height. When it passes over B, the
angle of elevation from A is 12°. Find the angle of elevation of the aircraft from A when it is
over C.

First, draw a diagram containing all the known +h a Y

information.
bod 5 E
~ 50 km
50° <p

A
Next, use the right­angled triangle ABC to calculate AB and AC. B 50 km c
AB = = 41.95 km (4 significant figures) |
AC == ars
= =65.27 km {A cianificant fir ‘v
(4 significant figures)

A
Then use the right­angled triangle ABX to calculate X
R Salem |
BX, and hence CY.

BX = 41.95 tan 12° = 8.917 km (4 significant figures) A 112°

41.95 km
B

Finally, use the right­angled triangle ACY to N

espe SE
calculate the required angle of elevation, 6.
tan = 8.917
65.27 = 0.1366 A
0
5.27 km C
= @=tan™' 0.1366 = 7.8° (1 decimal place)
& : J
Always write down intermediate working values to at least 4 significant figures, or use the answer on
your calculator display to avoid inaccuracies in the final answer.

466 26.7 Problems in three dimensions

EXERCISE 26]
1 P

ém
A 10m B

rd
D . Cc

A vertical flagpole AP stands at the corner of a rectangular courtyard ABCD.

Calculate the angle of elevation of P from C.

& The diagram shows a pyramid. The base is a horizontal

rectangle ABCD, 20 cm by 15 cm. The length of each 4
sloping edge is 24 cm. The apex, V, is over the centre
of the rectangular base. Calculate:
a the length of the diagonal AC
b the size of the angle VAC
¢ the height of the pyramid. AS Ton

a. The diagram shows the roof of a building. The base ABCD F

is a horizontal rectangle 7 m by 4 m. The triangular ends are Po
equilateral triangles. Each side of the roof is an isosceles »
trapezium. The length of the top of the roof, EF, is 5 m.
Calculate: =
a the length EM, where M is the midpoint of AB A 4
b the size of angle EBC 4m "
¢ the size of the angle between EM and the base ABCD. 8
a ABCD is a vertical rectangular plane. EDC is a horizontal A 10cm 8
triangular plane. Angle CDE = 90°, AB = 10 cm, BC=4 cm
and ED = 9 cm. Calculate: Ao
a angle AED .
Qcm
b angle DEC
c EC ;
d angle BEC.
[4 In the diagram, XABCD is a pyramid with a
rectangular base.
Revina says that the angle between the edge XD and the
base ABCD is 56.3°.
Work out the correct answer to show that Revina is wrong.

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 467

 26.8 Sine and cosine of
obtuse angles EN
MAA AAR ERR EE EE EE EE EE EE EE RR yy mmm I ITT TTT

So far you have only used sines and cosines in right­angled triangles.
A calculator also gives the sine and cosine of obtuse angles.
Check that sin 115° = 0.906 and cos 115° = ­0.423.

You cannot have a right­angled triangle with an obtuse angle

so how can you calculate sin and cos of an obtuse angle?

Imagine a rod OP lying on the x­axis as shown.

AY
14

J
—4|

It rotates anticlockwise about the origin O. ya

ONP is a right­angled triangle. H Plecs §, sin@)
The hypotenuse OP = 1 1/ ling
If the angle that OP makes with the x­axis is 6: ' is! —
= Of cos® N 1 Xx
The adjacent side ON = OP x cos @= 1 x cos @= cos §
So the x­coordinate of P is cos &
~1
Similarly:
The opposite side NP = OP x sin #= 1 x sin #=sin &
So the y­coordinate of P is sin @
Therefore the coordinates of P are (cos 6, sin 6).
. yi
Imagine that OP continues to rotate so that angle ¢ ad |
becomes obtuse. (cs 9, 3in'6)
You can still define cos #and sin #as the coordinates of P.
You can see from the diagram that the x­coordinate for P
must now be negative.
PA |
=’ [¢)
The y­coordinate is still positive.

For example, if #= 115° the diagram looks like this:

=

468 26.8 Sine and cosine of obtuse angles

You can see that the angle adjoining #on the x­axis must have yi

the same sine as #. When adjacent angles add up to 180° their sines are P11
the same. So: said
If angle @is obtuse then sin #= sin (180° ­ 6) | 115°
1 \ =
Their cosines have the same numeric value but the cosine of the obtuse ~~ _} ­0.423 [0 Ha
angle is negative:
If angle @is obtuse cos #= ­ cos (180° ­ 8) )
For example, if #= 115° then 180° ­ #= 65°
Sin 115° = sin 65° = 0.906
Cos 115° = — cos 65° =­ 0.423

EXERCISE 26K
& a Copy and complete this table.

Angle 10° 30° 50° 85° 90° 95° 130° 150° 170°
Sine 0.5 1

b Draw a graph of y = sin x for 0 = x = 180°.

¢ Describe the symmetry of the graph.
. d Find two examples from the table to show that if two angles add up to 180 degrees they
have the same sine.

Find two angles that have a sine of 0.5.

Find two angles that have a sine of 0.72.

x is an obtuse angle and sin x = 0.84. Find the value of x.

a Copy and complete this table.

15° 35° 60° 80° 90° 100° 120° 145° 165°

Cosine

b Draw a graph of y = cos x for 0 < x =< 180°.

¢ Describe the symmetry of the graph.
Find the size of each of these angles.
a cos'0.85 b cos '(­0.85)
¢ cos '(­0.5) d cos™'0
e cos™'0.125 f cos (­0.125)

Solve these equations where 0 = x =< 180°. Give your answers to the nearest degree.
There may be more than one solution.
a cosx=0.6 b cos x=­0.25
[4 sin x= d sinx=1
e cosx=0 f sinx=0.95
g sinx=2 h sinx=cosx
Chapter 26: Trigonometry 469
 26.9 The sine rule and the
cosine rule IE
A EE EE EE EE EEE a yr yr yr ya I I mmm TT

Any triangle has six measurements: three sides and three angles. To find any unknown angles or
sides), you need to know at least three of the measurements. Any combination of three
measurements ­ except that of all three angles ­ is enough to work out the rest.
When you need to find the value of a side or an angle in a triangle that contains no right angle, you
can use one of two rules, depending on what you know about the triangle. These are the sine rule
and the cosine rule.

The sine rule A

Take a triangle ABC and draw the perpendicular from A
to the opposite side BC.
From right­angled triangle ADB, / = ¢ sin B
From right­angled triangle ADC, & = b sin C
Therefore, o
csinB=bsinC

which can be rearranged to give:

c___b_
sinC~ sin B
By drawing a perpendicular from each of the other two vertices
to the opposite side (or by algebraic symmetry), you see that:
a c a b
——— h =—
sinA sinC Doe thet sinA sinB

These are usually combined in the form:

a _ b _ ¢
sinA_ sinB sinC
which can be inverted to give:
sinA _sinB_sinC
a bc

Remember, when using the sine rule: take each side in turn, divide it by the sine of the angle
opposite and then equate the results.
Note:

* When you are calculating a side, use the rule with the sides on top.
* When you are calculating an angle, use the rule with the sines on top.

470 26.9 The sine rule and the cosine rule

(Example 17
In triangle ABC, find the value of x.
A

il 25 cm

47°

Use the sine rule with sides on top, which gives:

x. 25
sin 84° sin 47°
25 sin 84° id
=X 5in 47°
== 34.0 cm (3 significant figures)
3" i
5

Example 18
In triangle ABC, find the value of the acute angle x.
A
7 cm 6 cm

B A 40° x c

sin x _ sin 40°

a
7 sin 40°
=sinx= = 0.7499

= x =sin"' 0.7499 = 48.6° (3 significant figures)

Ng By
The sine rule works even if the triangle has an obtuse angle, because you can find the sine of an
obtuse angle.

EXERCISE 26L
® Find the length of the side labelled x in each of these triangles.
a B b 8 C cB
85° \Q x
ARBs" Cc ; ~
4m } 12 em 32cm

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 471

 2 Find the size of the angle labelled x in each of these triangles.
a B, b 8 (+

To find the height of a tower standing on a small hill,

Maria made some measurements (see diagram).

From a point B, the angle of elevation of C is 20°, the angle of

elevation of A is 50° and the distance BC is 25 m.
a Calculate these angles.
i ABC
ii BAC
b Using the sine rule and triangle ABC, calculate the height
h of the tower.

Use the information on this sketch to calculate the width, w, of the river.

Calculate the value of 4, using the given information.

6 A mass is hung from a horizontal beam using two strings. The shorter string is 2.5 m long and
makes an angle of 71° with the horizontal. The longer string makes an angle of 43° with the
horizontal. What is the length of the longer string?

472 26.9 The sine rule and the cosine rule

E2 A rescue helicopter is based at an airfield at A. N
It is sent out to rescue a man from a mountain at M, due north of A. ! MA
The helicopter then flies on a bearing of 145° to a hospital
at H, as shown on the diagram.
Calculate the direct distance from the mountain to the hospital. A
8 Triangle ABC has an obtuse angle at B. A
Calculate the size of angle ABC. 10 em

7cm :
iS
B (a

The cosine rule

Take the triangle, shown on the right, where D is the foot A
of the perpendicular to BC from A. The length of BD is x.
Using Pythagoras’ theorem on triangle BDA: F hk .
R=c2­x2
Using Pythagoras’ theorem on triangle ADC:
= bh ­(a­ x)? 8 Xx D a­x c

Therefore,

A­xt=b ­(a=­xp
A­2=pP­a®+2ax­x2
=? =b­a’ + 2ax
From triangle BDA, x = ¢ cos B.

So:
= ­a® + 2ac cos B
Rearranging gives:
b? =a? + 2 ­ 2ac cos B

By algebraic symmetry:
=D +c2­2bccosA and =a? + b?­2ab cos C
This is the cosine rule, which can be best remembered from
the diagram on the right, where:
a? =b% + ¢2­2bccos A
Note the symmetry of the rule and how the rule works using
two adjacent sides and the angle between them (the included angle).
The formula can be rearranged to find any of the three angles.

cosA = PrE­a? cos p= rE

2be 2ac
 Example 19
Find the value of x in this triangle.

By the cosine rule:

x2 =6%+ 102­2 x 6 x 10 x cos 80°
2 =115.16
= x= 10.7 (3 significant figures)
en
rr
Example 20
AS
Find the value of x in this triangle.

By the cosine rule:

JA ­8
cos x =0.1428
2x5x7
=x = 81.8° (3 significant figures)
\ 5
It is possible to find the cosine of an angle that is greater than 90°. For example, cos 120° = ­0.5.

EXERCISE 26M
1 Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.
a B b B 15em C CB 2 c
[/
[­] 22cm
m Q E 32cm 45 on
A A C
8m A A %

& Find the angle x in each of these triangles.

b gg 12cm
c 30 cm

15em 50 cm Cc
24 cm

40cm
A A *

d Explain the significance of the answer to part c.

3 In triangle ABC, AB = 5 cm, BC = 6 cm and angle ABC = 55°. Find AC.

A triangle has two sides of length 40 cm and an angle of 110°. Work out the length of the
third side of the triangle.

474 26.9 The sine rule and the cosine rule

5 The diagram shows a trapezium ABCD. AB = 6.7 cm, D 7.2cm A
AD =7.2 cm, CB = 9.3 cm and angle DAB = 100°.
100°
67
Calculate: =
a thelengthDB b angle DBA S 5
¢ angle DBC d the length DC 93cm
6 A ship sails from a port on a bearing of 050° for 50 km then turns on a bearing of 150° for
40 km. A crewman is taken ill, so the ship drops anchor. What course and distance should a
rescue helicopter from the port fly to reach the ship in the shortest possible time?

The three sides of a triangle are given as 3q, 5 and 7a. Calculate the smallest angle in the
triangle.

Two ships, X and Y, leave a port at 9 am.

Ship X travels at an average speed of 20 km/h on a bearing of 075° from the port.

Ship Y travels at an average speed of 25 km/h on a bearing of 130° from the port.

Calculate the distance between the two ships at 11 am.

EX Calculate the size of the largest angle in the triangle ABC. A

7ecm 1lem

Choosing the correct rule

When finding the unknown sides and angles in a triangle, there are several situations that can occur.
Two sides and the included angle
4
1 Use the cosine rule to find the third side.

2 Use the sine rule to find either of the other angles. ­

3 Use the sum of the angles in a triangle to find the third angle.

Two angles and a side /\

1 Use the sum of the angles in a triangle to find the third angle. 10
2, 3 Use the sine rule to find the other two sides.

Three sides
1 Use the cosine rule to find one angle. 8
2 Use the sine rule to find another angle.
3 Use the sum of the angles in a triangle to find the third angle.
. 15

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 475

 EXERCISE 26N
MN) Find the length or — x in each of these triangles.
a B b 12 cm C CB x
&
8 m XxX 16 cm 84°" /

. 65 © : 20 em 45 cm 37°
8m
A Y

15cm 0

22 cm
21 em

g B
A 530 cm

én 450 cm 124°

C 53 cm
A2 10m

The hands of a clock have lengths 3 cm and 5 cm. Find the distance between the tips of Se
hands at 4 o'clock.

A helicopter is seen hovering at a point which is in the same vertical plane as two towns, X and
F, which are on the same level. Its distances from X and F are 8.5 km and 12 km respectively.
The angle of elevation of the helicopter when observed from F is 43°. Calculate the distance
between the two towns.
Triangle ABC has sides with lengths 4, b and ¢, as shown in
the diagram. ;
c
a What can you say about the angle BAC, if #? + 2 ­ a? = 0? Fa
b What can you say about the angle BAC, if b? + 2­4? = 0? B a Cc
¢ What can you say about the angle BAC, if #2 + c2­ a? < 0?
5 The diagram shows a sketch of a field ABCD.
A farmer wants to put a new fence round the perimeter
of the field.
Calculate the perimeter of the field.

476 26.9 The sine rule and the cosine rule

 Chapter 26 f )

26.10 Using sine to find the area

of a triangle EN
LAR RE REE EE AE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EN NR RR Re a a ss I I Tn

In triangle ABC, the vertical height is BD and the base is AC. wm

Let BD = h and AC = b, then the area of the triangle is given by:

3x AC x BD = 1bh

However, in triangle BCD: I.

h=BCsinC=asinC
=)

where BC =a. }
Substituting into ]bh gives:
1b x (asin C) = jab sin C
as the area of the triangle.
By taking the perpendicular from A to its opposite side BC, and the perpendicular from C to its
opposite side AB, you can show that the area of the triangle is also given by:
Jacsin Band }bc sin A
Note the pattern: the area is given by the product of two sides multiplied by the sine of the included
angle. This is the area sine rule. Starting from any of the three forms, you can use the sine rule to
establish the other two.

~~ 1 21 a) Le. » B p)
pri
Find the area of triangle ABC.
ad |
Som
Area =labsin C
Area =]x 5x7 x sin 38° 7 cm

­ = 10.8 cm? (3 significant figures)

Example 22 B
Find the area of triangle ABC. gm 129m
You have all three sides but no angle. So first you must 19 cm
find an angle in order to apply the area sine rule.
Use the cosine rule to find angle C.
A+ ­c2_1324+192­82
=0.9433 = C=cos™" 0.9433 =19.4°
MEERA =~ 2x BATE
(Keep the exact value in your calculator memory.)

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 477

 Now apply the area sine rule.
lab sin C=1x 13 x 19 x sin 19.4°
= 41.0 cm? (3 significant figures)

EXERCISE 260
® Find the area of each of these triangles.
a Triangle ABC with BC =7 cm, AC = 8 cm and angle ACB = 59°
b Triangle ABC with angle BAC = 86°, AC = 6.7 cm and AB =8 cm
Triangle POR with QR = 27 cm, PR = 19 cm and angle QRP = 109°
NE.)
[­ Triangle XYZ with XY = 231 cm, XZ = 191 cm and angle YXZ = 73°
e Triangle LMN with LN = 63 cm, LM = 39 cm and angle NLM = 85°
The area of triangle ABC is 27 cm?. If BC = 14 cm and angle BCA = 115°, find the
length of AC.

The area of triangle LMN is 113 em?, LM = 16 cm and MN = 21 cm. Angle LMN is acute. Calculate
these angles.
a Angle LMN
b Angle MNL

A board is in the shape of a triangle with sides 60 cm, 70 cm and 80 cm. Find the area of
the board.

Two circles, centres P and Q, have radii of 6 cm and 7 cm respectively. The circles intersect 'at X
and Y. Given that PQ = 9 cm, find the area of triangle PXQ.

Sanjay is making a kite.

25cm
The diagram shows a sketch of his kite.
Calculate the area of the material required to make the kite. 60 cm
40 em

The triangular area ABC is to be made a national park. 8 Vy

The bearing of B from A is 324°, T
The bearing of C from A is 42°. C
21.5 km
Calculate the area of the park.
14.2 km

478 26.10 Using sine to find the area of a triangle

 Chapter 26

The diagram shows the dimensions of a

35m c
four­sided field.
a Show that the length of the diagonal BD is
25m
66 metres to the nearest metre. f 65°

b Calculate the size of angle C.

73m
¢ Calculate the area of the field.

® A ;
Scm

B © D
12cm

Triangle ABC is right­angled.

Triangle DEF is isosceles.

They have the same perimeter.

Calculate the area of triangle DEF.

26.11 Sine, cosine and tangent

of any angle El
MERE REE EAA EE EE EE EE EE EE NE RR Ra a ya yyy,

In Section 26.8 you used a rod of length 1 on a coordinate grid to find the sine and cosine of obtuse angles.

"} y
sing f­­­­=­­
ceed siné

8 ]
cosé x : cosé

cos@ and sind are both positive cosé is negative

sin@is positive

You can use the same idea to find the sine and cosine of a reflex angle. That is an angle bigger than 180°.

y ¥

cosé I]
: x [2] cosé
; ­ yo HIE
2
­ J—— sin@ sin@ beeeaanas

cos@ is negative cos@is positive

sin@is positive sin@is negative
—

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 479

 These graphs show the sine and cosine of any angle between 0° and 360°
y
1

0.54

0 AJ J ¥

45 90 135 18] 225 270 315

bd LJ Al /

260 *
.5­

=} y=sinx°®
y

IN pf

0 AJ

45 135 180 225

v ¥ Ld

315 360 *
v v

270

­0.54

“iy y= Cos x°
Notice the symmetry of the graphs.
»
14

0.54 7

/l 45 90 135 18 225 270 315 40 *

0 J re 5g ¥ T ¥ v

­0.5­

“ y=sinx°
180 ­ 55 = 125 and so 55° and 125° have the same sine.
sin 55° = sin 125° = 0.819 to 3 d.p.
y

Pai

0.54

0
135 180 225
­0.5­

4 y= cos x°
360 ­ 70 = 290 and so 70° and 290° have the same cosine.

cos 70° = cos 290° = 0.342 to 3 d.p.

480 26.11 Sine, cosine and tangent of any angle

Here are some more examples of the symmetry of the sine graph:
* 10° and 180 ­ 10 = 170° have the same sine.
* 50° and 180 ­ 50 = 130° have the same sine.
® 205° and 360 ­ 15 = 345° have the same sine.
* sin 30° = 0.5 and sin (180 + 30)° = sin 210° = ­0.5
Here are some more examples of the symmetry of the cosine graph:
* 10° and 360 ­ 10 = 350° have the same cosine.
* 125° and 360 ­ 125 = 235° have the same cosine.
® cos 70° = 0.342 and cos (180 — 70)° = cos 110° = ­0.342
You need to remember the shapes of these graphs and their symmetries.

b sinw=0.3 0° =< w =< 360°

€ 2cosy+1=0 0° = y=<360°

0.51

­1

Another answer is 180 ­ 17 = 163°

There are two possible answers, x = 17° or 163°
b A calculator gives sin”! (~0.3) = ­17° but this is outside the interval
0° = w= 360°
­17° is a clockwise turn of 17°. It is the same as an anticlockwise turn of
360­17 = 343°
y

One solution is 343°.

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 481

 To find another, look at the symmetry of the sine graph.
%
14

Another solution is 180 + 17 = 197°.

There are two possible answers, w = 197° or 343°
¢ Rearrange the equation 2cosy=­1
Divide by 2 cosy=­0.5
A calculator gives cos™' (0.5) = 120° and this is one answer.
Look at the symmetry of the cosine graph.
y

0.54

0
fae 180 7d 0 315 360 *
­0.5

Another answer is 360 — 120 = 240°

RR There are two possible answers, y = 120° or 240°

EXERCISE 26P
1 Find an angle between 0° and 360° that has the same sine as:
a 80° b 146° c 215° d 306°
“© Find an angle between 0° and 360° that has the same cosine as:
a 10° b 125° c 208° d 311°
3 Solve these equations when 0° < x =< 360°

Give your answers to the nearest degree.

a sinx=045 b sinx=0.83 ¢ sinx=­0.45 d sinx=­0.83

482 26.11 Sine, cosine and tangent of any angle

 Solve these equations when 0° < x < 360°

Give your answers to the nearest degree.

a cosx=0.8 b cosx=­0.23 ¢ cosx=­0.92 d cosx=0.087
Solve these equations when 0° /=< x =< 360°

a sinx=0.5 3 =5
b sinx c sinx = a;
1 a
d sinx=­1
Solve these equations when 0° < x < 360°

a cosx=­0.5 b cosx = NE] C cosx =

2 N) d cosx=0
Solve these equations when 0° < x < 360°

Round your answers to 1 d.p.

a cosx=0.05 b sinx=0.812 c cosx+065=0 d sinx+09=0.3
Solve these equations when 0° < x = 360°

Round your answers to 1 d.p.

a 3sinx=2 b Scosx­4=0 c 7sinx+5=0
Two different obtuse angles have the same sine. Find the sum of the two angles.

Solve the equation 4(sin x)? = 1 0° =< x =< 360°

Solve the equation 2(cos x)? = 1 0° =< x < 360°

The tangent of any angle

| iaht­ —
n a right­angled triangle tan ¢ _ Opposite
Adjacent side
side

You know that in a right­angled triangle tan 8= Oppasite side

Adjacent side
You can see from this diagram that tan 6= sing

Here is a graph of y = tan x where 0° < x =< 90°

y
4­

34

45 90
Notice that tan 45° =0
As the angle gets close to 90° the tangent becomes very large.
tan 90° is not defined because cos 90° = 0

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 483

 You can use tan 6= £0010 define the tangent of any angle, not just acute ones.
Here is a graph of y = tan x where 0° < x < 180°
y
24

14

0
45 90 135,180 225 270 315,460
<A |

2.

The graph is in three separate branches.

The lines x = 90 and x = 270 are asymptotes. The graph gets closer and closer to those lines as y gets
larger.
The section from 180° to 360° is identical to the section from 0° to 180°

This means that tan 10° = tan 190° and tan 20° = tan 200° and so on.

fi Example 24
Solve these equations for 0° =< x = 360°. Give your answers to 1 d.p.
a tanx=2 b4tanx+3=0
a A calculator gives tan~'! 2 = 63.4 so this is one answer.
From the symmetry of the graph, another answer is 180 + 63.4 = 243.4°
The two answers are x = 63.4° and 243.4°
b Rearrange as tan x = ­0.75
A calculator gives tan™! (­0.75) = ­36.9° but this is outside the interval 0° < x < 360°.
However ­36.9° is a clockwise turn of 36.9°
It is the same as an anticlockwise turn of 360 ­ 36.9 = 323.1°
One answer is 323.1°
By the symmetry of the tangent graph, another answer is 323.1 ­ 180 = 143.1°
= The two answers are x = 143.1° and 323.1°

EXERCISE 26Q
J) Find the angles between 0° and 360° that have the same tangent as
a 35° b 85° c 118° d 200° e 243° f 337°

P Solve these equations when 0° =< x =< 360°.

a tanx=1 b tanx=­1 ¢ tanx=+v3 d tanx=­y3

484 26.11 Sine, cosine and tangent of any angle

 3 Solve these equations when 0° = x < 360°. Give your answers to 1 d.p.
a tanx=0.2 b tanx=5 ¢ tanx=­0.35 d tanx=­4.17
Ky The sine of an angle is 0.6 and the cosine of the angle is ­0.4

Find the tangent of the angle.

5 Solve these equations when 0° < x =< 360°, Give your answers to 1 d.p.
a 8tanx=3 . b 3tanx=8 ¢ 25tanx+18=0 d 9tanx+40=0
3 Solvethese equations (tan x)? = 1 and 0° < x < 360°.
a (tanx)2=1 b (tanx)?=3 ¢ 3(tanx)?=1
E2 Solve the equation (tan x)? + tan x = 12 =0 and 0° < x < 360°.

KE) The difference between two angles is 180°. What can you say about
a the tangents of the angles?
b the sines of the angles?
¢ the cosines of the angles?

Check your progress

o ­ 1

* | can use Pythagoras’ theorem the calculate a side of a right­angled triangle

* | can use sine, cosine and tangent ratios to calculate a side or an angle of a right­angled triangle

Extended
* | can solve trigonometric problems in two dimensions involving angles of elevation or depression
* | know that the perpendicular distance from a point to a line is the shortest distance to the line
* | can extend the sine, cosine and tangent values to angles between 90° and 360°
* | know the shapes and properties of graphs of trigonometric functions
* | can find the shortest distance from a point to a line
* | can solve simple trigonometric equations
* | can solve problems using the sine rule or the cosine rule for any triangle
* | can use the formula area of a triangle = i ab sin C
* | can solve simple trigonometric problems in three dimensions, including the angle between a line
and a plane

Chapter 26: Trigonometry 485

 LA \ ~~ \ LL Ea NW

1 Perimeter and area of a rectangle CORE length, width, perimeter, area

2 Area of a triangle CORE base, perpendicular height

3 Area of a parallelogram CORE parallelogram

4 Area of a trapezium CORE trapezium

5 Circumference and area of a circle CORE circumference, diameter, radius, n

6 Surface area and volume of a cuboid CORE volume, cuboid, surface area, litre

7 Volume and surface area of a prism CORE cross­section, prism

8 Volume and surface area of a cylinder CORE curved surface, cylinder

9 Sectors and arcs: 1 CORE arc, sector, subtended

10 Sectors and arcs: 2

11 Volume of a pyramid CORE pyramid, vertical height, vertex

12 Volume and surface area of a cone CORE

13 Volume and surface area of a sphere CORE

Carry out the following calculations involving multiples of m where Solve problems
appropriate: involving:
® the perimeter and area of a rectangle, triangle, parallelogram and the arc length
trapezium and compound shapes derived from these (C5.2 and E5.2) and sector area
@® the circumference and area of a circle (C5.3 and ES.3) with more
e the volume of a cuboid, prism and cylinder (C5.4 and E5.4) complicated
® the surface area of a cuboid, prism and a cylinder (C5.4 and E5.4) angle fractions.
® the areas and volumes of compound shapes (C5.5 and ES.5) (E5.3)
® the arc length and sector area as fractions of the circumference
and area of a circle (C5.3 and ES5.3)
® the surface area and volume of a sphere, pyramid and cone (given
formulae for the sphere, pyramid and cone). (C5.4 and ES.4)
 =) %

People have always needed to measure areas and volumes.

In everyday life, you will, for instance, need to find the area to work out how many tiles to buy
to cover a floor; or you will need to find the volume to see how much water is needed to fill a
swimming pool. You can do this quickly using formulae.

From earliest times, farmers have

wanted to know the area of their
A fields to see how many crops they
could grow or animals they could
support. When land is bought and
sold, the cost depends on the area.

Volumes are important too. Volumes tell you how much space there is inside any structure.
EL

Whether it is a house, barn, aeroplane, car or office, the volume is important. In some countries
there are regulations about the number of people who can use an office, based on the volume of

)
the room.
a

Volumes of containers for liquids also need to be measured. Think, for example, of a car fuel
tank, the water tank in a building, or a reservoir. It is important to be able to calculate the
capacity of all these things.

So how do you measure areas and volumes?

In this chapter, you will learn formulae
that can be used to calculate areas and
volumes of different shapes, based on a few
measurements.

Many of these formulae were first worked

out thousands of years ago. They are still
in use today because they are important in
everyday life.
The process of calculating areas and volumes
using formulae is called mensuration.

“ZZ N
 Chapter 27

27.1 Perimeter and area of a rectangle

AXA ENE E EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE RE EE EE NN)

The perimeter of a rectangle is the total distance around length, 1

the outside.
perimeter=/+w+/+w width, w
=2(1 + w)

The area of a rectangle is length x width.

area = lw

a 1 11 em
Calculate the area and perimeter of
this rectangle.
4 cm

Area of rectangle = length x width

=11cmx4cm
= 44 cm?

Perimeter=2x11+2x4
=30cm
q ¥,
Some two­dimensional shapes are made up of two or more rectangles.
These shapes can be split into simpler shapes, which makes it easy to calculate their areas.

£3

Example 2 Se .
Find the area and perimeter of the shape 2¢m
shown on the right.

10:cm

First, split the shape into two rectangles, A and B and find the missing lengths.
The perimeter is 3 cm
342+7+3+10+5=30cm 2m
areaof A=2x3=6cm? fe——10­3=7cm—­e
area of B= 10 x 3 = 30 cm? so BR
The area of the shape is: 8 3cm
area of A +areaof B=6 + 30
=36 cm? 10 cm J

488 27.1 Perimeter and area of a rectangle

 E27A
| o Calculate the area and the perimeter for each of these rectangles.

a 7 cm b lem
Maem
5cm

|3 em
7 cm

a Calculate the area and the perimeter for each of these rectangles.
a B.2cm b 11.8 ecm

6.5 cm 7.2¢cm

2) A rectangular field is 150 m long and 45 m wide.

Fencing is needed to go all the way around the field.

The fencing is sold in 10­metre long pieces.

How many pieces are needed?

­ A soccer pitch is 160 m long and 70 m wide.

a Before a game, the players have to run about 1500 m to help them loosen up. How many
times will they need to run round the perimeter of the pitch to do this?
b The groundsman waters the pitch at the rate of 100 m2 per minute. How long will it take
him to water the whole pitch?

What is the perimeter of a square with an area of 100 cm??

Which rectangle has the largest area? Which has the largest perimeter?
8cm 11 em 7 cm

Chapter 27: Mensuration 489

 @® Doubling the length and width of a rectangle doubles the
area of the rectangle.
Draw some diagrams with
Is this
statement: different lengths and
* always true widths.
* sometimes true
* never true?
Explain your answer.

Calculate the perimeter and area of each of these

compound shapes below.
* First, split the
a sem b compound shape into
2cm rectangles.
4cm
2cm 6cm * Then, calculate the area
10 cm of each rectangle
* Finally, add together
4cm the areas of the
rectangles.
C

10cm
7 cm
3cem Be careful to work out
the length and width of
10cm
each separate rectangle.
You will usually have to
add or subtract lengths to
9 cm

5
e find some of these.
2cm

Sem

S5cm

i=
8.cm
Jem

4 cm

2cm S5cm
2cm

8cm

This compound shape is made from four rectangles that

are all the same size.

Work out the area of the compound shape.­ 12cm

490 27.1 Perimeter and area of a rectangle

 Chapter 27 . 1

1 This shape is made from five squares that are all the same size.

It has an area of 80 cm?.

Work out the perimeter of the shape.

27.2 Area of a triangle

LAA AREER EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EET EEE EE ER RR RRR Ir

The area of any triangle is given by the formula:

area =] x base x perpendicular height
Height
As an algebraic formula, this is written as:
A= bh < .
Base

This diagram shows why the area for a triangle is half

the area of a rectangle with the same base and height.

Height

™ E
Example 3
Calculate the area of this triangle.

4 cm

l
“4 cm ”

Area=1x9cmx4cm
=1x36 cm?

= 18 cm?
a : J

Chapter 27: Mensuration 491

 5d

Example 4
Calculate the area of the shape shown below.

l ee
oN
2
7 cm
Pa
=
~~ 3em
Pe

JB
This shape can be split into a rectangle (R) and a triangle (T).

a an
7 cm Jem

Area of the shape = area of R + area of T

1
=7x24o%x2x3
=14+3

=17 cm?
\

EXERCISE 27B
a Calculate the area of each of these triangles.

¢ Copy and complete the table for triangles a to f.

Base Perpendicular height Area

a 8 cm 7 cm
b 9cm 36 cm?
4 5 cm 10 cm?
d 4cm 6 cm?
e 6 cm 21 cm?
f 8cm Mcm

492 27.2 Area of a triangle

 ry This regular hexagon has an area of 48 cm?.

What is the area of the square that surrounds the hexagon?

­.) Find the area of each of these shapes. Advice and Tips

a fs Refer to Example aon

| how to find the area of a
Sem compound shape.

10 em

b 4

12 em

13m
4.cm

C1) Find the area of each shaded shape. Advice and Tips

* Fm ’ Find the area of the outer

: shape and subtract the
4cm > 7 cm area of the inner shape.
­

11 em

w­ Write down the dimensions of two different­sized triangles that have the same
area of 50 cm?
» Which triangle is the odd one out? Give a reason for your answer.

Chapter 27: Mensuration 493

 27.3 Area of a parallelogram
EE EE re NNN N trl N rer NI NIN I esr rN enti ecstocisssesssssncsnssssansnses

A parallelogram can be changed into a rectangle by moving a triangle.

3 ’ ‘ 3
’ y

Height

Base Base

This shows that the area of the parallelogram is the area of a rectangle with the same base
and height. The formula is:
area of a parallelogram = base x height
As an algebraic formula, this is written as:

A=bh

Example 5 | ma 7
Find the area of this parallelogram. 5
cm |
\J

8cm

Area = 8.cm x 6 cm
= 48 cm? J |
Re. 7
EXERCISE 27C
® Calculate the area of each parallelogram below.
a b Cc
8 cm
Sm
12 em 7 em

25cm

14m

494 27.3 Area of a parallelogram

 @ Sandeep says that the area of this parallelogram is 30 cm?.
27

Is she correct? Give a reason for your answer.

® This shape is made from four parallelograms that are all the same size. The area of the shape
is 120 cm?.

Work out the length marked x on the diagram.

­ This logo, made from two identical parallelograms, is cut from a sheet of card.
30cm

20 cm er me SUSE

a Calculate the area of the logo.

b How many logos can be cut from a sheet of card that measures 1m by 1 m?

27.4 Area of a trapezium

LAA ARE EER EA EAE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE Ey EE EE ET EE EY EN ESR EERE

You can calculate the area of a trapezium by finding the average of the lengths of its parallel sides
and multiplying this by the perpendicular height between them.

The area of a trapezium is given by this formula:

A= Na + bh

Chapter 27: Mensuration 495

 fo

Example 6
4 cm
Find the area of the trapezium ABCD. A B
[

3 cm

D »
1 7 cm rl

Area=3}(4+7)x3
={x 1x3
= 16.5 cm?

EXERCISE 27D
&® Copy and complete the table for the trapezia a­g. Advice and Tips
Parallel | Parallel Perpendicular | Area Trapezia is the plural of
side 1 side 2 height trapezium.
a 8 cm 4cm 5cm
b [10cm 12cm 7cm
(4 7 cm 5cm 4 cm
d| Scm 9m 6 cm
e | 3cm 13cm 5cm
f | 4cm 10 cm 42 cm?
g | 7cm 8 cm 22.5 cm?

@ Calculate the perimeter and the area of each trapezium.

a 6.5cm b 12cm

7 cm écm
Sem /Ocm

8 cm

C 7.6m
Advice and Tips
Make sure you use the
10m
right measurement for
9m the height. Sometimes
you might be told the
[1 ma slant side length, which is
12m not used for the area.

A trapezium has an area of 25 cm?. Its vertical height is 5 cm.

Work out a possible pair of lengths for the two parallel sides.

496 27.4 Area of a trapezium

. Which of these shapes has the largest area?
a 6 cm b (4

4cm

55cm

® Which of these shapes has the smallest area?

a b 12cm a

7 cm >

[4

® Which of these is the area of this trapezium?

a 45cm?
b 65cm? Sem
c 70 cm?
You must show your workings. 10em

­ The side of a ramp is a trapezium, as shown in the diagram, ‘Advice and Tips =
Calculate its area, giving your answer in square metres. Change the hight ito h
3m metres first.
| 40 cm
gg
4m

Chapter 27: Mensuration 497

 27.5 Circumference and area
of a circle .
I Etre terri eter rN iets errlirerasesenescooncEsectsscsscsssssncnanecs AAR EERE EERE]

The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference.

You can calculate the circumference, C, of a circle by multiplying its diameter, d, by =.
The value of x is found on all scientific calculators, with x = 3.141592 654, but if it is not on your
calculator, then take nt = 3.142.

The circumference of a circle is given by the formula:

circumference = nt x diameter or C = nd
As the diameter is twice the radius, r, this formula can also be written as C = 2.

(Example 7
Calculate the circumference of the circle wi ha

Use the formula:

C=nd

=nx4

= 8am (enced to Hn
1 place)

o get the

rf

Example 8
Calculate the diameter of a circle that has a circumference of 40 cm.

C=nxd

40=xxd
d
d=22=127 cm (rounded to 1 decimal place) aon
4
The area, A, of a circle is given by the formula:
area=n x radius? orA=nx rx rorA =nr
Remember This formula uses the radius of a circle. So, when you are given the diameter of a circle,
you must halve it to get the radius.
—

498 27.5 Circumference and area of a circle

 (Example 9
Calculate the area of a circle with a diameter of 12 cm. Give your answer as
a multiple of =.

First, halve the diameter to find the radius:

radius=12+2=6.cm
Then, find the area:
area = nr?
=x x 62
| “ =36 x cm?

EXERCISE 27E
a Calculate the circumference and area of each circle. Give your answers as a multiple of x.

® Calculate the circumference and area of each circle. Give your answers to 1 decimal place.

@ Calculate:
[CHSRS
i the circumference
ii the area of each of these circles. Give your answers as a multiple of m and also to 1
decimal place.
a b ­ c d

Chapter 27: Mensuration 499

 . A circle has a circumference of 60 cm.
a Calculate the diameter of the circle to 1 decimal place.
b What is the radius of the circle to 1 decimal place?
¢ Calculate the area of the circle to 1 decimal place.
Calculate the area of a circle with a circumference of 110 cm.

The circumference of a circle is 40r cm.

Find a the radius of the circle b the area of the circle

Calculate the area of the shaded part of each of

these diagrams. Give your answer as a multiple of m.
In each diagram, subtract
the area of the small
circle from the area of
the large circle.

2m Qcm

The diagram shows a circular photograph frame.

Work out the area of the frame. Give your answer

as a multiple of =.

A square has sides of length a and

a circle has radius r.
The area of the square is equal to the
area of the circle.

Show that r= z

500 27.5 Circumference and area of a circle

 ® A circle fits exactly inside a square of sides 10 cm.
Calculate the area of the shaded region. Give your
answer to 1 decimal place. 10 em

27.6 Surface area and volume

of a cuboid
A cuboid is a box shape, all six faces of which are rectangles.

Jon (#)

Tength (1)
Width (w)

Every day you will see many examples of cuboids, such as food packets, smart phone ­ and even this book.
~The volume of a cuboid is given by the formula:
volume = length x width x height or V=Ixw x hor V= lwh
You can claculate the surface area of a cuboid by finding the total area of the six faces, which are
rectangles. Notice that each pair of opposite rectangles have the same area. So, from the diagram above:
area of top and bottom rectangles = 2 x length x width = 2/w
area of front and back rectangles = 2 x height x width = 2hw
area of two side rectangles = 2 x height x length = 2h/
Hence, the surface area of a cuboid is given by the formula:

Chapter 27: Mensuration 501

 Volume = V'= wh = 6 x 4 x 3.5 = 84 cm?
Surface area = A = 2lw + 2hw + 2hl "
=(2x6x4)+(2x3.5x4)+(2x3.5x6)
=48 + 28 + 42 = 118 cm?

Note:
1 cm? = 1000 mm?3 and 1 m3 = 1000000 cm?
1000 cm3 = 1 litre
1 m3 = 1000 litres

Find i the volume and ii the surface area of each of these cuboids.

a b
11 em

Scm
Jem 9cm
bcm 2cm

[4
8 cm d 21 cm

15em ¥. cin
12em
Sem

Find the capacity of a fish­tank with dimensions: length 40 cm, width 30 cm and
height 20 cm. Give your answer in litres.
Find the volume of each cuboid
a The area of the base is 40 cm? and the height is 4 cm.
b The base has one side 10 cm and the other side 2 cm longer, and the height is 4 cm.
¢ The area of the top is 25 cm? and the depth is 6 cm.
Calculate:
i the volume
ii the surface area of cubes with these edge lengths.
a 4m b 7cm c 10mm d 5m e 12m
Safety regulations say that in a room where people sleep there should be at least 12 m3 for
each person. A dormitory is 20 m long, 13 m wide and 4 m high. What is the greatest number
of people who can safely sleep in the dormitory?

R—

502 27.6 Surface area and volume of a cuboid

 Chapter 27 Di

. Copy and complete the table for cuboids a to e.

Length Width Height Volume

a 8cm 5cm 4.5 cm
b 12cm 8cm 480 cm?
c 9cm 5 cm 270 cm?
d 7 cm 3.5cm 245 cm?
e 7.5cm 54cm 2cm

A tank contains 32000 litres of water. The base of the tank measures 6.5 m by 3.1 m.
Find the depth of water in the tank. Give your answer to one decimal place.

A room contains 168 m? of air. The height of the room is 3.5 m. What is the area of the floor?

What are the dimensions of cubes with these volumes?

a 27cmi b 125m? ¢ 8mm? d 1.728 m3
Calculate the volume of each of these shapes. Advice and Tips

a 2cm b 3cm split the solid into two

"og Ty­ a separate cuboids and
pr 10 em work out the dimensions
9 cal pres 8 cm of each of them from the
7 cm 2cm information given.

A cuboid has volume of 125 cm? and a total surface area of 160 cm?2.

Is it possible that this cuboid is a cube? Give a reason for your answer.

The volume of a cube is N cm3. The area of the cube is N cm2.

a How long is each side of the cube? b What is the value of N?

27.7 Volume and surface area

of a prism
A prism is a three­dimensional shape that has the same cross­section running all the way through it.

Name:
Cross­section:
Cuboid
Rectangle
SleTriangular prism
Triangle Circle
Cuboid
Square
ZiN
Hexagonal prism
Hexagon

Chapter 27: Mensuration 503

 The volume of a prism is found by multiplying the area of its cross­section by the length of the prism
(or height if the prism is stood on end).
That is, volume of prism = area of cross­section x length —­
A A

1 as

for

Find the volume of the triangular prism.

The area of the triangular cr onA= =z
A =1 .5 cm? i

The volume is the area of its cross­section x length = AJ 5

=1725x9
frum al’ :
157.5 cm?
\_ — —_— —_— p = 8 J

EXERCISE 27G
wm For each prism shown:
i calculate the area of the cross­section ii calculate the volume.
a b 8cm C 5m
Qcm
Scm
bem
2m *
3 6m
7 cm on 4cm— 9m
2cm 8m

(1 Calculate the volume of each of these prisms.

a 7m b c 15m
Am

3m 3m 4m 1m

om 6d 12m
5m 3m 3m

@® A swimming pool is 10 m wide and 25 m long.

Itis 1.2m deep atoneend and 2.2 m

deep at the other end. The floor slopes
1.2m
uniformly from one end to the other.
a Explain why the shape of the pool is 22m
a prism.
b The pool is filled with water at a rate of
2 m3 per minute. How long will it take to fill the pool?

504 27.7 Volume and surface area of a prism

A building is in the shape of a prism with the dimensions shown in
the diagram. Calculate the volume of air (in litres) inside the building.
3m 1.5m

2m
1.7m
Each of these prisms has a uniform cross­section in the shape of a right­angled triangle.
a Find the volume of each prism. b Find the total surface area of each prism.
i 35cm ii 7 cm
13cm
Scm

12cm
3em

The top and bottom of the container shown here are the same size,
both consisting of a rectangle, 4 cm by 9 cm, with a semi­circle at each
end. The depth is 3 cm. Find the volume of the container.

In 2009 the sculptor Anish Kapoor exhibited a work called Svayambh.

It was a block of red wax in the shape of a prism. /
. The cross­section was in the shape of an arched entrance. pr!
m
It was 8 long and weighed 30 tonnes. It slowly travelled through the
m
galleries on a track. ’
Calculate the volume of wax used. “23m
A horse trough is in the shape of a semi­circular prism, 70 em .
as shown.

What volume of water will the trough hold when it is filled to

the top? Give your answer in litres.

The dimensions of the cross­section of a girder (in the

shape of a prism), 2 m in length, are shown on the diagram.
The girder is made of iron. 1 cm? of iron
weighs 79 g.
What is the mass of the girder?

Calculate the volume of this prism.

7 cm

20cm
12em

pj
16cm 7 cm

Chapter 27: Mensuration 508

 27.8 Volume and surface area
of a cylinder
MAAR A AA RA RE EE EEE EN RR Rr I mmm ™m

Volume
Since a cylinder is an example of a prism, you can calculate its volume by
multiplying the area of one of its circular ends by the height. le
That is,
h
volume = nr2h

where r is the radius of the cylinder and # is its height or length.

i Example 12
RB
What is the volume of a cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of 12 cm?

Volume = area of circular base x height

a =n?h = 1 x 52 x 12 cm? = 942 cm? (3 significant figures) "

Surface area
The total surface area of a cylinder is made up of the area of its curved surface plus the area of its
two circular ends.
The curved surface area, when opened out, is a rectangle with length c
equal to the circumference of the circular end.

curved surface area = circumference of end x height of cylinder

=2nrh or wih
area of one end = nt?
Therefore, total surface area = 2nrh + 22 or ndh + 2m?

#Example 13
ow
What is the total surface area of a cylinder with a radius of 15 cm and a height of 2.5 m?

First, you must change the dimensions to a common unit. Use centimetres in this case.
Total surface area = ndh + 2n?
=n x 30 x 250 + 2 x ®t x 152 cm?
9 = 23562 + 1414 cm? = 24976 cm? = 25000 cm? (3 significant figures) J

506 27.8 Volume and surface area of a cylinder

EXERCISE 27H
wn For the cylinders below find:
i the volume
ii the total surface area.
Give your answers as a multiple of mand also to 3 mo ee figures.
ha d

® For each of these cylinder dimensions find:

i the volume
ii the curved surface area.
Give your answers in terms of x.
a Base radius 3 cm and height 8 cm
­b Base diameter 8 cm and height 7 cm
¢ Base diameter 12 cm and height 5 cm
d Base radius of 10 m and length 6 m
A solid cylinder has a diameter of 8.4 cm and a height of 12.0 cm. Bd em
Calculate the volume of the cylinder. Ed

A cylindrical food can has a height of 10.5 cm and a diameter of 7.4 cm.

What can you say about the size of the paper label around the can?
A cylindrical container is 65 cm in diameter. Water is poured into the container until itis 1m
deep.

How much water is in the container? Give your answer in litres.

A drinks manufacturer plans a new drink in a can. The quantity in each can must be 330 ml.

Suggest a suitable height and diameter for the can. (You might like to look at the dimensions
of a real drinks can.)

Wire is commonly made by putting hot metal through a hole in a plate.

What length of wire of diameter 1 mm can be made from a 1 cm cube of metal?

Chapter 27: Mensuration 507

 Chapter 27

ic The engine size of a car is measured in litres. This tells you the total volume of its cylinders.
Cylinders with the same volume can be long and thin or short and thick.

In a racing car, the diameter of a cylinder is twice its length. Suggest possible dimensions for a
0.4 litre racing car cylinder.

27.9 Sectors and arcs: 1

AA AAA ALLER A AAR EEE EEE EE EE Tr J PAPA,

A sector is part of a circle.

It is formed by two radii and part of the circumference.
The part of the circumference is called an arc.
O is the angle of the sector.
The sector is a fraction of the circle.
You can use the angle to find the fraction.
C

Example 14

12em

60°
12cm

This is a sector. Find

a the arc length. b the sector area.
Leave nt in your answers.

a The sector is a fraction of a circle.

The fraction is £0 = 1
The diameter of the circle is 24 cm.
The circumference of the circle is &x 24= 24x cm
The arc length is 3 of 24n= 24x + 6 =4n cm
b The area of the circle is xt x 122 = 144% cm?
The sector area is of 144n = 144% + 6 = 24x cm?

508 27.9 Sectors and arcs: 1

EXERCISE 271
a In this question leave =n in your answers.
a Find the circumference of this circle.

b Find the arc length for each of these sectors.

i ii iii

AR 20cm 10em
ra
10cm

& _Find the area of each of the shapes in question 1. Leave x in your answers.

B.4cm C4 8.4cm

a What fraction of a circle is this sector?

b Find the arc length in cm. Round your answer to 1 d.p.
¢ Find the area of the sector in cm2. Round your answer to 1 d.p.
I) 9.6cm

9.6cm

a Find the area of this sector in cm2. Round your answer to 1 d.p.
b Find the length of the arc in cm. Round your answer to 1 d.p.
¢ Find the perimeter of the shape.

Chapter 27: Mensuration 509

 25cm

This is a semicircle.
a Find the area.
b Find the perimeter.

40cm

36
40cm
This is a sector.
a Show that the length of the arc is 8x cm.
b Find the area of the sector.

This shape is made from 3 semicircles.

a Find the perimeter of the shape. Leave n in your answer.
b Find the area of the shape. Leave © in your answer.

27.10 Sectors and arcs: 2 FD

BE EN NNN tl llr P rN TEI I Rl ler Nes leNsilncescrsessetesssensisssonsscons

In the last section the sectors were all simple fractions of a circle.
You can always use the angle of the sector to find the arc length and sector area, even if it is not a
simple fraction.

\2) r

If the angle of the sector is 6, then:

a)
arc length = 360 * circumference _= 3608 X 2zr

and sector area =wa360 * circle area =

a 360 X 7" 2
a

510 27.10 Sectors and arcs: 2

 EXERCISE 27)
EX For each of these sectors, calculate: i the arc length ii the sector area.

8cm S5cm 12cm 7 em

2 For this sector work out: a the arc length b the sector
area Give your answers in terms of x.

12cm’
135°
120
| @& Calculate the total perimeter of each of these sectors. or
a b

8.5¢cm

a Calculate the area of each of these sectors.

o b
110°

5 O is the centre of a circle of radius 12.5 cm. c

Calculate the length of the arc ACB.

­
A B

Chapter 27: Mensuration 51

 Chapter 27

6 The diagram shows quarter of a circle. Calculate the area

of the shaded shape, giving your answer in terms of .
12 em

12cm

ABCD is a square of side length 8 cm. APC and AQC are arcs of the A B
circles with centres D and B. Calculate the area of the shaded part,
giving your answer in terms of m. p

D C
Find:
a the perimeter (ager
b the area
3cem
of this shape. /\

27.11 Volume of a pyramid

AAA RARER A EAA EE EE EE EE EE EE EN RR yy yy yy I mmm mT

A pyramid is a three­dimensional shape with a base from which triangular faces rise to a common
vertex. The base can be any polygon, but is usually a triangle, a rectangle or a square.
V
The volume of a pyramid is given by: =
volume = | x base area x vertical height
V= Ah

where A is the base area and / is the vertical height.

Example 16
Calculate the volume of the pyramid.

Base area =5 x 4 = 20 cm?

Volume = 1 x 20 x 6 = 40 cm? ­ 4cm
_ pe r

512 27.11 Volume of a pyramid

 ~
Example 17
A pyramid, with a square base of side 8 cm, has a volume of 320 cm?. What is the vertical height
of the pyramid?

Let i be the vertical height of the pyramid. Then:

volume = ! x 64 x h = 320 cm?

84­320 cm?
n=390 cm

Ge h=15cm

EXERCISE 27K
* Calculate the volume of each of these pyramids, all with rectangular bases.
a b C

7 cm Qem .

9ecm

7 cm 10 em

Calculate the volume of a pyramid that has a square base of side 9 cm and a vertical height
of 10 cm.

Suppose you have six pyramids which have a height that is

half the side of the square base.
a Explain how they can fit together to make a cube.
b How does this show that the formula for the volume of a pyramid
is correct?

The glass pyramid outside the Louvre Museum in Paris was built in the 1980s. It is 20.6 m tall
and the base is a square of side 35 m.

Suppose that instead of a pyramid, the building was a cuboid with the same square base,
a flat roof and the same volume. How high would it have been?

Chapter 27: Mensuration 513

 | Chapter 27 . Topic 12 |

. Calculate the volume of each of these shapes.

a b J c
Za
ry, =1 25 cm
= m 3m 8m Sm :
bomcfeed es : | 20 em :
i i Ra A
BH ­ 25m i 10em
5m Im 15cm

» A crystal is in the form of two square­based pyramids 4

joined at their bases (see diagram).
The crystal has a mass of 31.5 g. 7 em

What is the mass of 1 cm? of the substance? x

3
A pyramid has a square base of side 6.4 cm. Its volume is 81.3 cm3. | eo

Calculate the height of the pyramid.

A pyramid has the same volume as a cube of side 10.0 cm.

The height of the pyramid is the same as the side of the square base.
Calculate the height of the pyramid.
The pyramid in the diagram has its top 5 cm cut off as shown.
The shape that is left is called a frustum. Calculate the volume of the
frustum.

27.12 Volume and surface

area of a cone
A EE EE NN a aI IImmI,mm mT

A cone can be treated as a pyramid with a circular base. Therefore, the

formula for the volume of a cone is the same as that for a pyramid. /
volume = x base area x vertical height
“V=1n’h

514 27.12 Volume and surface area of a cone

where r is the radius of the base and # is the vertical height of the cone.
The area of the curved surface of a cone is given by:
area of curved surface = n x radius x slant height
S=mnrl
where / is the slant height of the cone.
So the total surface area of a cone is given by the are of the curved surface plus the area of its circular base.
A =nrl + nr?

Example 18
g
:
For the cone in the diagram, calculate: 10 cm
a its volume b its total surface area.
Give your answers in terms of x.

a The volume is given by V={ nh

=x 7x36 x8=96r cm?
b The total surface area is given by A = rl + m2
=nx6x10+mn

EXERCISE 27L
(4 For each cone, calculate:
i itsvolume ii its total surface area.
Give your answers to 3 significant figures.
a b [4
18 cm
35.4 cm

re Teer
13cm
­—
20 cm

Find the total surface area of a cone with base radius 3 cm and slant height 5 cm. Give your
answer in terms of x.
Ey Calculate the volume of each of these shapes. Give your answers in terms of x.

. 8 cm Ni . ry =
/ n \ () 8 mm
he :
40 mm 1Smm
20 cm

Chapter 27: Mensuration 515

 Chapter 27

. You could work with a partner on this question.

6 cm 6cm
A sector of a circle, as in the diagram, can be made into a cone
(without a base) by sticking the two straight edges together.
a What would be the diameter of the base of the cone in this case?
b What is the diameter if the angle is changed to 180°?
¢ Investigate other angles.
A cone has the dimensions shown in the diagram.

Calculate the total surface area, leaving your answer in terms of .

6cm

The slant height of a cone is equal to the base diameter. Show that the area of the curved
surface is twice the area of the base.

The model shown on the right is made from aluminium.

What is the mass of the model, given that the density of 4cm
aluminium is 2.7 g/cm3? (This means that 1 cm? of aluminium
has a mass of 2.7 g.)

66cm

3em

. A container in the shape of a cone, base radius 10 cm and vertical height 19 cm, is full of
water. The water is poured into an empty cylinder of radius 15 cm. How high is the water in
the cylinder?

27.13 Volume and surface area

of a sphere
MAAAAA AREA R ELAR EEE EE EE EE EEE EN NN a yy yr yr I mmm mmm TTT

The volume of a sphere, radius r, is given by:

: AN

V= 4 ns \
Its surface area is given by: d |
A = 4nr \ y
~ i

516 27.13 Volume and surface area of a sphere

 Vein
a gr
(=
EXERCISE 27M
wvCalculate the volume and surface area of each of these spheres. Give your answers in terms of x.
a Radius 3 cm b Radius 6 cm ¢ Diameter 20 cm

® Calculate the volume and the surface area of a sphere with a diameter of 50 cm.

@ A sphere fits exactly into an open cubical box of side 25 cm. Calculate:
a the surface area of the sphere b the volume of the sphere.

® . ACalculate
metal sphere of radius 15 cm is melted down and recast into a solid cylinder of radius 6 cm.
the height of the cylinder.

» Lead has a density of 11.35 g/cm3. Calculate the maximum number of lead spheres of radius
1.5 mm that can be made from 1 kg of lead.

® Ahavesphere has a radius of 5.0 cm. cone has a base radius of 8.0 cm. The sphere and the cone
A
the same volume. Calculate the height of the cone.

A sphere of diameter 10 cm is carved out of a wooden block in the shape of a cube of side
10 cm. What percentage of the wood is wasted?

Check your progress

Core
* | can carry out calculations involving the perimeter and area of a rectangle, triangle, parallelogram
and trapezium
| can calculate the areas of compound two­dimensional shapes
| can calculate the circumference and area of a circle, leaving m in the answer if required
| can calculate the arc length and area of sectors that are a simple fraction of a circle
| can calculate the volume and surface area of a cuboid, prism, cylinder, sphere, pyramid and cone
| can calculate the volumes of compound three­dimensional shapes

Extended
* | can calculate the arc length and area of sectors

Chapter 27: Mensuration 517

 Lines of symmetry CORE line of symmetry, mirror line

Rotational symmetr rotational symmetry,

onalsy :
y order of rotational symmetry
Symmetry of special rectangle, square, parallelogram, kite, rhombus,
two­dimensional shapes trapezium, isosceles triangle, equilateral triangle
Symmetry of plane of symmetry, axis of symmetry, cuboid,
three­dimensional shapes prism, pyramid, cone, cylinder, reflection

Symmetry in circles centre, chord, tangent, perpendicular bisector

5 ® Recognise rotational and line Recognise symmetry properties of the prism (including |
symmetry (including order of cylinder) and the pyramid (including cone). (E4.6)
rotational symmetry) in two Use the following symmetry properties of circles:
dimensions. (C4.6 and E4.6)
equal chords are equidistant from the centre
Recognise properties of
triangles, quadrilaterals and the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes
circles directly related to their through the centre
symmetries. (C4.6 and E3.5) tangents from an external point are equal in
length. (E4.6)
If you look carefully, you will be able to spot symmetry
all around you. It is present in the natural
world and in objects made by humans. But, does it have a purpose and why do we need it?

Symmetry is everywhere you look in nature. Plants and animals have symmetrical body shapes
and patterns. For example, if you divide a leaf in half, you will see that one half is the same shape
as the other half.

This painting by a Dutch artist called

M.C. Escher (1898­1972) uses line
symmetry and rotational symmetry.
Why do you think Escher used
symmetry in his paintings?
Every tiger has its own unique pattern
of stripes. These appear on the tiger's
skin as well as its fur. What purpose do
' these symmetrical stripes serve?
Can you identify symmetry in the face
of the tiger?

St Peter's Basilica, in the Vatican City in Rome, was

started in 1506 and completed in 1626. It is a very
symmetrical structure ­ see if you can identify all the
symmetry that is present.
Why do you think that the designers of this building
used symmetry?
These examples show some of the uses of symmetry
in the world. Now think about where symmetry
occurs in your own life ­ how important is it to you?
 28.1 Lines of symmetry
CAAA AE A ER A AAR EE EE EE RR yy ym I Imm TT

Many two­dimensional shapes have one or more lines of symmetry. Advice and Tips
A line of symmetry is a line that can be drawn through a shape so
Remember you can use
that what can be seen on one side of the line is the mirror image
tracing paper to check for
of what is on the other side. This is why a line of symmetry is
symmetry. For line
sometimes called a mirror line.
symmetry, use it to find
It is also the line along which a shape can be folded exactly the mirror line. To check
onto itself. for rotational symmetry,
trace the shape and turn
your tracing around, over
the shape.

­ HD ™
Example 1 ­
Find the number of lines oh this cross.

There are four altogether.

\ le a /

EXERCISE 28A
Copy these shapes and draw on the lines of symmetry for ­ one. If it will help you, use
tracing paper or a mirror to check your results.

A AB pron
Equilateral
triangle
Square Parallelogram

AR Trapezium

Rhombus Kite

520 28.1 Lines of symmetry

 a Find the number of lines of me for each of these rear i

O00 Regular pentagon Regular hexagon

b How many lines of symmetry do you think a regular decagon

Regular octagon

has? (A decagon is a
ten­sided polygon.)
» Write down the number of lines of symmetry for each of these flags.

= I+] i= El = Iceland Switzerland

­@ These road signs all have lines of symmetry. Copy them and draw on the lines of symmetry
for each one.

&
Ql + @A p>
The animal and plant kingdoms are full of symmetry. Four examples are given below.
State the number of lines of symmetry for each one.

Can you find other examples? Find suitable pictures, copy them and state the number of lines
of symmetry each one has.

i. Copy this diagram.

On your copy, shade in four more squares so that the diagram has four lines of symmetry.

Chapter 28: Symmetry 521

 28.2 Rotational symmetry
A EE EER EER RR RR RR RI Te

A two­dimensional shape has rotational symmetry if it can be rotated about a point to look exactly
the same in a new position.
The order of rotational symmetry is the number of different positions in which the shape looks the
same when it is rotated 360° about the point (that is, one complete turn).
The easiest way to find the order of rotational symmetry for any shape is to trace it and count the
number of times that the shape looks the same as you turn the tracing paper through one complete
turn.

J 8 = 1 = aatTye _—
Example 2 — er = 4 |

First, hold the tracing paper on top of the shape and trace the shape.
Then rotate the tracing paper and count how many times the tracing
matches the original shape in one complete turn.
You will find three different positions.
r So, the order of rotational symmetry for the shape is 3. "

EXERCISE 28B
» Copy these shapes and write po each one the order of rotational pr—— If it will belie
you, use tracing paper.

oo Square Rectangle
Vy. 4 Parallelogram

e Advice and Tips

Remember a shape with
rotational symmetry of
rer a order 1 has no rotational
{1 viar j
Verge kigon symmetry.

» Find the order of : ymmety for each of these shapes.

+ OS we %

522 28.2 Rotational symmetry

 Chapter 28 PIC 3

These are Greek capital letters. Write down the order of rotational symmetry for

'® 'H 'Z ‘© ‘=

each one.

. Here is a star pattern.

Inside the star there are two patterns that have rotational symmetry.
a What is the order of rotational symmetry of the whole star?
b What is the order of rotational symmetry of the two patterns inside the star?

Copy the grid on the right. On your copy, shade in four squares so
that the shape has rotational symmetry of order 2.

28.3 Symmetry of special

two­dimensional shapes
EE A AAA AR A EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE ER sy a yy yy ym mmm TT YT

Some three and four­sided shapes have special names such as isosceles triangle or parallelogram. You
need to know the symmetry properties of these shapes.
For example:

* An isosceles triangle has one line of symmetry and ; =

no rotational symmetry.

* A parallelogram has no lines of symmetry and

rotational symmetry of order 2. Vd I») /

Chapter 28: Symmetry 523

 EXERCISE 28C
o Draw diagrams to show all the lines of symmetry on:
a arectangle
b a kite
a square
an an equilateral triangle
a rhombus.
a Which shape in question 1 has no rotational symmetry?
b Find the order of rotational symmetry for each of the others.
a What do you call a triangle with one line of symmetry?
b Can you draw a triangle with exactly two lines of symmetry?
What is the name for:
a a quadrilateral with no lines of symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 2
b a quadrilateral with rotational symmetry of order 4?

a Name two different quadrilaterals that have two lines of symmetry and
rotational symmetry of order 2.
b Can you draw a quadrilateral that has two lines of symmetry but no rotational symmetry?
The dotted line is a line of symmetry. 8
a Which angles must be equal?
b Which sides must be equal? A C
¢ What is the name of this shape?

a What is the special name for a line of symmetry of a circle?

b How many lines of symmetry does a circle have?
¢ What is the order of rotational symmetry of a circle?
. This shape has rotational symmetry of order 2.
A

a Which angles must be equal?

b Which sides must be equal?
¢ What is the name of this shape?
» If a trapezium has a line of symmetry, what can you say about its angles?

a.

524 28.3 Symmetry of special two­dimensional shapes

28.4 Symmetry of
three­dimensional shapes El
AAR ARE AE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EF EF EE ENN ERNE

Three­dimensional shapes can be symmetrical in two ways.

A cuboid has a plane of symmetry that divides it into
two halves. One is the reflection of the other half in a
mirror on the plane of symmetry.

A cuboid has an axis of symmetry. It has rotational

symmetry of order 2 about this axis.

EXERCISE 28D
». A cuboid has three planes of symmetry. Draw diagrams to show them.

@ A cuboid has three axes of symmetry.

a Show them on a diagram.
b What is the order of rotational symmetry about each axis?
3 This is an equilateral triangular prism.
It has four planes of symmetry.
One is shown in the diagram.
Draw diagrams to show the other three.

a The diagram shows an equilateral prism. "a ns

AB and CD are axes of symmetry.
a What is the order of rotational symmetry about y=
each one?
b The shape has two more axes of symmetry. LX
Show them on a diagram. AJ Chr
5 The diagram shows an axis of symmetry for a “2
square­based pyramid.
a What is the order of rotational symmetry about the axis?
b Does the pyramid have any other axes of symmetry?

<<

Chapter 28: Symmetry 525

 Chapter 28 . 1

6 Draw diagrams to show the planes of symmetry of a square­based pyramid.

How many are there?

&® a Draw a diagram to show a plane of symmetry for a cylinder.

b One axis of symmetry for a cylinder is shown in this diagram.
Draw a diagram to show a different one.

A
a How many axes of rotational symmetry does a cone have?
b How many planes of symmetry does a cone have?

The end of a prism is a regular hexagon.

a Show that the prism has seven planes of symmetry.
b How many axes of symmetry does it have?

28.5 Symmetry in circles

A

Here are some facts about circles it is useful to know:

1 If two chords are the same length, they are the same distance from
the centre.
If the centre of the circle and AB and CD are equal in length,
O is
then OM = ON.

SA
2 The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of
the circle.
In this diagram the centre must be on the broken line.

526 28.5 Symmetry in circles

3 The two tangents from the point to a circle S
are equal in length.
PS and PT are the same length. p

EXERCISE 28E
® a Draw a circle. Use a pair of compasses.
Draw two chords, AB and CD.
nT Use compasses and a ruler to construct the perpendicular bisector of AB.
QQ Construct the perpendicular bisector of CD.
oO You should find that the perpendicular bisectors cross at the centre of the circle. Explain
why this is the case.
f You could draw a circle by drawing round a circular object such as a plate or food can. How
could you use chords to find the centre of the circle?
@ AB and CD are two chords of a circle that are the same length.
O is the centre of the circle.
a What sort of triangle is AOB? Give a reason for your answer.
. b Explain why triangles AOB and COD are congruent. A \/ \ / il
¢ If angle OAB is 65°, find the angle COD. \ /\ J

@ O is the centre of a circle. EF is a chord.

M is the mid­point of EF.
a Show that triangles EOM and FOM are congruent. E
b Explain why angle EMO is a right angle.
¢ If angle MOF is 72°, find angle MEO.
F
Ks 0 is the centre of a circle. X
PX and PY are tangents.
a Explain why angle PXO must be 90°. P
b Show that triangles XPO and YPO are congruent.
¢ Angle XPO = 17°. Calculate angle XOY. Y
(& 0 is the centre of the circle.
AB is a chord 6 cm long.
Angle ACO is 90°.
OC=4 cm.

Calculate the radius of the circle.

Chapter 28: Symmetry 527

 6 O is the centre of the circle.

XZ and YZ are tangents.

Calculate the value of a.

Check your progress

Core
* | can recognise lines of symmetry
* | can recognise rotational symmetry and order of rotational symmetry in two dimensions

Extended
* | can recognise symmetry properties of prisms, cylinders, pyramids and cones
* | can use these symmetry properties of a circle:
­ equal chords are the same distance from the centre
­ the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre
­ tangents from an external point are the same length

528 28.5 Symmetry in circles

 1 Introduction to vectors ORI magnitude, direction, vector, column vector,
scalar, coordinate grid

2 Using vectors EXTENDED position vector

3 The magnitude of EXTENDED magnitude, Pythagoras’ theorem

a vector

Sop TT Ea
In this chapter you will learn how to:

® Describe a translation by using a vector Calculate the magnitude of a vector

5 garg a by eg: (¥) ok 8a (€7.3)
(*) AB or a. (C7.1 and E7.1) y
y Represent vectors by directed line
® Add and subtract vectors. (C7.1 and E7.1) segments. (E7.3)
® Multiply a vector by a scalar. (C7.1 and Use the sum and difference of two
E7.1) vectors to express given vectors in terms
of two coplanar vectors. (E7.3)
Use position vectors. (E7.3)
 _ Eh ­
Vectors are used to represent any quantity that has both magnitude and direction. The velocity
of a speeding car is its direction and its speed. Velocity is a vector.
To understand how a force acts on an object, you need to know the magnitude of the force and
the direction in which it moves ­ that is, its vector.

In science, vectors are used to describe displacement, acceleration and momentum.

But are vectors used in real life? Yes! Here are some examples.

In the 1950s, a group of talented Brazilian footballers

invented the swerving free kick. By kicking the ball in just
the right place, they managed to make it curl around the
wall of defending players and go into the goal. When a
ball is in flight, it is acted upon by various forces which
can be described by vectors.

Formula One teams always employ physicists and

mathematicians to help them build the perfect racing
car. Since vectors describe movements and forces, they
are used as the basis of a car's design.

Pilots have to consider wind speed and direction when

they plan to land an aircraft at an airport. Vectors are an
important part of the computerised landing system.
Vectors play a key role in the design of aircraft wings,
where an upward force or lift is needed to enable the
aircraft to fly.

Vectors are used extensively in computer graphics.

Software for animations uses the mathematics of
vectors.

L —
 29.1 Introduction to vectors
8 888 Eee reese sre rar rerereraererteersetrT ress sestsertetettetatatetetentenantne

A vector is something that has both magnitude and direction and can be B
represented by an arrow. a
Examples are velocity, acceleration, force and momentum. A
Vectors can be written down in several ways:

AB ­ giving the start and end points with an arrow over the top.
a as a lower­case letter printed in bold. When you are writing vectors a, b ... by hand you
cannot show them in bold type. Instead write them with a line underneath asa, b ... to
show that they stand for a vector and not a number.
When vectors are drawn on a coordinate grid they can be represented by two numbers in brackets in
a column.
The top number shows how far the line moves from one side to the other between its start and
end points, and the bottom number shows how far it moves up or down.
For example, on this grid: y
­—

AB = 3) means move 2 right and 3 upwards to get to point B from 5 2

point A, 4
/
If a line moves either downwards or left the coordinate is negative. 3
So: 2
— A
BC= 2) means move 2 right and 2 downwards to get to point C | ~~ D
“from point B.
ee 4 0 T Xx
DA = 1 means move 4 left and 1 upwards to get to 01 2 3 45
point A from point D.
—

DC= (5) means move neither left or right, just upwards to get to point C from point D.

Notice that the line joining A and B can be written as AB and BA and these both have the same
magnitude (in this case length).
— —
But the vectors AB and BA are not the same because their Advice and Tips
directions are different:
2 Do not forget the arrow
AB =(2)and BA = ­3 | to indicate a vector.
—_ —
Therefore BA = ­AB y
The vectors on this grid show that if a = (5 then ­a= 3 | On

—a isa vector with the same length (magnitude) but acting in the
opposite direction as the vector a.
WA

532 29.1 Introduction to vectors

Adding, subtracting and multiplying vectors
Vectors are added together by placing them end to end.
Onthisgrida+b=c
3. 1\_(4
or(3)+(5)=(3
Notice that you add the top figures together (3 + 1 = 4) and the bottom
figures together (2 + ­3 = ­1).

Vectors can be subtracted too.

a­b=d

a­b is the same as a + (­b)

3)­(s)=)+(3)=()
Noticethat3­1=2and2­­3=5.
Vectors can be multiplied by a number.
_(3
ita=(3)
hb 3\_(9
nd *(2)=(e) 3a
Notice that3x3=9and3x2=6.
Here 3 is called a scalar, to distinguish it from a vector.

If k is a scalar, then ff) = (er)

EXERCISE 29A
® 6
5s A
. ian B

92 D /
14
: AVA
C
0 Xx
01 2 3 4 5 &

a Write these as column vectors.

— — —
i AB ii DB iii CB
—> — —
iv CA v AC vi DA
— >
b Show that AD = DC. What does this tell you about the position of D on line AC?

Chapter 29: Vectors 533

 ® F has the coordinates (4, 2), G has the coordinates (2, 6), M is the midpoint of FG and O is the
origin.
a Mark F, G and M on a coordinate grid.
b Write these as column vectors.
— — — — —
i FG ii GF iii OM iv MG v GO
» A has the coordinates (3, 4).
rr NFA JE J
AP=(7}Aq=( 3} AR=| 0
Mark A, P, Q and R on a coordinate grid.

® ~(jun­(
Draw diagrams to show these vectors.
a a+b b ­b
c a­b d b+a
e b­a f 2b

o=(3lenat=(y)
Work out these vectors.
a e+f b 3f
c e­f d f­e
e 4e f 2f+e
y
5
4
3 § c

29%
1
[0] > X
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Copy this diagram.
— _—
a AE =2AB. Mark E on the grid.
— —
b CD =­2AB. Mark D on the grid.
— _—
¢ AB = 2AM. Mark M on the grid.
—_ =
d CN =2CB. Mark N on the grid.
—_ —
e If DC = kAM, what is the value of k?

534 29.1 Introduction to vectors

29.2 Using vectors IE
AA AAR RAR A AR A AAR A A RA A EEE EE AE LE EE EE EE EE EE A EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE PEE EE FE EE RE ENE RE NE RY NNER

This grid is made of

identical parallelograms. .
O is the origin.

The position vector of A is E

—_
OA=a

The position vector of B is of / D ve K vd N

pd b
OB=b

You can give the position vectors of the other points in terms of a and b. For example:
—
The position vector of G=0G=2a +b
_

The position vector of S=0S = 3a + 3b

You can write other vectors in terms of a and b. For example:
py
*CL=2b
­_ — —
CP=CL+LP=2b+aora+2b
—_ = —
CH=CL+LlH=2b+­a=2b­a

Example 1

iv 3
b Whit's thw retationihi betrraon SET
i BHandGT ii BQand GT
il
c Show that 8 Hand Q le on the same straight ne.
g TH WI
a Tash Naa Mss Woda Vv ­2a+2b vi2a+2b
bi BH and GT are parallel and GT is twice the length of BF.
ii 8G and GF are equal.
iii HP and T are in opposite directions and T1 is twice the length of HP.
c BH and BG are parallel and start at e same point B. eae
| 5; cg babe
9 same straight line. y

Chapter 29: Vectors 535

 EXERCISE
­
29B —
Co oH
&® On this grid O is the origin, OA is a and OB is b.
E H J K

a Name three other vectors equivalent to a.

b Name three other vectors equivalent to b.
¢ Name three vectors equivalent to ­a.
d Name three vectors equivalent to ­b.
& Using the same grid as in question 1, write these vectors in terms of a and b.
a the position vector of C
b the position vector of E
C the position vector of K
—
d OH
— >

e AG
—_
f AK
—
g BK
a
3 On the grid in question 1, there are three vectors equivalent to OG. Name all three.
—_
On the grid in question 1, there are three vectors that are three times the magnitude of OA
and act in the same direction. Name all three.
& Copy this grid.

Fave FN
6 2 A

On your copy, mark the points C to G to show these vectors.

—
a OC=2a+3b b OD=2a+b ¢ OE=4a
— Co
d OF =4a+2b e 0G=la+2b

536 29.2 Using vectors

 _— —
(8 on thisgrid, OA isa and OB isb.
B (4 D E

oO, ~ A F G

H | J K

Write down vectors in terms of a and b.

— —
a OH b OK
— —
¢ OJ d Ol
—_)
e OC f CO
—> —
g AK h DI
—­ —
i JE j AB
—» —>
k CK I DK
—
PP. a On the grid in question 6, there are two vectors that are twice the size of AB and act in
the opposite direction. Name both of them.
I]

b On the grid in question 6, there are three vectors that are three times the size of OA and
act in the opposite direction. Name all three.

8 Copy this grid.

f LASS
[Sef
[SL LS
On your copy, mark the points C to P to show these vectors.
— —
a OC=2a­b b OD=2a+b
—

¢ OE=a­2b d OF=b­2a
—
e OG=­a f OH=­a­2b
= —
g Ol=2a­2b h Ol=­a+b
— —>
i OK=­a­b j OM=­a­3
— —
k ON=­la­2b | OP=3a­3b

Chapter 29: Vectors 537

 9 The diagram shows two sets of parallel lines. O is the origin.

77
S77 ­
a A Cc
—> —
OA=aandOB=b
—_ — —_ —
OC =30A and OD = 208B
a Write down these vectors in terms of a and b.
— — — _
i OF ii OG iii EG iv CE
b Write down two vectors that can be written as 3a­b.
— —
This grid shows the vectors OA = a and OB = b. O is the origin.
Cc

NAN
NAWRY
Write down the position vectors of these points.
aG
b F
¢ The midpoint of DH
d The centre of OAHB
e The centre of DCGH
f The centre of AML)

The diagram shows the vectors OA = a and

OB =b. Mis the midpoint of AB.
a i Work out the vector AB in terms of a and b.
ii Work out the vector AM.
iii Explain why OM = OA + AM.
iv Using your answers to parts ii and iii,
©)
work out OM in terms of a and b.
Foil )
b Copy the diagram and show on it the vector OC which is equal’to a + b.
Describe in geometrical terms the position of M in relation to O, A, B and C.

538 29.2 Using vectors

 29
> <
2 The diagram shows the vectors OA =a and OB = b.
The point C divides the line AB in the ratio 1:2. Advice and Tips
AC is 1 the distance from
A to B. :

0 =A
=>

a i Work out the vector AB.

—_—
ii Work out the vector ee PET a—
iii Work out the vector OC in terms of a and b.
b If C now divides the line AB in the ratio 1:3, write AC is now the distance
==> from Ato B.
j

down the vector that represents OC.

— >
13 The diagram shows the vectors OA = a and OB =
­

b. Advice and Tips

8 OCis 2 the distance from

C Oto B.
b D

(eo) a A E

The point C divides OB in the ratio 2:1.

—_ =
The point E is such that OE = 20A.

D is the midpoint of AB.

a Write down (or work out) these vectors in terms of a and b.
—>

i OC
—

ii OD
a

iii CO
— —_ — — —
b The vector CD can be written as CD = CO + OD. Use this fact to work out CD in
terms of a and b.
—>

¢ Write down a similar rule to that in part b for the vector DE. Use this rule to work out
DE in terms of a and b.
d Explain why C, D and E lie on the same straight line.

Chapter 29: Vectors 539

 29.3 The magnitude of a
vector [IE
Nr NNN er NNN Nr tritiation i sdenssiieenitonvanitecsssecsseensnsnsessssnsca

The size or magnitude of a vector is represented by two vertical lines which stand for ‘magnitude of’
or ‘length of’, eg |AB| or |a|.
If a vector is drawn on a rectangular coordinate grid you can use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate
the magnitude.
For example:
ors +
if AB = a 4 |
then it can form the hypotenuse of a triangle with sides of
lengths 3 and 4 as shown on the grid.
The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the ~
other two sides so:
|AB| = a2 + 32
=V25
=5

In general, if a = 5) then Ja] = V2 + 2.

fF

Example 2
If Ahas a coordinates (3, ­2) and B has
coordinates (­3, 5), calculate |AB|.

I =| E2)
AB

|AB| = Vi—62 + 72
=v36 +49
=85
= 9.22 to 2 decimal places

Advice and Tips

Remember that
8 (­6)2 = 62

540 29.3 The magnitude of a vector

EXERCISE 29C
fs O is the origin.

and R have position vectors J J

P, Q
­ 2) (a)
a Show O, P, Q and R on a diagram. ]
— — Lo
b Calculate OP, |OQ| and |OR|. You can leave square root signs in your answers.
—>
¢ Calculate |PQ).
2»
d Calculate |QR|.

a=(g)andb=(_’)
Calculate |a] and |b].
T Calculate a + b.
Nn Calculate |a + b).
Qa true that |a + b| = Ja] + |b|? Give a reason for your answer.
Is it
oo Calculate |a ­ b|.
f Calculate |b­al.
g Isit always true that |a ­ b| = |b — a|? Give a reason for your answer.

A,B, Cand D have pe

a Calculate IAB], Ad and AB

ositio
gation vectors), (3) 1g) ana 5)
b Explain why B, C and D must lie on a circle with cer re A and state the radius of the circle.

® co(}Jomaa­(
Calculate:
a |e b |3d|
¢ [2c+d| d [4c­2d|

Check your progress

* | can describe a translation with a vector of the form io

¢ | can add and subtract vectors
¢ | can multiply a vector by a scalar

Extended
* | can calculate the magnitude of a vector
* | can represent vectors by line segments
* | can use sums and difference to express one vector in terms of two others
* | can use position vectors

Chapter 29: Vectors 541

——— ~ J

1 Translations transformation, translation, vector

— 2 Reflections: 1 CORE reflection, object, image, mirror line

3 Reflections: 2

4 Rotations: 1
rotation, centre of rotation, angle of rotation,
clockwise, anticlockwise

5 Rotations: 2

6 Enlargements: 1 CORE scale factor, enlargement, centre of enlargement U

ray methods, coordinate method

7 Enlargements: 2 negative enlargement

8 Combined transformations

| Ruan 4

® Reflect simple plane figures in Construct given translations and enlargements

horizontal or vertical lines. (C7.2 (including positive, negative and fractional scale
and E7.2) factors) of simple plane figures. (E7.2)
® Construct given translations and Recognise and describe reflections, rotations,
enlargements (with positive and translations and enlargements (including positive,
fractional scale factors) of simple negative and fractional scale factors). (E7.2)
plane figures. (C7.2)
Rotate simple plane figures through multiples of
® Recognise and describe reflections, 90°. (E7.2)
m—
rotations, translations and
enlargements (with positive and
“| fractional scale factors). (C7.2)
® Rotate simple plane figures about
the origin, vertices or midpoints
SE of edges of the figures, through
multiples of 90°. (C7.2)
How many sides does a strip of paper have? Two or one?

Take a strip of paper about 20 cm by 2 cm.

How many sides does it have? Easy! You can :
see that this has two sides, a topside and an Y P< B
underside. If you were to draw a line along :
one side of the strip, you would have one
side with a line 20 cm long on it and one
side blank.

Now mark the ends A and B, put a single

twist in the strip of paper and tape (or glue)
the two ends together, as shown.
How many sides does this strip of paper
have now?
Take a pen and draw a line on the paper, :
starting at any point you like. Continue the a
line along the length of the paper ­ you a
£
will eventually come back to your starting
point. Your strip has only one side now!
There is no blank side. >
You have transformed a two­sided piece of paper into a one­sided piece of paper.
This shape is called a Mébius strip. It is named after
August Ferdinand Mobius, a 19th­century German
mathematician. Mobius caused a revolution in geometry.
Mébius strips have a number of applications that use its
property of one­sidedness, including conveyor belts in
industry and in vacuum cleaners.
The Mébius strip has
become the universal
symbol of recycling. The
symbol was created in
1970 by Gary Anderson at
the University of Southern
California, as part of a
contest sponsored by a
paper company.
The Mébius strip is a form of transformation. In this
chapter, you will look at some other transformations
of shapes.

Chapter 30: Transformations

 Chapter 30 . 1

30.1 Translations
AAA ARAL AA AE AA EAE EEE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EN RR RR sa IIIT

A transformation changes the position or the size of a shape.

There are four basic ways of changing the position and size of two­dimensional shapes: a translation,
a reflection, a rotation or an enlargement. All of these transformations, except enlargement, keep
shapes congruent.
A translation is the ‘movement’ of a shape from one place to another without reflecting it or
rotating it. It is sometimes called a glide, since the shape appears to glide from one place to another.
Every point in the shape moves in the same direction and through the same distance.
You can describe translations by using vectors. A vector is represented by the combination of a
horizontal shift and a vertical shift.
­
Example 1 nl
Use vectors to describe the translations of these triangles. ¥
a AtoB
b BtoC
c¢ CtoD

d DtoA

a The vector describing the translation from A to B is (3)

b The vector describing the translation from B to C is 3}

¢ The vector describing the translation from C to D is >}

d The vector describing the translation from D to A is 3 }

Note:

* The top number in the vector describes the horizontal movement.

To the right +, to the left —.
* The bottom number in the vector describes the vertical movement.
Upwards +, downwards —.
& * These vectors are also called direction vectors. 3

544 30.1 Translations

EXERCISE 30A
® Use vectors to describe these translations of the shapes on the grid below.
ai AtoB A |
ii AtoC
iii AtoD 3 ai
bi BtoE a afl G
ii BtoF
iii BtoG 6
c i CtoA
i CtoE 3 ok
iii CtoG 4
di GtoD :z
ii FtoG 3
iii GtoE .
2

¢ ae aad ade 85 6 7 8

® a Draw a set of coordinate axes and on it the triangle with coordinates A(1, 1), B(2, 1)
and C(1, 3).
b Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector 3 } Label this triangle P.

¢ Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector yg } Label this triangle Q.

d Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector i! Label this triangle R.

e Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector iz) } Label this triangle S.

Using your diagram from question 2, use vectors to describe the translation that will move
a PtoQ b QtoR ¢ RtoS d StoP
e RtoP f StoQ g RtoQ h PtoS.
cl If a translation is given by:

5)
describe the translation that would take the image back to the original position.

—_—

Chapter 30: Transformations 545

 A boat travels between three jetties X, Y and Z on a lake. Its journeys are described by
direction vectors, with distance in kilometres.

The direction vector from X to Y is & | and the direction vector from Y to Z is 2 ’
Using centimetre­squared paper and a scale of 1 cm : 1 km, draw a diagram to show journeys
between X, Y and Z. Work out the direction vector for the journey from Z to X.

30.2 Reflections: 1
AAA REE EE EE EE EE EEE ENR RR ar II I I I I II TTT TTT

A reflection transforms a shape so that it becomes a mirror image of itself.

( A’
Example 2
Reflect this shape in the line provided.

: |
The reflected shape looks like this.
Note: The reflection of each point in the original shape, Mirror line
called the object, is perpendicular to the mirror line.
So if you ‘fold’ the whole diagram along the mirror line,
the object will coincide with its reflection, called its image. | Na
Image .

\ : ­

EXERCISE 30B
» Copy the diagram. )
5
On your copy, draw the reflection of the given I 4
triangle in each of these lines. 3
a x=2 | 4 I 4 | 24 \

b x=­1 i $ 4 i 11 +14
Cc x=3 T T T T T T T T
EEE EEC EEENYEYRE
d y=2 a
e y=­1 =21
f y­axis had
+d]

t=5

546 30.2 Reflections: 1

EY a Draw a pair of axes.
Label the x­axis from ­5 to 5 and the y­axis from ­5 to 5.
b Draw the triangle with coordinates A(1, 1), B(3, 1), C(4, 5).
¢ Reflect the triangle ABC in the x­axis. Label the image P.
d Reflect triangle P in the y­axis. Label the image Q.
e Reflect triangle Q in the x­axis. Label the image R.
f Describe the reflection that will move triangle ABC to triangle R.

» a Draw a pair of axes.

Label the x­axis from ­5 to +5 and the y­axis from ­5 to +5.
b Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(S, 0), C(­3, 3), D(3, ­2) in the x­axis.
¢ What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
d What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were reflected in
the x­axis?
‘. a Draw a pair of axes.
Label the x­axis from ­5 to +5 and the y­axis from ­5 to +5.
b Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(0, 5), C(3, ­2), D(­4, ­3) in the y­axis.
¢ What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
d What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were reflected in
the y­axis?
By using the middle square as a starting square called ABCD, describe how to keep reflecting
the square to obtain the final shape in the diagram.

CH Triangle A is drawn on a grid.

Triangle A is reflected to form a new triangle B.

The coordinates of triangle B are (­4, 4), (­3, 1) and (­5, 1).
Work out the equation of the mirror line.

Chapter 30: Transformations 547

 30.3 Reflections: 2 ED
AAR A ASA AAR ERE EE A EE EE EE EE EE EN NE Ra aya yay Imm

You have been learning about reflections in horizontal or vertical lines.

You can reflect a shape in any line.

­
Example 3 y
Draw the reflection of triangle ¢ in the line
with equation y = x.

To find the image of each vertex of the triangle, draw lines

perpendicular to the mirror.
Each vertex and its image are the same distance from the
mirror but on opposite sides. Use the grid to help you find
the new vertices.
Join the new vertices to draw the reflection M(z) of the
triangle +.

EXERCISE 30C
@ A designer used these instructions to create a design.
* Start with any rectangle ABCD.
* Reflect the rectangle ABCD in the line AC.
* Reflect the rectangle ABCD in the line BD.
Draw a rectangle and use the above to create a design.

548 30.3 Reflections: 2

2 Draw each of these triangles on squared paper, leaving plenty of space on the opposite side
of the given mirror line. Then draw the reflection of each triangle.

Ny ­%

Draw the triangle with coordinates A(2, 1), B(S, 1),.C(S, 3).
Draw the reflection of triangle ABC in the x­axis and label the image P.
ano Draw the reflection of triangle P in the line y = —x and label the image Q.
Draw the reflection of triangle Q in the y­axis and label the image R.
"0
Draw the reflection of triangle R in the line y = x and label the image S.
Draw the reflection of triangle S in the x­axis and label the image T.
Draw the reflection of triangle T in the line y = —x and label the image U.
Draw the reflection of triangle U in the y­axis and label the image W.
­­—­Tae
What single reflection will move triangle W to triangle ABC?
4 Copy the diagram. ­

Reflect the triangle in these lines. Wn

—
a

£3
a y=x b x=1 U,

C y==x d y=­1
"
NW

5 4 3­2 ­ O)
”

' po

TLL

Chapter 30: Transformations 549

 Draw a pair of axes.
Label the x­axis from ­5 to +5 and the y­axis from ­5 to +5.
oT Draw the line y = x.
Nn Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(S, 0), C(­3, 2), D(­2, ­4) in the line y = x.
Qa What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
®” What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were reflected in
the line y = x?
o Draw a pair of axes.
Label the x­axis from ­5 to +5 and the y­axis from =5 to +5.
oT Draw the line y = —x.
Nn Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(0, 5), C(3, ­2), D(­4, ­3) in the line y = —x.
Qa What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
®” What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were reflected in
the line y = —x?

30.4 Rotations: 1
ALLELE EE EE EE RRR yy III

A rotation transforms a shape to a new position by turning it about a fixed point called the centre of
rotation.

LL)

{a Rotation of 90° clockwise b Rotation of 180°

{a Rotation of 90° clockwise b Rotation of 180°

——

550 30.4 Rotations: 1

 Note: a

* The
hw direction
om of turn or the a agi rotation is ‘expres:
ssed Jer —
Advice and Tips |

* The position of the centre of rotation is always specified. ~~ Use tracing paper to
* The rotations 180° clockwise and 180° anticlockwise are [I —
the same. .
| The rotations that appear most frequently are 90° and 180°.

EXERCISE 30D
On squared paper, draw each of these shapes and its centre of rotation, leaving plenty of
| space all round the shape.

. @ Rotate each shape about its centre of rotation:

i first by 90° clockwise (call the image A)
ii then by 90° anticlockwise (call the image B).
b Describe, in each case, the rotation that would take:
i A back to its original position
ii AtoB.

® A graphics designer came up with this routine for creating a design. C

* Start with a triangle ABC.
* Reflect the triangle in the line AB.
* Rotate the whole shape about point C clockwise 90°, then a further
clockwise 90°, then a further clockwise 90°.
From any triangle of your choice, create a design using the above routine.

By using the middle square as a starting square, called ABCD,

describe how to keep rotating the square to obtain the final
shape in the diagram.

Chapter 30: Transformations 551

 (a Copy the diagram. Rotate the given triangle by: oh
a 90° clockwise about (0, 0) aE { T Tak LTT TT]
b 180° about (0, 0) 1 TT Fer |1
¢ 90° anticlockwise about (1, 4) TTT an |
d 180° about (1, 3) =5 ~4­3­2­10} 12345¢«
e 90° clockwise about (2, 2). Ld 1 1 tet L411

Give the centre and the angle for the rotations that y
will take: 71
a AontoB 614 +
b AontoC 51
¢ AontoD 2 nn
d AontoE 37
2

14— }
|
0 — x

J A 180° rotation will take R onto S. Where is the centre of rotation?

[­ A 90° clockwise rotation will take R onto S. Where is the centre?

Draw a pair of axes where both the x­values and y­values are from ­5 to 5.
b Draw the triangle ABC, where A= (1, 2), B=(2,4) and C= (4, 1).
¢ i Rotate triangle ABC 90° clockwise about the origin (0, 0) and label the image A’, B’, C',
where A’ is the image of A, etc.
ii Write down the coordinates of A’, B’, C.
ili What connection is there between A, B, C and A’, B’, C?
iv. Will this connection always be so for a 90° clockwise rotation about the origin?

Repeat question 7, but rotate triangle ABC through 180°.

Show that a reflection in the x­axis followed by a reflection in the y­axis is equivalent to
a rotation of 180° about the origin.

552 30.4 Rotations: 1

30.5 Rotations: 2 BES

EXERCISE 30E
D Draw a set of x and y axes and label them both from 0 to 12.

Draw the triangle with vertices at (5,5), (7,5) and (7,8). Label it T.
a Rotate T 180° about (4,5). Label the new triangle A.
b Rotate T 90° clockwise about (7,4). Label the new triangle B.
¢ Rotate T 90° anticlockwise about (7,9). Label the new triangle C.
d What rotation will take triangle B onto triangle C?
® a A 180° rotation will take square A onto square B. y
Where is the centre of the rotation? 44 ­—
b A 90° clockwise rotation will take A onto B. 1 Can
Where is the centre of the rotation? 2 :
¢ A 90° anticlockwise rotation will take A onto B. 7
Where is the centre of the rotation? of 3 3 x

]i at

3 Give the centre and angle for the rotation of: i1

a AontoB
b BontoC [o "2 | i
¢ ContoD = z “A
d Donto A. oa a ———re 1
4\­2 q [2]4
­2

a Show that a reflection in the line y = x followed by a reflection in the line y = —x is equivalent
to a rotation of 180° about the origin.

Chapter 30: Transformations 553

 Chapter 30. 1

Draw a regular hexagon ABCDEF with centre O. The letters should go round the hexagon
clockwise.
b Using O as the centre of rotation, describe a transformation that will result in the following
movements.
i Triangle AOB to triangle BOC
ii Triangle AOB to triangle COD
iii Triangle AOB to triangle DOE
iv Triangle AOB to triangle EOF
Describe the transformations that will move the rhombus ABCO to these positions.
i Rhombus BCDO
ii Rhombus DEFO

Triangle A, as shown on the grid, is rotated

to form a new triangle B. 5
. 44
The coordinates of the vertices of B are (0, ­2), (­3, ­2) and (­3, ­4). 3] A
Describe fully the rotation that maps triangle A onto triangle B. | i [1
ISnRy 1 234°
CL

dl

­5

Find, if possible: 5
a The equation of a mirror line that will reflect A onto B O=

b The centre of a clockwise rotation of 90° that maps A onto B U0

C The centre of an anticlockwise rotation of 90° that maps A

onto B WA

d The vector of a translation that maps A onto B NN

—_

­1 1 2 3 4 5 6 *

30.6 Enlargements: 1
AAA AREEE ELLE EEE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE Sr yyy I I mn mmm mM

An enlargement changes the size of a shape to give a similar image. It always has a centre of
enlargement and a scale factor. Every length of the enlarged shape will be:
original length x scale factor
The distance of each image point on the enlargement from the centre of enlargement will be:
distance of original point from centre of enlargement x scale factor
n—

554 30.6 Enlargements: 1

a
Example 5
Enlarge triangle ABC by scale factor 3 about the centre of
enlargement X.

This is the completed enlargement.

Note:

* Each length on the enlargement A’B’C’ is three times the C

corresponding length on the original shape. X B’

This means that the corresponding sides are in the same ratio:
AB: AB'=AC:AC=BC:BC=1:3
* The distance of any point on the enlargement from the centre of enlargement is three
times the distance from the corresponding point on the original shape to the centre of
enlargement.
Xd
There are two distinct ways to enlarge a shape: the ray method and the coordinate method
(counting squares).

Ray method
This is the only way to construct an enlargement when the diagram is not on a grid.
fe

Example 6 . ¢
Enlarge triangle ABC by scale factor 3 about the
centre of enlargement X.
AB
Notice that the rays have been drawn from the centre c
of enlargement to each vertex and beyond. C Ee
The distance from X to each vertex on triangle ABC is
measured and multiplied by 3 to give the distance from
X to
each vertex A’, B’ and C’ for the enlarged triangle A\, B
ABC’.
Once each image vertex has been found, the whole
enlarged shape can then be drawn.
A’ B’
Check the measurements and see for yourself how the bY
calculations have been done.
Notice again that the length of each side on the enlarged
triangle is three times the length of the corresponding side on the original triangle.

Chapter 30: Transformations 555

 Coordinate method
In this method, you use the coordinates of the vertices to ‘count squares’.

Example 7 y =
Enlarge the triangle ABC by scale factor 3 from the centre of —'!
enlargement (1, 2). —10
—1 9

—7
poly 6 g

ig ¢
—+.4
—t 3 /

a
) 2 3 4°86 71%
tl |

To find the coordinates of each image vertex, first work out the horizontal and vertical
distances from each original vertex to the centre of enlargement.
Then multiply each of these distances by 3 to find the
position of each image vertex. =

For example, to find the coordinates of C’ work out the 11 OO

0
distance from the centre of enlargement (1, 2) to the 0 au
point C(3, 5).
L]
®

horizontal distance = 2
vertical distance = 3
|

UO
Fon
—

Make these 3 times longer to give: = A

new horizontal distance = 6 i

new vertical distance = 9 = NW

—­

So the coordinates of C" are: (1 +6, 2 +9) =(7, 11) A ot JANAENE.

Se.
Notice again that the length of each side is three timesas | — [4 ­­, : 3
DB

long in the enlargement. | {OA BAR

\

556 30.6 Enlargements: 1

Negative enlargement
A negative enlargement produces an image shape on the opposite side of the centre of enlargement
to the original shape.
7 2)
Example 8
Enlarge triangle ABC by scale factor ­2, with the i
centre of enlargement at (1, 0). a |
:
2 (og
HA
lod
4329 1 23 4%
2

­&

You can enlarge triangle ABC to give triangle YA

ABC by either the ray > 4

I 2 c
enlargement to the original shape. hth Ha
Notice how a negative scale factor also inverts ET ET BREED
the original shape. } i

AE

B hig

»
EXERCISE 30F
Copy each of these figures with its centre of enlargement. Then use the ray method to
enlarge it by the given scale factor.
b [4 d
. .

Scale factor 2 ? Sole factor 3

Scale factor 3 Scale factor 2

Chapter 30: Transformations 557

 Copy each of these diagrams onto squared paper and enlarge it by scale factor 2,
using the origin as the centre of enlargement.
. b »
a x
| g
84 +—i 7
7 4—t+—t+—4
6+
s4 + 1 1 L 1 | |
T1111 1
5)
¥ | |
­—— |
4
J Ԥ J 41
31 ­ Lt 3

14 | | | 1 | : : } ­

123456708
1) . v " r

00 12345678 =
T + T
T

Cc vy

Even if you are using a

,
you can check by
method
always

5 using the ray

n —1
| {|
| |
21
3

1 fete od

o 12345678 °

® Enlarge each of these shapes by a scale factor of 1 about its closest centre of enlargement.

­ LLL ]] |

= Copy this diagram onto squared paper. y

a Enlarge the rectangle A by scale factor } about the Lg
origin. Label the image B. *T TT
4 + + E
b Write down the ratio of the lengths of the sides of :
rectangle A to the lengths of the sides of rectangle B. . | a
¢ Work out the ratio of the perimeter of rectangle A to .
the perimeter of rectangle B. 4d
d Work out the ratio of the area of rectangle Ato the ,
area of rectangle B.

o NH PER EE EEL

558 30.6 Enlargements: 1

i choper 000
30.7 Enlargements: 2 IE
LEAR REE EEE EEE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE ER ER RR RRR

Finding the centre of enlargement

You can find the centre of an enlargement by drawing rays.

(a i J
Example 9 y
E(a) is an enlargement of shape a. 9 bo] ed ]
Find the centre and the scale factor of the 1a \ |
enlargement. | N\ iY
2 ‘IN
_— \ 1
1 gl \ | |
oa [] 3 ih
3 10% 2 | 4
1 1] '

8] 8 [\o
LJ x

buch |
[= Ji bopbit hooks $l val. |
y

SN=y val
yi i is Le
| edd
“he [Fad Nd

­ “hd "~.| Ea) |\

1 I Taf hY
2 |S det | 87~h\o
|
ERE
1
[1]
Draw rays through corresponding points on the object and image. They should all meet at one
point. This is the centre of enlargement.
In this case the centre is (2, 5).
To find the scale factor, find the ratio of corresponding sides.
height of E(a)
Scale factor height of a

= g =2

& J
Fractional enlargement
Strange but true ... you can have an enlargement in mathematics that is actually smaller than the
original shape!

Chapter 30: Transformations 559

 =

Example 10 T r
Enlarge triangle ABC by a scale factor of | LI I
}about the centre of enlargement O. / 1
/ ba | |
TTY
The enlargement of triangle ABC A A 10)
produces triangle A'B’C". IN
/ jo. A 's Scale
/ LL
5 : 8 [TTT a
EXERCISE 30G
Copy each of these diagrams onto squared paper and enlarge it by scale factor 2,
using the given centre of enlargement.
a y b ¥

4 44
34 I 34

4­32­10 123 4s 4­310 133 4 [F

­3 34

­4­ RV

Centre of enlargement (­1,1) Centre of enlargement (­2,­3)

@ Copy this diagram onto squared 7

+ LL 1 lad |
Enlarge the triangle by scale factor ­2 y
about the origin. FT TTT 1 1 T [Jd
— NE EE 8

987
A 6­5­4320
id = res

2
i

4 4

­5

560 30.7 Enlargements: 2

 Chapt sr 30 .

® Copy this diagram onto squared paper. y

a Enlarge A by a scale factor of 3 about a ol
centre (4, 5). oT
b Enlarge B by a scale factor } about a i In a mi
centre (­1, ­3). 24

¢ Enlarge B by scale factor ­ about a 1

centre (­3, ­1). ———TT% —————
5 4 3 2 <1 1 2 3 4 5 «x
d What is the centre of enlargement and I RE
scale factor that maps B onto A? —_— I ——
e What is the centre of enlargement and +—1 1=3+
scale factor that maps A onto B? —4­
f What is the centre of enlargement and —1 t=5­
scale factor that maps the answer to
part b to the answer to part ¢?
g What is the centre of enlargement and scale factor that maps the answer to part c to the
answer to part b?
h What is the connection between the scale factors and the centres of enlargement in
parts d and e, and in parts f and g?
Ks Triangle A has vertices with coordinates (2, 1), (4, 1) and (4, 4).
* Triangle B has vertices with coordinates (­5, 1), (­5, 7) and (­1, 7).

Describe fully the single transformation that maps triangle A onto triangle B.

EE A diagram of a shape is enlarged with a scale factor of 0.2

a The original shape was 48 cm long. Find the length of the enlargement.
b Find the ratio of the area of the original shape to the area of the enlargement.

30.8 Combined transformations IED

Imm

Sometimes you will need to use more than one transformation to produce the required image from
the given object. In this exercise, you will revise the transformations you have met so far.
Remember, to describe:
* a translation fully, you need to use a vector
* a reflection fully, you need to use a mirror line
* arotation fully, you need a centre of rotation, an angle of rotation and the direction of turn
* an enlargement fully, you need a centre of enlargement and a scale factor.

Chapter 30: Transformations 561

 EXERCISE 30H
The point P(3, 4) is reflected in the x­axis, then rotated by 90° clockwise about the origin.
What are the coordinates of the image of P?

2 A point Q(5, 2) is rotated by 180° about the origin, then reflected in the x­axis.
a What are the coordinates of the image of Q?
b What single transformation would have taken point Q directly to the image point?
0) Describe fully the transformations that will .
map the shaded triangle onto each of the i
triangles A­F.

Describe fully the transformations that

will result in the movement of:
T,toT,
UT T,toT, : I |_|
Nn T,toT, 1 +—
TgtoT,
A & =N dy Ol
QQ

nN w Ww [+ ~N [oer Po
0 TetoT,
­ T to T,. HEE af Isl |_ | [vw]

Plot a triangle r with vertices (1, 1), (2, 1), (1, 3).
T Reflect triangle 1 in the y­axis and label the image M()).
Nn Rotate triangle M(r) 90° anticlockwise about the origin and label the image RM(r).
a Describe fully the transformation that will move triangle RM() back to triangle r.

562 30.8 Combined transformations

 Describe fully at least three different transformations that could move the square
labelled S to the square labelled T.
*

0 5 x
T

LY

® Copy the diagram onto squared paper. vy

74
a Triangle A is translated by the vector | Ll pb ­e
to give triangle B. a +1 sd
Triangle Bis then enlarged by ascale | ~~ 41 iB
factor ­2 about the origin to give TTT TTT 11%
triangle C. BL a a n :
4 : $ 4 $ . $ 14

Draw triangles B and C on the I EH I I

diagram. NBII AI 2­10] | 23 43587°
b Describe fully the single I (TS [=
transformation that maps triangle C +L 4 Ll tad UN |
onto triangle A. SE SN OS | =|

REE |

EEN
>— —»

ae Ld id

Check your progress

Core
* | can reflect a simple plane figure in a horizontal or vertical line
* | can rotate a simple plane figure through a multiple of 90° about the origin or a vertex or the
midpoint of an edge
* | can translate simple plane figures
* | can enlarge simple plain figures with a positive scale factor, including fractions
* | can recognise and describe reflections, rotations, translations and enlargements

Extended
* | can reflect a simple plane figure
* | can rotate a simple plane figure
* | can enlarge simple plain figures with a negative scale factor

Chapter 30: Transformations 563

 Examination questions: Geometry
Past paper questions reproduced by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education.
Other exam­style questions have been written by the authors.

PAPER 1

NOT TO
SCALE

The diagram shows quadrilateral ACDE.

AC is parallel to ED and B is a point on AC.
Angle EAB = 120°, angle ABE = 32° and angle CBD = 64°.
a Work out angle EBD. [1]
b Work out angle AEB. [1
¢ Complete this statement.
Angle BED = angle ABE because they are ..................... angles. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q13 Oct/Nov 2015

Work out the size of one interior angle of a regular 15­sided polygon. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q14 Oct/Nov 2015

lem NOT TO
SCALE
7°

In the diagram, AP is a tangent to the circle at P.

O is the centre of the circle, angle PAO = 37° and AP = 11 cm.
a Write down the size of angle OPA. [1]
b Work out the radius of the circle. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q16 Oct/Nov 2015

564 Examination questions: Geometry

 NOT TO
SCALE

—6.1ecm —

A protractor is a semi­circle of radius 6.1 cm.’

Calculate the perimeter of the protractor. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q18 Oct/Nov 2015

B
E NOT TO
Bem 10cm | SCALE
6cm xem

A yem Cc D 9em F
Triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF.
Calculate the value of
a x [2]
b y. [2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q22 May/June 2015

donkeys are each given two 5 ml spoons of medicine three times each day.
+ Six

Calculate the number of whole days a 2 litre bottle of medicine will last. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q14 May/June 2015

A cuboid has volume 288 cm?3.

a The cuboid has length 12 cm and width 5 cm.
Calculate the height of the cuboid. [2]
b 1 cm? of the cuboid has a mass of 4 g.
Work out the mass of the cuboid. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q15 May/June 2015

TO :
Write each of the following as a single vector.

XE m
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q5 May/June 2013

A cylinder has radius 3.6 cm and height 16 cm.

Calculate the volume of the cylinder. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q9 Oct/Nov 2014

Examination questions: Geometry 565

 E
The diagram shows a circle with centre O.
ED is a tangent to the circle at C.
AB is parallel to ED and angle ACO = 24°.
Find the value of
a x, U)!
b y. [2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q16 Oct/Nov 2014

The diagram shows a circle inside a square.

The circumference of the circle touches all four sides of the square.
a Calculate the area of the circle when the side of the square is 15 cm. [2]
b Draw all the lines of symmetry on the diagram. (2)
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q21 May/June 2014
North 16km P

NOT TO
SCALE
9km

0
The diagram shows the route of a ship that leaves a port, P.
It travels due west for 16 km and then changes course to due south for 9 km.
a Calculate the straight line distance PQ. [2]
b Use trigonometry to calculate the bearing of P from Q. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q22 Oct/Nov 2015

Examination questions: Geometry

PAPER 3

€) Irina has some solid building blocks.

a Write down the mathematical name of this solid. [1]

b Irina describes the shape of a different block.

She says:
It has 12 edges and 8 vertices. All the faces are the same shape.
Write down the mathematical name of this solid. 1)
¢ The diagram shows the end face of another block.
A
NOT TO
3em bcm SCALE

B c
i Show that BC = 5.2 cm, correct to 1 decimal place. [3]
ii Find the area of triangle ABC. [2]
iii This block is a triangular prism with length 8 cm.
Calculate the volume of the block. (1
d The diagram shows another building block.
_ \ NOT TO
SCALE

xcm

i Calculate the area of the end face of this block. [2]

it The volume of this block is 336 cm3.
Find the value of x. [1
®. International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q6 Oct/Nov 2015

a, Write down the order of rotational symmetry of this shape. [1]

ii Draw the lines of symmetry on the shape. [2]

Examination questions: Geometry 567

 | A |
. Bn
B 4
{ 3
| | 2
yh — | 1 “
| i !
PBT 65 HB210 | 2345867896
=2 1

I i 1

NENLNE
» ! |

=) | J

i On the grid, reflect triangle A in the line x = ­1. [2]

ii On the grid, enlarge triangle A with centre P and scale factor 3. [2]
iii Describe fully the single transformation that maps triangle A
onto triangle B. 3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q8 Oct/Nov 2015

A, B and C lie on a circle with diameter AC.

AC is extended to D and angle BAC = 63°.
Work out angle BCD.
Give reasons to explain your answer. (4)
b
NOT TO
SCALE

bcm

The diagram shows a circle with radius 3 cm inside a square of side 6 cm.
Calculate the shaded area. [5]

568 Examination questions: Geometry

 NOT TO
SCALE
27cm gen

H G
FGH is a right­angled triangle.
Calculate
i GH, 3]
ii the perimeter of the triangle, [1]
ili the area of the triangle. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q8 May/June 2015

­ 180cm >
1 0 Se
«+ xcm >

B 50cm xem >

30cm 0 4
20cm
ov
­ 480cm >
The diagram shows the cross section of a medal presentation platform.
a Show that x = 150. [2]
b Work out the perimeter of the cross section. [2)
¢ i Calculate the area of the cross section. [2)
ii The platform is a prism, 170 cm deep.
Find the volume of the platform. [1]
ili The prism is completely filled with a light material.
1 cubic metre of this material has mass 16 kg.
Calculate the mass of the material used. (2)
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q4 Oct/Nov 2014

Examination questions: Geometry 569

 The diagram shows a toy.
The shape of the toy is a cone, with radius 4 cm and height 9 cm, on top of a hemisphere with
radius 4 cm.
Calculate the volume of the toy.
Give your answer correct to the nearest cubic centimetre. [4]
[The volume, V, of a cone with radius r and height his V= 3 nh.)
[The volume, V, of a sphere with radius r is : m3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q21 May/June 2015

Z| scm
NOT TO
SCALE

15cm

The diagram shows a wooden prism of height 5 cm.

The cross section of the prism is a sector of a circle with sector angle 25°.
The radius of the sector is 15 cm.
Calculate the total surface area of the prism. [5]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q19 Oct/Nov 2015

570
PAPER 2

(>) = NOT TO
Y=
SCALE

P M s
PQRS is a quadrilateral and M is the midpoint of PS.
— —
PO =a, OR =band SQ =a­2b.
a Show that Ps =2b. Q)
b Write down the mathematical name for the quadrilateral PQRM, giving
reasons for your answer. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q14 May/June 2015

(2) zesRA
Write down the letters in the word above that have
a exactly one line of symmetry, (1
_b rotational symmetry of order 2. (1
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q3 Oct/Nov 2014

® A triangle has sides of length 2 cm, 8 cm and 9 cm.

Calculate the value of the largest angle in this triangle. [4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q11 May/June 2014

A, B, C and D lie on a circle centre O.

Angle ABC = 58° and angle CAD = 23°.
Calculate
a angle OCA, (2)
b angle DCA. [2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q13 May/June 2014

Examination questions: Geometry Nn

 D
Two circles, centres A and B, are each of radius 8 cm and intersect at C and D.
Each circle passes through the centre of the other circle.
a Explain why angle CBD is 120°. [1]
b For the circle, centre B, find the area of the sector BCD. [2]
A NOT TO
Bem SCALE

4 B
8cm

D
¢ i Find the area of the shaded segment CAD. [3]
\ NOT TO
SCALE

D
ii Find the area of overlap of the two circles. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q19 Oct/Nov 2014

572 Examination questions: Geometry

 A, B, C, D and E are points on the circle, centre O.
Angle BAD = 37°.
Complete the following statements.
a Angle BED = ....... conus DRCBUBE . i.ovooisvissiasviomsivesian [2]
b Angle BOD =................... because .........cccveevivvieeiinnnainns [2]
¢ Angle BCD = ............u..... DRCBUSE o..iissamivisssvssinsimianmon [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q5 Oct/Nov 2015

® .a Andrei stands on level horizontal ground, 294 m from the foot of a vertical
tower which is 55 m high.
i Calculate the angle of elevation of the top of the tower. [2]
ii Andrei walks a distance x metres directly towards the tower.
The angle of elevation of the top of the tower is now 24.8°.
Calculate the value of x. [4]
b The diagram shows a pyramid with a horizontal rectangular base.

NOT TO
SCALE

The rectangular base has length 4.8 m and width 3 m and the height of the
pyramid is 4 m.
Calculate
iy, the length of a sloping edge of the pyramid, [4]
ii the angle between a sloping edge and the rectangular base of the pyramid. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q5 May/June 2015

Examination questions: Geometry §73

 NOT TO
SCALE

R
In the triangle POR, OR = 7.6 cm and PR = 8.4 cm.
Angle ORP = 62°.
Calculate
i PO, [4]
ii the area of triangle PQR. [2]
b North

NOT TO
North SCALE
63km

J
The diagram shows the positions of three small islands G, H and J.
The bearing of H from G is 045°.
The bearing of J from G is 126°.
The bearing of J from H is 164°.
The distance HJ is 63 km.
Calculate the distance GJ. [5]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q7 May/June 2015

® ­ 557­3
_ (3

i Pisthe point (­2, 3).

Work out the co­ordinates of Q. Mn
ii Work out | Po l, the magnitude of Pg. [2

574 Examination questions: Geometry

 NOT TO

[7]
OACBis a parallelogram.
OA =aand 08 =b.
AN:NB=2:3 and AY = 2 AC.
i Write each of the following in terms of a and/or b.
Give your answers in their simplest form.

a ON [2]
b NY [2]
ii Write down two conclusions you can make about the line segments NY
and BC. [2
" Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 2014

Examination questions: Geometry 575

Topics Key words

tally chart, frequency, frequency table, classes,

Frequency tables
class interval, grouped frequency table

Pictograms pictogram, symbol, key

Bar charts CORE bar chart, axis

Pie charts CORE pie chart, angle, sector

Scatter diagrams CORE scatter diagram, variables, correlation, positive

correlation, negative correlation, zero correlation,
line of best fit

Histograms histogram

Histograms with bars of

class frequency, frequency density
unequal width

In this chapter you will learn how to:

® Collect, classify and tabulate statistical data. (C9.1 and E9.1) Construct and
Read, interpret and draw simple inferences from tables and read histograms
statistical diagrams. Compare sets of data using tables, graphs with equal and
and statistical measures. Appreciate restrictions on drawing unequal intervals
conclusions from given data. (C9.2 and E9.2) (areas proportional
to frequencies
Construct and interpret bar charts, pie charts, pictograms, simple
and vertical axis
frequency distributions, histograms with equal intervals and
labelled ‘frequency
scatter diagrams. (C9.3 and E9.3)
­ density’). (E9.3)
Understand what is meant by positive, negative and zero
correlation with reference to a scatter diagram. (C9.7 and £9.7)
Draw, interpret and use lines of best fit by eye. (C9.8 and E9.8)
Why this chapter matters
Statistical graphs such as bar charts and line graphs are used in many areas of life from science to
politics. They help us to analyse and interpret information.

One of the best ways to analyse information is to

present it in a visual form. Some of the earliest
types of statistical diagram were line graphs, bar
charts and pie charts. They all show information
in different ways.
Think about the owner of a bookshop.

He might use a graph like the one below to show

how his sales go up and down over the year.
Graphs like these are particularly good at showing
trends in figures over time (see Chapter 14).
$60,000

$50,000

$40,000 140,000
$30,000 120,000
$20,000 100,000

$10,000 80,000
$0 60,000
40,000

He might use a bar chart like the one on the 20,000

right to show how many books they sell in
Lp
different categories. Bar charts are very good at \
showing actual numbers. &

And he can get an idea of the

percentage of different types of book
he sells out of total sales by using a pie
chart like the one on the left. Pie charts
are good for analysing a whole (100%)
by its parts.

This chapter introduces you to some of

the most common forms of statistical
representation. They fall into two
groups ­ graphical diagrams such as bar
charts and pie charts and quantitative
diagrams such as frequency tables.
 Chapter 31 |

31.1 Frequency tables

BR NNN PRN Nr NNR N EINER INP RN ltl tees sni ie eitititssenssenensssnesssssesses

Statistics is concerned with the collection and organisation of data, the representation of data on
diagrams and the interpretation of data.
When you are collecting data for simple surveys, it is usual to use a tally chart. For example, data
collection sheets are used to gather information about how people travel to work, how students
spend their free time and the amount of time people spend watching TV.
It is easy to record the data by using tally marks, as shown in Example 1. Counting up the tally marks
in each row of the chart gives the frequency of each category. By listing the frequencies in a column
on the right­hand side of the chart, you can make a frequency table (see Example 1). Frequency
tables are an important part of making statistical calculations.
\
( Sample 1
Sandra wanted to find out about the ways in which students travelled to school.
She carried out a survey. Her frequency table looked like this.

Method of travel | Tally Frequency

Walk AHHH 28
Car MH 12
Bus uss ggll 23
Bicycle Mt 5
Taxi I 2
What does it tell you?

By adding together all the frequencies, you can see that 70 students took part in the survey.
The frequencies also show you that more students travelled to school on foot than by any other
method of transport.
\3 J

Grouped data
Many surveys produce a lot of data that covers a wide range of values. In these cases, it is sensible to
put the data into groups before attempting to compile a frequency table. These groups of data are
called classes or class intervals.
Once the data has been grouped into classes, a grouped frequency table can be completed.
The method is shown in Example 2.

578 31.1 Frequency tables

(3

Example 2
These marks are for 36 students in a Year 10 mathematics examination.
31 ,49 52 79 280. 29.66 71 73 19 _Slend?
8 67 40 52 20 84 65 73 60 54 60 59
25 89 21 9 "84 77 18 37 4&5 MN 7T2" 38
a Construct a frequency table, using classes of 1­20, 21­40 and so on.
b What was the most frequent interval of marks?

a Draw the grid of the table shown below and put in the headings.
Next, list the classes, in order, in the column headed ‘Marks’.
Using tally marks, indicate each student's score against the class to which it belongs. For
example, 81, 84, 89 and 91 belong to the class 81­100, giving five tally marks, as shown
below.
Finally, count the tally marks for each class and enter the result in the column headed
‘Frequency’. The table is now complete.

Marks LEU Frequency

1­20 ||| 3
{21­20 | jill 8 ,
41­60 | HHH n .
61­80 | Mitlll 9
81­100 | JH 5

b From the grouped frequency table, you can see that the highest number of students
obtained a mark in the 41­60 interval.
“

EXERCISE 31A
Kurt kept a record of the number of goals scored by his local team in the last 20 matches.
These are his results.

01102013 21

0103210211
a Draw a frequency table for his data.
b Which was the most frequent score?
¢ How many goals were scored in total for the 20 matches?

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 579

 a Monique was doing a geography
project on the weather. As part of her
work, she kept a record of the daily
midday temperatures in June.
15 18 19 21 23 22
a Copy and complete the grouped 20 23 22 24 24 25
frequency table for her data. 26 © 20
% 26 119 19 20
Wrists
b In which interval do the most 16 1617 18 20 22
temperatures lie?
¢ Describe what the
weather was probably like Temperature (°C) Tally Frequency
throughout the month. 14­16
17­19
20­22
23­25
26­28

In a game, Mitesh used a six­sided dice. He decided to keep a record of his scores to see
whether the dice was fair. These are his scores.
2 4261543323621 3
5434216516412 334
a Draw a frequency table for his data.
b How many throws did Mitesh have during the game?
¢ Do you think the dice was a fair one? Explain why.
The data shows the heights, in centimetres, of a sample of 32 students.

172 158 160 175 180 167 159 180

167 166 178 184 179 156 165 166
184 175 170 165 164 172 154 186
167 172 170 181 157 165 152 164
a Draw a grouped frequency table for the data, using class intervals 151­155,
156­160, ...
b In which interval do the most heights lie?
¢ Does this agree with a survey of the students in your class?

A student used a stopwatch to time how long it took her rabbit to find food left in its hutch.

This is her record, in seconds.

7 30 14 27 8 31 8 28 0 41 51 37 15 21 37 16 38
23 20 9 11 55 9 33 8 35 45 35 25 25 49 23 43 55
45 8 13 9 39 12 57 16 37 26 32 19 48 29 37

Find the best way to put this data into a frequency chart to illustrate the length of time it took
the rabbit to find the food.

580 31.1 Frequency tables

­

Chapter 31 . Topic 2 31.2

. A student was doing a survey to find the ages of people at a football competition.

He said that he would make a frequency table with the regions 15­20, 20­25, 25­30.

Explain what difficulty he could have with these class divisions.

31.2 Pictograms
LAA RA AR ALE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EEE EE EE EE EE EN ER EE RR RRR ER In

Data collected from a survey can be presented in pictorial or diagrammatic form to help people to
understand it more quickly. You see plenty of examples of this in newspapers and magazines and on
TV, where every type of visual aid is used to communicate statistical information.

Pictograms
A pictogram is a frequency table in which frequency is represented by a repeated symbol.
The symbol itself usually represents a number of items, as Example 4 on the next page shows.
However, sometimes it is more sensible to let a symbol represent just a single unit, as in Example 3
below. The key tells you how many items are represented by a symbol.

gor 3 )
The pictogram shows the number of phone calls made by Nurul from her mobile
phone during a week. |

sndey | 0 ee 5
Monday

Tuesday ­ ­ ! ho
Wednesday r rp 4 4 Key ? represents 1 call
Thursday [ 11 4
Friday r 3 ¥ bl
Saturday v v 14 P 5 7

How many calls did Nurul make in the week?

From the pictogram, you can see that Nurul made a total of 27 calls. y

Although pictograms can have great visual impact (particularly as used in advertising) and are easy to
understand, they have a serious drawback. Apart from a half, fractions of a symbol cannot usually be
drawn accurately and so frequencies are often represented only approximately by symbols.
Example 4 on the next page highlights this difficulty.

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 581

 pr
Example 4 R
The pictogram shows the numbers of students who were late for school during a week.

££ 5
La

wondey
Tuesday

Wednesday R 3 Key 2 represents 5 students

Thursday \

Friday

How many students were late on:

a Monday b Thursday?
Precisely how many students were late on Monday and Thursday respectively?

If you assume that each ‘limb’ of the symbol represents one student and its ‘body’
also represents one student, then the answers are:
a 19 students were late on Monday. b 13 on Thursday.
\_ Ww,

EXERCISE 31B
The frequency table shows the numbers of cars parked in a shop's car park at various times of
the day. Draw a pictogram to illustrate the data. Use a key of 1 symbol = 5 cars.

Time 9am 11 am 1am 3am 5am

Frequency 40 50 70 65 45

A milkman kept a record of how many pints of milk he delivered to 10 apartments

on a particular morning. Draw a pictogram for the data. Use a key of 1 symbol = 1 pint.

Flat1 |Flat2 |Flat3 |Flat4 |Flat5 |Flaté |Flat7 Flat8 |Flat9 Flat 10

a Write down the average daily hours of sunshine June 3 3 We We I

for each month.
b Give a reason why pictograms are useful in July 3 3 He He He 3
holiday brochures.
August HEHEHE He HEH
September E22 2 20
Key * represents 2 hours

582 31.2 Pictograms

 31. Toy
Chapter 31
The pictogram shows the amounts of money collected by six students after they had
completed a sponsored walk for charity.

Anthony | $$$¢$
Ben §$$$%$
Emma $§$$$$
Key $ represents $5
Leanne $$$
Reena | $$$$%$
Simon| $$$%$$¢%$

a Who raised the most money?

b How much money was raised altogether by the six students?
¢ Robert also took part in the walk and raised $32. Why would it be difficult to include him
on the pictogram?
A newspaper showed this pictogram about a family and the numbers of emails each family
member received during one Sunday.

Dad =< =4

Mum XR
Key represents 4 emails
Teenage son XRXKIXD
Teenage daughter 23
Young son 9

a How many emails did:

i Dad receive
ii Mum receive
iii the teenage son receive?
b Copy and complete the pictogram.
How many emails were received altogether?

31.3 Bar charts

AAA AA ALA RE EAE A RE A A A EE EE EE EE LE EE EE EE EE EN EE RR RR yy ya yy mmm Im I

A bar chart consists of a series of bars or blocks of the same width, drawn either vertically or
horizontally from an axis.
The heights or lengths of the bars always represent frequencies.
Sometimes, the bars are separated by narrow gaps of equal width, which makes the chart easier to
read.

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 583

 (­ Example 5

The grouped frequency table Marks 1­10 | 11­20 | 21­30 | 31­40 | 41­50
shows the marks of )
24 students in a test. Frequency 2 3 5 8 6
Draw a bar chart for the data.

8 A

5 4

f Note:
* Both axes are labelled.
* The class intervals are written under the
1­ middle of each bar.
0­ * The bars are separated by equal spaces.
1­10 11­20 21­30 31­40 41­50
Mark
a
If you use a dual bar chart, it is easy to compare two sets of related data, as in Example 6.

FRET 6
This dual bar chart shows the average daily maximum temperatures for England and Turkey
over a five­month period.

80
E
60 i

12 IB roe
20

0
April May June July August
Month

In which month was the difference between temperatures in England and

Turkey the greatest? ;

The largest difference can be seen in August.

Note: You must always include a key to identify the two different sets of data.
%

584 31.3 Bar charts

 31.3

EXERCISE 31C
For her survey on fitness, Samina asked a sample of people, as they left a sports centre,
which activity they had taken part in. She then drew a bar chart to show her data.
20 1

16 1

©
Frequency

Squash Weight Badminton Aerobics Basketball Swimming

training

Activity

a Which was the most popular activity?

b How many people took part in Samina’s survey?
. The frequency table below shows the levels achieved by 100 students in their practice IGCSE
examinations end of year tests.

Grade F E D C B A
Frequency 12 22 24 25 15 2
a Draw a suitable bar chart to illustrate the data.
b What fraction of the students achieved a grade C or grade B?
¢ Give one advantage of drawing a bar chart rather than a pictogram for this data.

This table shows the number of points Amir and Hasrul were each awarded in eight rounds of
a general knowledge quiz.

Round 1 2 3 4
Amir 7 8 7 6

Hasrul 6 7 6 9

a Draw a dual bar chart to illustrate the data.

b Comment on how well each of them did in the quiz.

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 585

 ­ Mira did a survey about the time it took students in her class to get to school on a particular
morning. She wrote down their times, correct to the nearest minute.
15 23 36 45 8 20 34 15 27 49

10 60 5 48 30 18 21 2 12 56
49 33 17 44 50 35 46 24 11 34
a Draw a grouped frequency table for Mira’s data, using class intervals 1­10, 11­20, ...
b Draw a bar chart to illustrate the data.
¢ What conclusions can Mira draw from the bar chart?
This table shows the number of accidents at a dangerous road junction over a six­year period.

Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

No. of accidents 6 8 7 9 6 4

a Draw a pictogram for the data.

b Draw a bar chart for the data.
¢ Which diagram would you use if you were going to argue that traffic lights should be
installed at the junction? Explain why.
The diagram below shows the minimum and maximum temperatures for one day in August in
five cities.

3 20
gis
E —
2 —

— ­
—

O>DONLODO

TC
I

ONL

Athens London Marrakesh Moscow Perth

City

Lee says that the minimum temperature is always about half the maximum temperature for
most cities.

Is Lee correct?

Give reasons to justify your answer.

586 31.3 Bar charts

 31.4
31.4 Pie charts
Pictograms, bar charts and line graphs are easy to draw but they can be difficult to interpret when
there is a big difference between the frequencies or there are only a few categories. In these cases,
it is often more convenient to illustrate the data on a pie chart.
In a pie chart, the whole of the data is represented by a circle (the ‘pie’) and each category of it
is represented by a sector of the circle (a ‘slice of the pie’). The angle of each sector is proportional to
the frequency of the category it represents.
So, a pie chart cannot show individual frequencies, as a bar chart can, for example. It can only show
proportions.

Sometimes the pie chart will be marked off in equal sections rather than angles. In these cases, the
numbers are always easy to work with.
Fo)

f=. 7
20 people were surveyed about their preferred drink.
Their replies are shown in the table.

Tea Coffee Milk Cola

6 7 4 3

Show the results on the pie chart given.

You can see that the pie chart has 10 equally­spaced divisions.
As there are 20 people, each division is worth two people. So the sector for tea will take up 3
of these divisions. In the same way, coffee will take up 3 1 divisions, milk will take up 2 divisions
and cola will take up 1} divisions.

Note:

* You should always label the sectors of the pie chart (use shading and a separate key if
there is not enough space to write on the pie chart).
* Give your chart a title.
\ J

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 587

 (a 8
In a survey about holidays, 120 people were asked to state which type of transport they used on
their last holiday. This table shows the results of the survey. Draw a pie chart to illustrate the data.

Type of transport Train Bus Car Ship Plane

24 12 59 n 14

You need to find the angle for the fraction of 360° that represents each type of transport. This
is usually done in a table, as shown below.

Type of transport | Frequency Calculation Angle

. 24 o_ Ane =
Train 24 120 © 360° =72 72

Bus 12 12 360° = 36° 36°

120
59 “a 5 °
Car 59 120 x 360° = 177 177

Ship 1 1120 360°=33° 33°

Plane 14 14
120
360° = 42° 42°
Totals 120 360°

Draw the pie chart, using the calculated angle for each sector.

Note:

* Use the frequency total (120 in this case) to calculate each fraction.
* Check that the sum of all the angles is 360°.
* Label each sector.
* The angles or frequencies do not have to be shown on
the pie chart.
a

EXERCISE 31D
a Copy the diagram on the right and draw a pie chart to show each set of data.
a The favourite pets of 10 children

Pet Bird Cat Rabbit

Frequency 4 5 1

b The makes of cars of 20 teachers

Make of car Ford Toyota BMW Nissan | Peugeot
Frequency 4 5 2 3 6

588 31.4 Pie charts

 ¢ The newspaper read by 40 office workers

ULE The Post Today The Mail | The Times

Frequency 14 8 6 12
2 Draw a pie chart to represent each set of data. i .
Advice and Tips
a The numbers of children in 40 families
Remember to complete a
No. of children 011] 2 3 [4 table as shown in the
Frequency 4 | 10) 14] 9 examples. Check that all
angles add up to 360°.
b How 90 students get to school

Journey to school RVVFI" SN Eee Bus | Cycle

Frequency 42 13 25 10

Mariam asked 24 of her friends which sport they preferred to play. Her data is shown in this
frequency table.
Sport Rugby Football Tennis Baseball Basketball
Frequency 4 1" 3 1 5

Illustrate her data in a pie chart.

* Ameer wrote down the number of lessons he had per week in each subject on his
school timetable.
Mathematics 5 English 5
Science 8 History 6
Geography 6 Arts 4
Sport 2
a How many lessons did Ameer have on his timetable?
b Draw a pie chart to show the data.
¢ Draw a bar chart to show the data.
d Which diagram better illustrates the data? Give a reason for your answer.

A market researcher asked 720 people which new brand of tinned beans they preferred.
The results are given in the table.

248
264
152
56

a Draw a pie chart to illustrate the data.

b Why do you think pie charts are used to show this sort of information?

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 589

 This pie chart shows the proportions of the different shoe sizes worn by 144 students in
one year group in a school.

a What is the angle of the sector representing shoe sizes 11 and 12?
b How many students had a shoe size of 11 or 12?
The table below shows the numbers of candidates, at each grade, taking music examinations
in Strings and Brass.

Grades Total number

3 of candidates

Strings 300 980 1050 600 70 3000

Brass 250 360 300 120 70 1100
a Draw a pie chart to represent each of the two examinations.
b Compare the pie charts to decide which group of candidates, Strings or Brass, did better
overall. Give reasons to justify your answer.

. In a survey, a rail company asked passengers whether their service had improved.

What is the probability that a person picked at random from this survey answered
“Don't know"?

590 31.4 Pie charts

fl chapter 31. Topics
El
|
Two classes of 13­year­old students from different schools were give the same test.

The pie charts show the results of the test. Each pie chart was drawn by a teacher at the
students’ school.
School A School B

0­30

31­60

a Write a short report comparing the test results.

* b State a reason why comparing pie charts like this can be unsatisfactory.

31.5 Scatter diagrams

0000000000000 RIN RRR RI RRR RI I NI RRR tI N Rll eNERteNInItenseNIsInNIEROEOIOOIBROEOOILOOEEOS

A scatter diagram (also called a A

scattergraph or scattergram) is a method 1204
of comparing two variables by plotting 110 x
their corresponding values on a graph. These 100 ­ x
values are usually taken from a table. 90 ­ soe X
xX
The variables are treated just like a set of (x, y) 3 +80 xx ol
coordinates. This is shown in the scatter diagram § 70+ xu
on the right, in which the marks scored in a 2 60 x 3: x
science test are plotted against the marks scored 50 ­ be" x
in a mathematics test. 40 %x N
This graph shows positive correlation. This 304 X X =
means that students who get high marks in 20 A
mathematics tests also tend to get high marks in 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
science tests. Mathematics marks

—
CC

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 591

 Correlation
There are different types of correlation. Here are three statements that may or may not be true.
* The taller people are, the wider their arm span is.
* The older a car is, the lower its value will be.
*
The distance you live from your place of work will affect how much you earn.
These relationships could be tested by collecting data and plotting the points on a scatter diagram.
For example, the first statement may give a scatter diagram like the one on the left below.
A 4 A

x = x

2 | *x z| x )
:
E lle
x

J 3
| BELL 4
w

3 x x
<< x xX XX x ® x
x x x x x
. x

Height (cm) ­ Age (years) ­ Distance from work (km) oo

Positive correlation Negative correlation Zero correlation
This first diagram has positive correlation because, as one quantity increases, so does the other. From
such a scatter diagram, you could say that the taller someone is, the wider their arm span.
Testing the second statement may give a scatter diagram like the middle one above. This has
negative correlation because, as one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases. From such a
scatter diagram, you could say that, as a car gets older, its value decreases.

Testing the third statement may give a scatter diagram like the one on the right, above. This scatter
diagram has zero correlation. There is no relationship between the distance a person lives from their
work and how much they earn.

's ­ RE TT)
Example 9 CE
The graphs below show the 5 4 x st
relationship between the 2 a Ics § ~aghas
temperature and the amount © %x a eT
of ice­cream sold, and the x x = L Haws pind &
relationship between the oR He Td rd
age of people and the 5 re = y
amount of ice­cream they eat. i x | x
a Comment on the i | ­ L.
correlation of each graph. Temperature (°C) Age (years)
b What does each graph tell you? .

a The first graph has positive correlation and shows that, as the temperature increases, the
amount of ice­cream sold increases.
b The second graph has negative correlation and shows that, as people get older, they eat less
ice­cream. 4
\_
SE

592 31.5 Scatter diagrams

Line of best fit
A line of best fit is a straight line that goes between all the points on a scatter diagram, passing
as close as possible to all of them. You should try to have the same number of points on both sides
of the line. Because you are drawing this line by eye, generous allowances are made around the
correct answer. The line of best fit for the scatter diagram at the start of this section is shown
below, left. ’

wh
not | |
3

1004—+ +—
90 4
80 ­
marks
70 4
60 4

50
Science

40
301
20 +t ——t—t> 20 +——1—t—t——— >
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100110120
Mathematics marks Mathematics marks

The line of best fit can be used to answer questions such as: ‘A girl took the mathematics test and
scored 75 marks but was ill for the science test. How many marks was she likely to have scored?’
You can find the answer by drawing a line up from 75 on the mathematics axis to the line of best
fit and then drawing a line across to the science axis, as shown in the graph to the right of the
graph showing the line of best fit. This gives 73, which is the mark she is likely to have scored in the
science test.

Restrictions on the use of scatter diagrams

Scatter diagrams are very useful for estimating one value when given another. However, you need to
be aware that there are limitations.
For example, here is a scatter diagram of the Olympic Men's 100 m winning time.

2030 +

2020 +

2010 4

£ 2000­
1990 ­

1980

1970 ' + v T v r r
96 97 98 99 100 10.1 10.2
Time in seconds

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 593

 If you use the line of best fit, then the graph predicts that the time in the 2020 race should be about
9.5 seconds. However, this cannot continue forever, because it would imply that at some point the
race could be won in 9 seconds, then 8 seconds, and eventually in no time at all!
Scatter diagrams and lines of best fit are very useful for predicting data within the range of values
given, but are not so reliable when predicting outside of those ranges.

EXERCISE 31E
vn Describe the correlation of each of these two graphs.
A b A X X
x
x x a x
= xX
PS xX 4 =" X XX
p 5 x
3 x 2 xX X Xx
“ x = x
5 x
Rk x X X XX
[2] k: Hk Rh =
xX xX 3 x x
x 2 XX
x x
S| x x 3 » x x

g x

Temperature (°C)
Age (years)

® Explain what each graph in question 1 tells you.

® The table below shows the results of a science experiment in which a ball is rolled along
a desk top. The speed of the ball is measured at various points.

Distance from start (cm) 10 20 30 40 | 50 60 | 70 | 80

Speed (cm/s) 18 16 13 10 7
a Plot the data on a scatter diagram.
b Draw the line of best fit.
¢ If the ball's speed had been measured at 5 cm from the start, what is it likely to have been?
d Estimate how far the ball was from the start when its speed was 12 cm/s.

The heights, in centimetres, of 20 mothers and their 15­year­old daughters were measured.
These are the results.

Mother 153 | 162 | 147 | 183 | 174 | 169 | 152 [164 [186 | 178
Daughter 145 | 155 | 142 [167 | 167 | 151 145 | 152 | 163 | 168
Mother 175 | 173 | 158 | 168 | 181 173 | 166 | 162 | 180 | 156
Daughter 172 | 167 | 160 | 154 | 170 | 164 | 156 | 150 .| 160 | 152
a Plot these results on a scatter diagram. Take the horizontal axis (the x­axis) for the mothers’
heights from 140 to 200. Take the vertical axis (the y­axis) for the daughters’ heights from
140 to 200.
b Is it true that the tall mothers have tall daughters?

594 31.5 Scatter diagrams

 31
. The table shows the marks for ten students in their mathematics and geography
examinations.

SNCELULIN Anna| Becky | Cath | Dema | Emma | Fatima| Greta | Hannah|Imogen| Sitara
Maths 145 | 155 142 167 167 151 145 152 163 168
Geog 175 | 173 158 168 181 173 166 162 180 156

a Plot the data on a scatter diagram. Take the x­axis for the mathematics scores and the
y­axis for the'geography scores.
b Draw the line of best fit.
One of the students was ill when she took the geography examination. Which student was
it most likely to be?
d If another student, Kate, was absent for the geography examination but scored 75 in
mathematics, what mark would you expect her to have scored in geography?
e If another student, Lina, was absent for the mathematics examination but scored 65 in
geography, what mark would you expect her to have scored in mathematics?
A teacher carried out a survey of 20 students from his class and asked them to say how many
hours per week they spent playing sport and how many hours per week they spent watching
TV. This table shows the results of the survey.

Student 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Hours playing sport 3 5 15 1 0 9 7 6 12
Hours watching TV 26 | 24 | 16 | 19 | 27 | 12 13 17 14

Student 121314 [15]|16|17|18 | 19] 20

Hours playing sport w|7 |e |7]|3|1]|2]0]1n
Hours watching TV 16 | 18 22122] 28 | 18 | 20 | 25 | 13
a Plot these results on a scatter diagram. Take the x­axis as the number of hours playing
sport and the y­axis as the number of hours watching TV.
b If you knew that another student from the form watched 8 hours of TV a week, would
you be able to predict how long they spent playing sport? Explain why.

The table shows the times taken and distances travelled by a taxi driver in 10 journeys on
one day.

Distance (km) § 83 (52 | 66 48 | 72 | 39 | 58 | 88 | 54

Time (minutes) 17 n 13 9 15 8 n 16 10
a Draw a scatter diagram of this information, with time on the horizontal axis.
b Draw a line of best fit on your diagram.
If a taxi journey takes 5 minutes, how far, in kilometres, would you expect the journey to
have been?
d How much time would you expect a journey of 4 km to take?

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 595

 Chapter 31. Topic €

Omar records the time taken, in hours, and the average speed, in kilometres per hour (km/h),
for several different journeys.

Time (h) 0.5 0.8 1A 1.3 1.6 | 1.75 2.6

SLLECNCOTON 42 | 38 | 27 | 30 22 23 21 9

Estimate the average speed for a journey of 90 minutes.

Describe what you would expect the scatter graph to look like if someone said that it showed
negative correlation.

31.6 Histograms
MAA AAA ALARA SAA EER EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE RN ER a EE I I I IT I TTY

You should already be familiar with

30
bar charts like the one on the right, in
which the vertical axis represents frequency,
and each bar has a label to show what it 20
represents. (Sometimes it is more convenient Frequency
to have the axes the other way round.) 10

A histogram looks similar to a bar chart,

0
but there are three fundamental differences. J M J
h
* There are no gaps between the bars. _—
* The horizontal axis has a continuous scale.
* The area of each bar represents the class or group frequency of the bar.
This table shows times it takes people to walk to work.

Times, 1 minutes 0<r=<4 4<1<8 8<r=12 | 12<r=<16

Frequency 8 12 10 7
This histogram has been drawn from the table.
The columns are not labelled 0 < 1 < 4 and so on, 121
as they would be on a bar chart. Instead there 4
is a scale on the horizontal (time) axis. The first
column is drawn between 0 and 4, the second 8
between 4 and 8 and so on. &
8 6
§ |
4 .

2 4

0 LJ LJ J LJ

0 2 [} 8 10 12 14 16
Time (min)

596 31.6 Histograms

EXERCISE 31F
Q The table shows the range of heights of the girls in one year group in a school.

Frequency 8 12 10 7 ­2
Draw a histogram for this data.

Y) A doctor was concerned at the length of time her patients had to wait to see her when they
came to the morning clinic. Her survey gave these results.

Time, 0<m=10[10<m=20[20<m=30[30 <m= 40/40 <m = 50/50 < m < 60

(minutes)

Monday 5 8 17 9 7 4
Tuesday 9 8 16 3 2 1
Wednesday 7 6 18 2 1 1

a Draw a separate histogram for each day.

b On which day did patients tend to have to wait longer?
3 These are the prices of twenty second­hand cars, in dollars.

2590, 2650, 2650, 2790, 2850, 2925, 3090, 3125, 3125, 3420,
3595, 3740, 3750, 3920, 3945, 4095, 4150, 4200, 4750, 4785
a Copy and complete the frequency table to show the prices.
Prices 2500 <p < 3000 <p =< 3500 <p = 4000 <p = 4500 <p =
(dollars) 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Frequency

b Illustrate the data on a histogram.

Boys and girls were given a simple task to complete. The times taken are shown below.

Times, 1 (minutes) 4<1<8 | 8<i1<12 [12<1<16|16<1=<20

Boys 7 21 26 15
Girls 8 17 23 20
Draw separate histograms to show the boys’ times and the girls’ times.
Tw How many boys and how many girls completed the task?
Nn What can you say about the longest time taken?
Qa Look at the two histograms and say whether you think boys or girls were better at
the task. Give a reason for your answer.

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 597

 CH These are the results of a survey of the masses of 50 girls and 50 boys of the same age.

5=k<20(20<k<25|25=k<30|30<k<35(35<k<40|40<k<45

4 6 12 14 6
1 4 16 10 15
a Show this data on two separate histograms.
b Children of this age who weigh less than 25kg are underweight. Shade the corresponding
part of each histogram.
¢ Were more boys or girls underweight?

This histogram shows the times a group of employees took to travel to work one day.

0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Journey time (minutes)

a How many took more than 50 minutes?

b How many took between 20 and 50 minutes?
¢ What can you say about the shortest and longest journey times?

The company introduced flexible working so that employees could start work at different
times. Here are the results of a survey of journey times after the change.

Journey 0=r<10{10=+<20|20=<r<30(30=<r<40[40 << 50|(50 <r<50|

time,
60=<:<70
(minutes)

Frequency 2 4 14 12 14 5 5
d Show the new journey times on a histogram.
e Compare the two histograms. Have journey times been shortened?
Justify your answer.

598 31.6 Histograms

 Chapter 31. Topic 7

31.7 Histograms with bars of

unequal width [7&0
Sometimes the data in a frequency distribution are grouped into classes with intervals that are
different. In this case, the resulting histogram has bars of unequal widths.
The key fact to remember is that the area of a bar in a histogram represents the class frequency
of the bar. So, in the case of an unequal­width histogram, you find the height to draw each bar by
dividing its class frequency by its class interval width (bar width), which is the difference between
the lower and upper bounds for each interval.
Conversely, given a histogram, you can find any of its class frequencies by multiplying the
height of the corresponding bar by its width.
It is for this reason that the scale on the vertical axes of these histograms is always labelled
‘frequency density’, where:
frequency of class interval
fraauancy density = width of class interval

­ Example 10­ a :

RCRD 151 < / < 153 | 153 < h < 154 | 154 < h < 155 | 155 < h < 159 | 159 < 4 < 160
Frequency 64 43 47 9% 12
Draw a histogram to show the data.

It is convenient to write the table vertically and add two columns for class width and frequency
density.
Calculate the class width by subtracting the lower class boundary from the upper class
boundary. Calculate the frequency density by dividing the frequency by the class width.
Height, /i (cm) Frequency | Class width | Frequency density |
151=h<153 64 2 32

153 = h < 154 43 1 43

154 = h < 155 47 1 47

155 < h < 159 96 4 24

159 < h < 160 12 1 12
The histogram can now be drawn.

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 599

 The horizontal scale should be marked off as normal, from a value below the lowest value in
the table to a value above the largest value in the table. In this case, mark the scale from 150 cm
to 160 cm.
The vertical scale is always frequency density and is marked up to at least the largest frequency
density in the table. In this case, 50 is a sensible value.
Each bar is drawn between the lower class interval and the upper class interval horizontally, and
up to the frequency density vertically.

o
150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Height (cm)

Now check that the area of each column is equal to the frequency.
151­153 is2 x 32 =64
153­154 is 1 x 43 =43
and so on.
L/
If the bars are of equal width, the frequency density and the frequency will be proportional. In that
case you can use frequency on the vertical axis, as in section 31.6.

EXERCISE 31G
ow Draw histograms for these grouped frequency distributions.

REARS << 10(10</<12[12<1<15[15<:<17[17 <r <20[20 <1 < 24

Frequency 5 13 18 4 3 6

Cll Wage, w ($1000) 6<w<10 [10=sw<12|12<w<16|16<w<24

Frequency 16 54 60 24
Sl Age, a (year) MN<a<14 |18<a<16|16<a<17 |17<w<20
Frequency 51 36 12 20

600 31.7 Histograms with bars of unequal width

 Pressure, p (mm)
‘ll 745 <p < 755 755 = p < 760 760 = p < 765 765 =p <775
Frequency 4 14 10

Cl Time, (min) 0<=:<8 8=1<12 |12=:<16 [16=<1<20

Frequency 72 84 54 36

Pocket money, p O0=sp<2 |([2=p<4q4 | 4=<p<5 | 5=p<8 | 8=p<10

(9)
Girls 8 15 22 12 +4
Boys n 25 15

Represent the information about the boys and girls on separate histograms.

The sales of the Star newspaper over 70 years are recorded in this table.

Years 1940­60 1961­80 1981­90 1991­2000 2001­05 2006­2010

62 000 68 000 71000 75000 63 000 52 000

Illustrate this information on a histogram.

Take the class boundaries as 1940, 1960, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2005, 2010.

The Madrid trains were always late, so one month a survey was undertaken to find how many
trains were late, and by how many minutes.

The results are illustrated by this histogram.

30 4

nN(&.)

nNo 1
density
wna

10 +
Frequency

qo ll 0 20 30
id

40 50 60
Minutes late

a How many trains were in the survey?

b How many trains were delayed for longer than 15 minutes?

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 601

 5 For each of the frequency distributions illustrated in the histograms draw up the grouped
frequency table.

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Age (years)

9 10 11 «12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Temperature {°C)’

04

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

Mass (kg) .

602 31.7 Histograms with bars of unequal width

 31 7

All the patients in a hospital were asked how long it was since they last saw a doctor.
The results are shown in the table.

Hours, /
0=sh<2 2<h<4 A4=<h<6 [6=h<10 (10=<h<16|16=h<24
Frequency 8 12 20 30 20 10
a Draw a histogram to illustrate the data. Advice and Tips
b Estimate how many people waited more than 8 hours.
: Ron Find the area to the right
of h=8.

One summer, Albert monitored the mass of the tomatoes grown on each of his plants.
His results are summarised in this table.

6=m<10 MW=m< 12 12= m< 16 16=m<20 20=m<25

Frequency 15 28 16 10
a Draw a histogram for this distribution.
b Estimate how many plants produced more than 15 kg.
A survey was carried out to find the speeds of cars passing a particular point on a road. The
histogram illustrates the results of the survey.

2] [7 Te ==
10 1 | ­
z
wv 8 |

$
go
EH
fF.
2

0 LJ d v LJ v

O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed (km/h)

a Copy and complete this table.

Speed, | 0<v=40(40<v=50|50<v=<60(60<v=<70|70<v=80|80<y=<100
(km/h)
Frequency 10 40 110
b Find the number of cars included in the survey.

Chapter 31: Statistical representation 603

 ® The histogram shows the test
scores for 320 students in a
school. 54
a How many students
scored more than 120? density
w
b The pass mark was 90.
What percentage of
students failed the test? y y
Frequency

ola, : >
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Test score

Adrienne and Bernice collected the same data about journey times but grouped it differently.

Here are Adrienne’s figures.

(r minutes)

Frequency 10 15 30 12 6 3

Here are Bernice’s figures.

Journey 0<:<10 10=<1<15 | 15=<1< 30

time

Frequency 25 30 21
a Draw a histogram for each set of figures. Use frequency density on the vertical axis each time.
b Describe any similarities or differences between the histograms.

Check your progress

Core
* | can collect, classify and tabulate data
* | can read and interpret tables and statistical diagrams
* | can compare sets of data using tables and graphs
* | appreciate restrictions on drawing conclusions from data
* | can construct and interpret bar charts, pie charts, pictograms and simple frequency distributions
* | can construct and interpret histograms with equal intervals :
* | can construct and interpret scatter diagrams and understand what is meant by positive, negative
and zero correlation
* | can draw and interpret lines of best fit

Extended
* | can construct and interpret histograms with unequal intervals

604 31.7 Histograms with bars of unequal width

 Statistical measures
­ Topics ny0)Cc8,

1 The mode average, mode, frequency, modal value

2 The median median, middle value

3 The mean CORE average, mean

The range CORE range, spread, consistency

5 Which average to use CORE representative, appropriate, extreme values

6 Stem­and­leaf diagrams CORE frequency table

grouped data, estimated,

i modal class,
7 Using frequency tables CORE )
gireq y continuous data, discrete data

LR 8 Grouped data

9 Cumulative frequency
quartile, inter­quartile range, dispersion,
cumulative frequency, lower quartile,
upper quartile

diagrams

10 Box­and­whisker plots
B

In this chapter you will learn how to:

T CORE
e Calculate the mean, median, Calculate an estimate of the mean for grouped and
mode and range for continuous data. (E9.5) eee

individual and discrete data Identify the modal class from a grouped frequency |
pe and distinguish between the distribution. (E9.5) |
purposes for which they are ) ]
used. (C9.4 and E9.4) Construct and use cumulative frequency diagrams.
(E9.6)
® Construct and interpret ) ) ) )
stem­and­leaf diagrams. Estimate and interpret the median, percentiles,
| . (C9.3 and E9.3) quartiles and inter­quartile range. (9.6)
Construct and interpret box­and­whisker plots. (E9.6)
Why this chapter matters
The idea of ‘average’ is important in statistics. But there are several ways of working out an
average, which have been developed over a long period of time.

Mean in Ancient India

" vil There is a story about Rtuparna who was born in India around
5000 sce. He wanted to estimate the amount of fruit on a tree:

* He counted how much fruit there was on one branch, then

estimated the number of branches on the tree.
* He multiplied the estimated number of branches by the
counted fruit on one branch.
He was amazed that the total was very close to the actual counted
number of fruit when it was picked.

Rtuparna was one of the first to use arithmetic mean.

The branch he chose was an average one representing all
the branches. So the number of fruit on that branch would have
been in the middle of the smallest and largest number of fruit on
other branches on the tree.

Mode in Ancient Greece

This story comes from a war in Ancient Greece (431­404 sce).
It is about a battle between the Spartans and the Athenians.
The Athenians had to get over the Spartan Wall so they needed to
work out its height. They started by counting the layers of bricks.
This was done by hundreds of soldiers at the same time because
many of them would get it wrong ­ but the majority would get it
about right.
This is seen as an early use of the mode: the number of layers that occurred the most in the
counting was taken as the one most likely to be correct.
They then had to guess the height of one brick and so calculate the total height of the wall. They
could then make ladders long enough to reach the top of the wall.
The other average that you will use is the median (which finds the middle value), and there is no
record of any use of this being used until the early 17th century.

These ancient examples demonstrate that you will not always work out the average in the same
way —­ you must choose a method that is appropriate to the situation.

~ LJ ­

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 607

 32.1 The mode
AAA AEA EERE EE EEE AA EEE EE EE EE EE EE A EE EE EE EE RY FEE ERT

Average is a term often used when describing or comparing sets of data, for example, average
rainfall over a year or the average mark in a test for a group of students.
In each of the above examples, you are representing the whole set of many values (rainfall on every
day of the year or the marks of all the students) by just a single, ‘typical’ value, which is called the
average.
The idea of an average is extremely useful, because it enables you to compare one set of data with
another set by comparing just two values ­ their averages.
There are several ways of expressing an average, but the most commonly used averages are the
mode, the median and the mean.
The mode is the value that occurs the most in a set of data. That is, it is the value with the
highest frequency.

EXERCISE 32A
@ Find the mode for each set of data. Advice and Tips
a 3,4,7,3,2,4,53,4,6,84,2,7 helps pit tie dt If
b 47, 49, 45, 50, 47, 48, 51, 48, 51, 48, 52, 48 order or group all the
¢ ­1,1,0,­1,2,­2,­2,­1,0,1,­1,1,0,­1,2,­1,2 same things together.
d Lbvidlotnidiniiiid

e 100, 10, 1000, 10, 100, 1000, 10, 1000, 100, 1000, 100, 10
f 1.23,3.21, 2.31, 3.21, 1.23, 3.12, 2.31, 1.32, 3.21, 2.31, 3.21

Find the mode for each set of data.

a red, green, red, amber, green, red, amber, green, red, amber
b rain, sun, cloud, sun, rain, fog, snow, rain, fog, sun, snow, sun
c o,voB veo yp op vp BoByp
d #®, 7, *, *, w, #*, *, x, *, x, *, *, 0, 2, *, *, 7%

608 32.1 The mode

 Halima did a survey to find the ig
shoe sizes of students in her class. The bar 7­
chart illustrates her data. 54
a How many students are there in Z 5­
Halima’s class? g4
b What is the modal shoe size? Eq
¢ Can you tell which are the boys’ shoes 2
sizes and which are the girls’ shoe sizes?
d Halima then decided to draw a bar X |
chart to show the shoe sizes of the boys 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Nn
and the girls separately. Do you think Shoe size
that the mode for the boys and the
mode for the girls will be the same as the mode for the whole class? Explain your answer.

The frequency table shows the marks that a class obtained in a spelling test.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 6 5 5 4 3 4
a Write down the mode for their marks.
b Do you think this is a typical mark for the class? Explain your answer.
* Explain why the mode is often referred to as the ‘shopkeeper’s average".
This table shows the colours of eyes Blue Brown Green
of the students in a class. Boys “8 Ps |
a How many students are there in the class? Girls 8 5 5
b What is the modal eye colour for:
i boys ii girls ili the whole class?
¢ After two students join the class the modal eye colour for the whole class is blue. Which of
these statements is true?
* Both students had green eyes.
* Both students had brown eyes.
* Both students had blue eyes.
* You cannot tell what their eye colours were.
Here is a large set of raw data.

56824898134272467538
913156257941433568609

848934677454234676656°5
a What problems may occur if you attempted to find the mode by counting
individual numbers?
b Explain a method that would make finding the mode more efficient and accurate.
¢ Use your method to find the mode of the data.

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 609

 32.2 The median
LARA RA RE AR EA EEE AE AE EE EEE EEE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE NE ER RRR RR RR EE IE

The median is the middle value of a list of values when they are put in order of size, from lowest to
highest.
The advantage of using the median as an average is that half the data values are below the median
value and half are above it. Therefore, the average is only slightly affected by the presence of any
particularly high or low values that are not typical of the data as a whole.
­
Example 2 .
Find the median for this list of numbers.

2,3,56,1,23,4,5,4,6
Putting the list in numerical order gives:
1,2,23,3,44,5,5,6,6
There are 11 numbers in the list, so the middle of the list is the 6th number.
iowtons. the median is 4.

Example 3
Find the median of the data shown in the frequency table.

Value 2 | 3 | 45 ]|6 | 7
Frequency 2 4 6 7 8 3

Value 2 | 3 | 4a 5 | 6| 7
Frequency 2 4 6 7 8 3

Running total Eb 6 | 12 | 19 | 27 | 30
There are 12 data­values up to the value 4 and 19 up to the value 5.
Both the 15th and 16th values are 5, so the median is 5. :
— /
To find the median in a list of n values, written in order, use the rule:
median = 2+ Leh value

610 32.2 The median

EXERCISE 32B
KO) Find the median for each set of data. Advice and Tips
a 7,6,23,195,4,8
Remember to put the
TUT 26, 34, 45, 28, 27, 38, 40, 24, 27, 33, 32, 41, 38 data in order before
Nn 4,12,7,6,10,5,11,8,14,3,2,9 finding the median.
QQ 12, 16, 12, 32, 28, 24, 20, 28, 24, 32, 36, 16 Advice and Tips
0 10,6, 0,5, 7,13, 11, 14, 6, 13, 15, 1, 4, 15
Ifthere is an even
­­ 1,­8,5­3,0,1,­2,4,0,2,­4,­3,2 number of pieces of data,
g 5.5, 5.05, 5.15, 5.2, 5.3, 5.35, 5.08, 5.9, 5.25 the median will be
halfway between the two
A group of 15 students had lunch in the school’s cafeteria.
middle values.
Given below are the amounts that they spent.

$2.30, $2.20, $2, $2.50, $2.20, $3.50, $2.20, $2.25,

$2.20, $2.30, $2.40, $2.20, $2.30, $2, $2.35

a Find the mode for the data.

b Find the median for the data.
¢ Which is the better average to use? Explain your answer.
a Find the medianof7,4,3,8,2,6,5, 29,8, 3. Advice and Tips
b Without putting them in numerical order, write down
Look for a connection
the median for each of these sets.
between the original data
i 17,14,13, 18, 12, 16, 15, 12, 19, 18, 13 and the new data. For
ii 217, 214, 213, 218, 212, 216, 215, 212, 219, 218, 213 example, in i, the numbers
iii 12,9,8,13,7,11,10,7,14, are each 10 more than
13,8
those in part a.
iv 14,8, 6, 16, 4, 12, 10, 4, 18, 16, 6

piri
Given below are the age, height and mass of each of the seven players in a netball team.

ry Une h ow _ 3
Age (yr)
Height (cm) ­ es = AY tag A hod
Mass (kg) 41 42 37 32 35 42 40
a Find the median age of the team. Which player has the median age?
b Find the median height of the team. Which player has the median height?
¢ Find the median mass of the team. Which player has the median mass?
d Who would you choose as the average player in the team? Give a reason for your answer.

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 611

 The table shows the numbers of sandwiches sold in a shop over 25 days.

Sandwiches sold 10 1 12 13 14 15 16
Frequency 2 3 6 4 3 4 3

What is the modal number of sandwiches sold?

ow What is the median number of sandwiches sold?
Write down a list of nine numbers that has a median of 12.
To Write down a list of 10 numbers that has a median of 12.
NnWrite down a list of nine numbers that has a median of 12 and a mode of 8.
d Write down a list of 10 numbers that has a median of 12 and a mode of 8.
A list contains seven even numbers. The largest number is 24. The smallest number is
half the largest. The mode is 14 and the median is 16. Two of the numbers add up to 42.
What are the seven numbers?

Look at this list of numbers.

4,4,5, 8,10, 11, 12, 15, 15, 16, 20

a Add four numbers to make the median 12.
b Add six numbers to make the median 12.
¢ What is the least number of numbers to add that will make the median 4?
Explain why the median is not a good average to use in this set of payments.

Here are five payments.

$3, $5, $8, $100, $3000

32.3 The mean

AAA AR RAR EAA EER EE EEE EEE EE EEE EE EE EN RR a xy yy ym mmm ™

The mean of a set of data is the sum of all the values in the set divided by the total number of values
in the set. That is:
sum of all values
mean =
total number of values
This is what most people mean when they use the term average.
Another name for this average is the arithmetic mean.
The advantage of using the mean as an average is that it takes into account alt the values in the set
of data.

612 32.3 The mean

fl =
Example 4
The ages of 11 players in a football squad are:
21, 23, 20, 27, 25, 24, 25, 30, 21, 22, 28

What is the mean age of the squad?

Sum of all the ages = 266

Total number in squad = 11

Therefore, mean age = x8 = 24.1818... = 24.2 (1 decimal place)

a =

EXERCISE 32C
® Find the mean for each set of data.
a 7,83,6,73,8,5,4,9
b 47, 3, 23, 19, 30, 22
c 42,53, 47, 41, 37, 55, 40, 39, 44, 52
d 1.53, 1.51, 1.64, 1.55, 1.48, 1.62, 1.58, 1.65
e 1,20,25,3,101,23,4
aT Calculate the mean for each set of data, giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
a 34,56, 89, 34, 37, 56, 72, 60, 35, 66, 67
b 235, 256, 345, 267, 398, 456, 376, 307, 282
¢ 50, 70, 60, 50, 40, 80, 70, 60, 80, 40, 50, 40, 70
d 43.2, 56.5, 40.5, 37.9, 44.8, 49.7, 38.1, 41.6, 51.4
e 2,3,1,0,2,5,4,3,2,0,1,3,4,50,3,1,2

The table shows the marks that 10 students obtained in mathematics, English and science in
their examinations.
Student Ahmed Badru Camille, Dayar Evrim Fatima George Helga Imran Josie
Maths
English

a Work out the mean mark for mathematics.

b Work out the mean mark for English.
¢ Work out the mean mark for science.
d Which student obtained marks closest to the mean in all three subjects?
e How many students were above the average mark in all three subjects?

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 613

 . Suni kept a record of the amount of time she spent on her Advice and Tips
homework over 10 days:
Convert all times to
1 h, 20 min, 35 min, 1 h,1h, 1h, 1 h, 40 min, 3 h, 55 min
minutes, for example,
Calculate the mean time, in minutes, that Suni spent 1 h = 15 minutes.
on her homework.

5 These are the weekly wages of 10 people working in an office.

$350 $200 $180 $200 $350 $200 $240 $480 $300 $280
a Find the modal wage.
b Find the median wage. Advice and Tips

¢ Calculate the mean wage. Remember that the mean

can be distorted by
d Which of the three averages best represents the office
extreme values.
staff's wages? Give a reason for your answer.

The ages of five people in a group of walkers are 38, 28, 30, 42 and 37.
a Calculate the mean age of the group.
b Steve, who is 41, joins the group. Calculate the new mean age of the group.
a Calculate the meanof3,7,5,8,4,6,7 8,9and 3.
Advice and Tips
b Calculate the mean of 13, 17, 15, 18, 14, 16, 17, 18,
19 and 13. What do you notice? Look for a connection
between the original
¢ Write down, without calculating, the mean for each of
data and the new data.
these sets of data. For example in i the
i 53,5755, 58, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 53 numbers are 50 more.
ii 103, 107, 105, 108, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 103
iii 4,8,6,9,5,78,9, 10,4

. Two families were in a competition.

Brian aged 59 Frank aged 64

Kath aged 54 Marylin aged 62
James aged 34 David aged 34
Helen aged 34 James aged 32
John aged 30 Tom aged 30
Joseph aged 24 Helen aged 30
Joy aged 19 Evie aged 16

Each family had to choose four members with a mean age of between 35 and 36.

Choose two teams, one from each family, that have this mean age between 35 and 36.

614 32.3 The mean

 Chapter 32 . Topic 4

i» Asif had an average batting score of 35 runs. He had scored 315 runs in nine games
of cricket.

What is the least number of runs he needs to score in the next match if he is to get a higher
average score?

­ The mean age of a group of eight walkers is.42. Joanne joins the group and the mean age
changes to 40.

How old is Joanne?

32.4 The range

(AA A ERE EA EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE A EE A EE EE EEE EE EE EE ER EE EE EE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE RE EE EE EE EE EE NN]

The range for a set of data is the highest value of the set minus the lowest value.

Adil’s a ne tests we rr.

; Compare their marks. . pM
. Pa—yy COTE OF AC Te
Rachel's mean RTE 6 and a range Bem y
A Se EE ands ARR 5=3.
ough | ans are the same, Adil has a smaller range.
RY Ci — 3

EXERCISE 32D
w Find the range for each set of data.
a 3,874,5910,6,74
b 62, 59, 81, 56, 70, 66, 82, 78, 62, 75
¢c 1,04,5,32542,1,014,4
d 35,4.255,373.2,48,5.6,3.9,5.5,3.8
e 2,­1,0,3,­1,­2,1,­4,2,3,0,2,­2,0,­3

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 615

 The table shows the maximum and minimum temperatures at midday for five cities in England
during a week in August.

Birmingham |Leeds |London Newcastle | Sheffield

Maximum
28 25 26 27 24
temperature (°C)
Minimum
23 22 24 20 21
temperature (°C)
a Write down the range of the temperatures for each city.
b What do the ranges tell you about the weather for England during the week?
Over a three­week period, a school sweet shop took these amounts.

Monday Tuesday | Wednesday Thursday | Friday

Week 1 $32 $29 $36 $30 $28
Week 2 $34 $33 $25 $28 $20
Week 3 $35 $34 $31 $33 $32
a Calculate the mean amount taken each week.
b Find the range for each week.
¢ What can you say about the total amounts taken for each of the three weeks?
In a golf tournament, the club coach had to choose either Maria or Fay to play in the first
round. In the previous eight rounds, their scores were as follows.
Maria's scores: 75, 92, 80, 73, 72, 88, 86, 90 Advice and Tips

Fay’s scores: 80, 87, 85, 76, 85, 79, 84, 88 The best person to choose
a Calculate the mean score for each golfer. may not be the one with
y the biggest mean but
b Find the range for each golfer. coiild be the most
¢ Which golfer would you choose to play in the consistent player.
tournament? Explain why.
Dan has a choice of two buses to get to school: Number 50 or Number 63. Over a month,
he kept a record of the numbers of minutes each bus was late when it set off from his home
bus stop.

No. 50:4, 2,0,6,4,8,8,6,3,9

No.63:3,4,0,10,3,5,13,1,0,1
a For each bus, calculate the mean number of minutes late.
b Find the range for each bus.
¢ Which bus would you advise Dan to catch? Give a reason for your answer.

616 32.4 The range

. The table gives the ages and heights of 10 children.

Name Age (years) Height (cm)

Evrim 9 121
Isaac 4 73
Lilla 8 93
Lewis 10 118
Evie 3 66
Badru 6 82
Oliver 4 78
Halima 2 69
Isambard 9 87
Chloe 7 82

a Chloe is having a party. She wants to invite as many children as possible but does not
want the range of ages to be more than 5.
Who will she invite?
This is a sign at a theme park.

+ You have to be taller than ... cm

and

wo? shorter than ... cm to go on this ride

Isaac is the shortest person who can go on the ride and Isambard is the tallest.
What are the smallest and largest missing values on the sign?

The age range of a school quiz team is 20 years and the mean age is 34.

Who would you expect to be in this team?

Explain your answer.
Another team has an average age of 15] and a range of 1.
Who would you expect to be in this team?
Explain your answer.

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 617

 32.5 Which average to use
AAA A RR LRL REE EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE a ya yaya IInmnmmMmMmm™m™mM™ TT

An average must be truly representative of a set of data. So, when you have to find an average, it is
crucial to choose the appropriate type of average for this particular set of data.

If you use the wrong average, your results will be distorted and give misleading information.
This table, which compares the advantages and disadvantages of each type of average, will help you
to make the correct decision.

Mode Median Mean

Advantages Very easy to find Easy to find for Easy to find
Not affected by extreme iy Uses all the values
values plot fected by extreme The total for a given
Can be used for number of values can be
non­numerical data calculated from it
Disadvantages | Does not use all the Does not use all the Extreme values can
values values distort it
May not exist Often not understood Has to be calculated
Use for Non­numerical data Data with extreme values | Data with values that are
Finding the most likely Spceadin a balneadiwey
value

EXERCISE 32E
iw These are the ages of the members of a hockey team.

29 26 21 24 26 28 35 23 29 28 29
a Give:
i the modal age
ii the median age
iii the mean age.
b What is the range of the ages?
a a For each set of data, find the mode, the median and the mean.
i 6,10,3,4,3,6,2,93,4
ii 68,6,10,6,9,6, 10,6, 8
iii 7,4,5,3,28,8,2,4,10,9
b For each set of data, decide which average is the best one to use and give a reason.

These are the numbers of copies of The Evening Star sold on 12 consecutive evenings by a shop
during a promotion exercise organised by the newspaper's publisher.

65 73 75 86 90 112 92 87 77 73 68 62

618 32.5 Which average to use

 32 5
a Find the mode, the median and the mean for the sales.
b The shopkeeper had to report the average sale to the publisher after the promotion.
Which of the three averages would you advise the shopkeeper to use? Explain why.

The mean age of a group of 10 young people is 15.

a What do all their ages add up to?
b What will be their mean age in five years’ time?

Decide which average you would use for each statistic. Give a reason for your answer.
a The average mark in an examination
b The average pocket money for a group of 16­year­old students
­ The average shoe size for all the girls in one year at school
d The average height for all the artistes on tour with a circus
e The average hair colour for students in your school
f The average mass of all newborn babies in a hospital's maternity ward.

A pack of matches consisted of 12 boxes. The contents of each box were counted as:

34 31 29

35 33 30

31 ­ 28:29

35 32 31

On the box it stated ‘Average contents 32 matches’. Is this correct?

Mr Brennan told each student their test mark and only gave the test statistics to the
whole class. He gave the class the modal mark, the median mark and the mean mark.
a Which average would tell a student whether they were in the top half or the bottom half
of the class?
b Which average tells the students nothing really?
Which average allows a student to gauge how well they have done compared with
everyone else?

Three players were hoping to be chosen for the basketball team.

The table shows their scores in the last few games they played.

Tom 16, 10, 12, 10, 13, 8, 10

David 16, 8, 15, 25, 8
Mohaned 15,2, 15,3,5

The teacher said they would be chosen by their best average score.

Which average would each boy want to be chosen by?

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 619

 Chapter 32

­ a Find five numbers that have both the properties below:

* arangeof5
e amean of 5.
b Find five numbers that have all the properties below:
* arange of 5
* amedian of 5
e amean of 5.
What is the average pay at a factory with 10 employees?

The boss said: ‘$43 295'

A worker said: ‘$18 210°

They were both correct.

Explain how this can be.

A list of nine numbers has a mean of 7.6. What number must be added to the list to give
a new mean of 8?

A dance group of 17 people had a mean mass of 54.5 kg. To enter a competition
there needed to be 18 people with an average mass of 54.4 kg or less. What is the maximum
mass that the eighteenth person must have?

32.6 Stem­and­leaf diagrams

0 errr tere r errr errrrererctrerreeerreeresrsenesrsesssssscsecescssosscscscssone
Here are the ages of 20 people
23, 13, 34, 44, 26, 12, 41, 31, 20, 18, 19, 31, 48, 32, 45, 14, 12, 27, 31, 19
Here are their ages in order.
12, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 19, 20, 23, 26, 27, 31, 31, 31, 32, 34, 41, 44, 45, 48
This is easier to read and analyse.
You can put the ages in a stem­and­leaf diagram. The number of values will be the ‘stem’ and the
unit values will be the ‘leaves’.
Key : 1| 2 represents 12
1 2 2 Ww 4 8 9 9
2 0 3 oO 7
3 1 1 1 2
4 1 4 5 8

This is called a stem­and­leaf diagram. It gives a better idea of how the data is distributed.

A stem­and­leaf diagram should always have a key.

620 32.6 Stem­and­leaf diagrams

 5 2)
Example 6
Put the following data into a stem­and­leaf diagram.
45, 62, 58, 58, 61, 49, 61, 47, 52, 58, 48, 56, 65, 46, 54
a What is the modal value?
b What is the median value?
¢ What is the range of the values?

First, decide on the stem and leaf.

In this case, the tens digit will be the stem and the units digit will be the leaf.
| Key: 4 | 5 represents 45
4 5 6 7 8 9
5 2 4 6 8 8 8
6 1 1 2 5

a The modal value is the most common, which is 58.

| b There are 15 values, so the median will be the value that is, (15 + 1) + 2, or the 8th value.
Counting from either the top or the bottom, the median is 56.
| © Therange is the difference between the largest and the smallest value, which is
65­45=20 Gh y

EXERCISE 32F
I) This stem­and­leaf diagram shows the marks some students scored in a test.

5 3 5 5 9 9
6 0 0 5 5 6
7 1 1 1 1 1 3 8 9 9
| 8 0 0 0 2 3 3
9 0 1 4 4 5 6

Key: 5 | 3 represents 53 marks

a How many students took the test?
TT Find the median mark.
Nn Find the range.
QQ Find the modal mark.
oO Explain why the median is more useful than the mode.

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 621

 @ This stem­and­leaf diagram shows the times of athletes running 200 metres.

23.18 9 9
24.11 3 3 5 7 8
25.10 0 1 1 3 5 8 8 9
26.|1 4 6 6 7 8 9 9
22/10 oo 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 5 8 8 8
28.10 4 5 5 5 6 7

Key: 23. |8 represents 23.8 seconds

a How many runners took less than 26 seconds?
b Find the median time.
¢ Find the range of the times.
This stem­and­leaf diagram shows the times 50 people take to travel to work.

115 5 7 8 8 9 9
210 0 0 2 5 & 8&§ 85 6 9
3]0 0 3 3 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 8
410 0 0 2 5
513 5 5 5 5 6 6 9
6|5 5
710 6 6
815

Key: 5| 3 represents 53 minutes

a How many people took more than an hour?
b Find the median time.
¢ Find the range of the times.

The heights of 15 tulips are measured.

43 cm, 39 cm, 41 cm, 29 cm, 36 cm,

34 cm, 43 cm, 48 cm, 38 cm, 35 cm,

41 cm, 38 cm, 43 cm, 28 cm, 48 cm

a Show the results in a stem­and­leaf diagram, using this key.
Key: 4 | 3 represents 43 cm
b What is the model height?
¢ What is the median height?
d What is the range of the heights?

622 32.6 Stem­and­leaf diagrams

 32.6
5 A student records the number of text messages she receives each day for two weeks.
12,18, 21,9, 17, 23, 8, 2, 20, 13, 17, 22,9, 9
a Show the results in a stem­and­leaf diagram, using this key.
Key: 1] 2 represents 12 messages
b What was the modal number of text messages received in a day?
¢ What was the median number of text messages received in a day?

Zachia wanted to know how many people attended a daily youth club each day over a month.
She recorded the data.

13,19, 20, 9, 18, 24, 7, 8, 19, 14, 18, 23, 9, 10, 15, 31, 28, 26, 12, 24

a Show these results in a stem­and­leaf diagram.

b What is the median number of people at the youth club?
¢ What is the range of the numbers of people who attended the youth club?

® This stem­and­leaf diagram shows the ages of the men and women working for a company.

Men Women
9 91118 9 9 9
8 54 2 2 1 0210 0 0 1 1 3 3 5 8 9 9
9 9 7 6 6 4 3 1|310­2 2 3 3 5 6 6 7
"8 7 6 6 6533 3 2|al03 3 45 6 6
72 7 6 5 4 1 0 0 0512.8
4 3 1 1 1]6

Key: 9| 1| 8 represents a man age 19 and a woman age 18

Copy and complete this table.

Men Women
Number of people 4
Range of ages
Median age

. This chart shows the heights of some girls and boys

Heights of girls Heights of boys

8 7 411218 9 9 9 9
77 55 0)|13|0 4556 7 777 8
9 88 8 6 4 3 2|14|1 1135565656 69
75 3 1 0[15]0 3 3 45 5 7 8 8
4 2 2 1 16 |1 2 2 2 4 6 8 8 8 9
17 |0 0 1 3

Key: 4|12|8 represents a girl 124 cm tall and a boy 128 cm tall

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 623

 Chapter 32 . Topic 7
a How many children are less than 130 cm tall?
b Copy and complete this table.

Girls Boys
Number of children 49
Median height
Range of heights
¢ Complete these sentences
i The girls’ median height is ... cm more/less than the boys’ median height.
ii The girls’ range is ... cm more/less than the boys’ range.
Circle the correct word in more/less each time.

32.7 Using frequency tables

AAR ARERR EE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE EE EEE EE EE EF EE NE RE RR RR RE rr rr I mI mm I In

When you have gathered a lot of information, it is often convenient to put it together in a frequency
table. From this table you can then find the values of the three averages and the range.

€, ™
Example 7
A survey was done on the number of people in each car leaving a shopping centre. The results
are summarised in the table.

Number of people in each car 1 2 3 4 5 6

Frequency 45 198 121 76 52 13

For

a the mode
(ae 7 leo
the number of people in a car, calculate: ­ I”

b the median
¢ the mean.

a The modal number of people in a car is easy to spot. It is the number with the largest
frequency, which is 198. Hence, the modal number of people in a car is 2.
b You can find the median number of people in a car by working out where the middle of the
set of numbers is located. First, add up frequencies to get the total number of cars surveyed,
which comes to 505. Next, calculate the middle position.

(505 +1) +2=253

Now add the frequencies across the table to find which group contains the 253rd item. The
243rd item is the end of the group with 2 in a car. Therefore, the 253rd item must be in the
group with 3 in a car. Hence, the median number of people in a car is 3.

624 32.7 Using frequency tables

 32.7

¢ To calculate the mean number of people in a car, multiply the number of people in the car
by the frequency. This is best done in an extra column. Add these products to find the total
number of people and divide by the total frequency (the number of cars surveyed).

Number in car Frequency Number in these

cars

1 45 1x45=45
2 198 2 x 198 = 396
3 121 3x 121 =363
4 76 4 x76=304

5 52 5x 52 =260
6 13 6x13=78
Totals 505 1446

» Hence, the mean number of people in a car is 1446 + 505 = 2.9 (to 1 decimal place). y

When you have gathered a lot of information, it is often convenient to put it together in a frequency
table. From this table you can then find the values of the three averages and the range.

EXERCISE 32G
® Find i the mode ii the median iii the mean from each frequency table below.
a A survey of the shoe sizes of all the boys in one year of a school gave these results.

Shoe size 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of students 12 30 34 35 23 8 3
b A survey of the number of eggs laid by hens over a period of one week gave
these results.
Number of eggs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 6 8 15 35 48 37 12

¢ This is a record of the number of babies born each week over one year in a small
maternity unit.
Number of babies 0O(1]12|3|4|5|6|7|8|9(|10(11(12(13]14
Frequency 1{1]1]12([2]2|3(S5|9|8(6| 4] 5| 2 1
d A school did a survey on how many times in a week students arrived late at school.
These are the findings.
Number of times late 0 1 2 3 4
Frequency 481 34 23 15 3 4

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 625

 » A survey of the number of children in each family of a school’s intake gave these results.

Number of children 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 214 328 | 97 26 3
a Assuming each child at the school is shown in the data, how many children are at
the school?
b Calculate the mean number of children in a family.
¢ How many families have this mean number of children?
d How many families would consider themselves average from this survey?
A dentist kept records of how many teeth he extracted from his patients.

In 1989 he extracted 598 teeth from 271 patients.

In 1999 he extracted 332 teeth from 196 patients.

In 2009 he extracted 374 teeth from 288 patients.

a Calculate the average number of teeth taken from each patient in each year.
b Explain why you think the average number of teeth extracted falls each year.

One hundred cases of apples delivered to a supermarket were inspected and the numbers of
bad apples were recorded.

Bad apples 112 |3 |4 |5 |6 [7 [8 [9

Frequency 29 |9 (3 [2 |1 3 |o [oo [1

a the modal number of bad apples per case

b the mean number of bad apples per case.

5 Two dice are thrown together 60 times. The sums of the scores are shown below.

Score 3 4 5 6 7 |8 9 10 1 12
Frequency 2 6 9 12 (15 [6 5 2 1 1

a the modal score

b the median score
¢ the mean score.

626 32.7 Using frequency tables

 32.7
. During a one­month period, the number of days off taken by 100 workers in a factory were
noted as follows.

Number of days off

Number of workers 35 42 16 4

Calculate:
a the modal number of days off
b the median number of days off
¢ the mean number of days off.

Two friends often played golf together. They recorded the numbers of shots they made to
get their balls into each hole over the last five games to compare who was more consistent
and who was the better player. Their results were summarised in the table.

Number of shots 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Roger 0 0 0 | 14 (37 | 27 | 12
Brian 5 12 | 15 | 18 | 14 8 8 | 8
What is the modal score for each player?
UT What is the range of scores for each player?
NN What is the median score for each player?
oO What is the mean score for each player?
oo Which player is the more consistent and why?
f Who would you say is the better player and why?

. A tea stain on a newspaper removed four numbers from this frequency table of goals
scored in 40 football matches one weekend.

Goals 0 1 2 5

Frequency 4 6 9 3

The mean number of goals scored is 2.4.

What could the missing four numbers be?

Manju made day trips to Mumbai frequently during a year.

The table shows how many days in a week she travelled.

Days 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 17 2 4 13 15 1

Explain how you would find the median number of days Manju travelled in a week
to Mumbai.

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 627

 32.8 Grouped data [E80
Sometimes the information you are given is grouped in some way (called grouped data), as in
Example 8, which shows the range of weekly pocket money given to Year 12 students in a particular
class.
Normally, grouped tables use continuous data, which is data that can have any value within a range
of values, for example, height, mass, time, area and capacity. In these situations, the mean can only
be estimated as you do not have all the information.

Discrete data is data that consists of separate numbers, for example, goals scored, marks in a test,
number of children and shoe sizes.
In both cases, when using a grouped table to estimate the mean, first find the midpoint of the
interval by adding the two end­values and then dividing by two.

(Example 8 )
CR CRULUD NEON 0<p<1|1<p=2|2<p=3|3<p=4|4<p=<5
No. of students 2 5 5 9 15
a Write down the modal class.
b Calculate an estimate of the mean weekly pocket money.

a The modal class is easy to identify, since it is simply the one with the largest frequency. Here
the modal class is $4 to $5.
b To estimate the mean, assume that each person in each class has the ‘midpoint’ amount, ­
then build up the following table.
To find the midpoint value, add the two end­values together and then divide by two.
Pocket money, p ($$) Er Midpoint (im) [xm
0<p=1 1.00
1<p=2 5 1.50 7.50
2<p<3 5 2.50 12.50
3<p=4 9 3.50 31.50

4<p=<S$ 15 4.50 67.50

Totals 36 120
­ The estimated mean will be $120 + 36 = $3.33 (rounded to the nearest cent). |

If you had written 0.01­1.00, 1.01­2.00 and so on for the groups, then the midpoints would have
been 0.505, 1.505 and so on. This would not have had a significant effect on the final answer as it is
only an estimate.
Note that you cannot find the median or the range from a grouped table as you do not know the
actual values.

628 32.8 Grouped data

EXERCISE 32H
EE For each table of values given below, find: Advice and Tips
| the modal group When you copy the tables,
ii an estimate for the mean. draw them vertically as in
Example 7.

. ! 10<x=20 | 20<x=<30 | 30<x=40 | 40 <x=50

Frequency 6 1" 17 9

b 100 < y= 200|200 < y = 300300 < y= 400|400 < y= 500500 < x = 600

56 32 21 9 3

c 5<z=<10 10<z=<15 15<z=<20

27 19 13

d RULELE 1­3 4­6 7­9 10­12 13­15

Frequency 5 8 14 10 7

Jason brought 100 pebbles back from the beach and found their masses, recording each mass
to the nearest gram. His results are summarised in the table.

Mass, m (g) 40 < m= 60 60 <m = 80 80 <m= 100

Frequency 5 9 22

LEEDRUNCII 100 < 1» < 120 120 < m =< 140 140 <m =< 160
Frequency 27 26 n

Find:

a the modal class of the pebbles

b an estimate of the total mass of all the pebbles
¢ an estimate of the mean mass of the pebbles.

A gardener measured the heights of all his daffodils to the nearest centimetre and
summarised his results as follows.

GELS UN 10­14 | 15­18 19­22 | 23­26 27­40

21 57 65 52 12
a How many daffodils did the gardener have?
b What is the modal class of the daffodils?
¢ What is the estimated mean height of the daffodils?

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 629

 ­ A survey was created to see how quickly an emergency service got to cars that had broken
down. The table summarises the results.

Time (min) 16­30 31­45 46­60 61­75 76­90 91­105

23 48 31 27 18 n
a How many calls were used in the survey?
b Estimate the mean time taken per call.
¢ Which average would the emergency service use for the average call­out time?
d What percentage of calls do the emergency service get to within the hour?
One hundred light bulbs were tested by their manufacturer to see whether the average life­
span of the manufacturer's bulbs was over 200 hours. The table summarises the results.

150 < h =< 175 175 < h = 200 200 < h = 225 225 < h = 250 250 < h = 275

Frequency 24 45 18 10 3
o What is the modal length of time a bulb lasts?
T What percentage of bulbs last longer than 200 hours?
Nn Estimate the mean life­span of the light bulbs.
a Do you think the test shows that the average life­span is over 200 hours? Explain your
answer fully.

Three shops each claimed to have the lowest average price increase over the year. The table
summarises their price increases.

Price increase (p) 1­5 6­10 11­15 16­20 21­25 26­30 31­35
Soundbuy 4 10 14 23 19 8 2
Springfields 5 n" 12 19 25 9 6
Setco 3 8 15 E}| 21 7 3

Using their average price increases, make a comparison of the supermarkets and say which
one has the lowest price increases over the year. Remember to justify your answers.

The table shows the distances run, over a month, by an athlete who is training for
a half­marathon.

Distance, d (km) 5<d=<10

0<d=S5S 10<d=15 15<d=20 20<d=25
8 13 5 2

A half­marathon is 21 kilometres. It is recommended that an athlete's daily average distance

should be at least a third of the distance of the race for which they are training. Is this athlete
doing enough training?

630 32.8 Grouped data

 Chapter 32 . Topic 9
32 9
8 The table shows the points scored in a general­knowledge competition by all the players.

Points 10­19 20­29 | 30­39 40­49

10 5

Balvir noticed that two frequencies were the wrong way round and that this made a
difference of 1.7 to the arithmetic mean.

Which two frequencies were the wrong way round?

The profit made each week by a charity shop is shown in the table below.

$0­$500 $501­$1000 $1001­$1500 $1501­$2000

Frequency 15 26 8 3
Estimate the mean profit made each week.

The table shows the number of members of 100 football clubs.

Members 20­29 30­39 40­49 50­59 60­69

16 34 27 18

Roger claims that the median number of members is 39.5.

Is he correct? Explain your answer.

32.9 Cumulative frequency

diagrams [8
CE ENN NN NNN NPN rr NNN rN lees sNiesNiEsstsscs eessecsssssssnsnssscsssssssnses

The inter­quartile range is a measure of the dispersion of a set of data. The advantage of the
interquartile range is that it eliminates extreme values, and bases the measure of spread on the
middle 50% of the data. This section will show you how to find the interquartile range and the
median of a set of data by drawing a cumulative frequency diagram.
Look at the marks of 50 students in a mathematics test, which have been put into a grouped table.
Note that it includes a column for the cumulative frequency, which you can find by adding each
frequency to the sum of all preceding frequencies.
Mark No. of students | Cumulative frequency
21to 30 1 1
31 to 40 3 4
41 to 50 6 10
51 to 60 10 20

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 631

 Mark No. of students | Cumulative frequency
611to 70 13 33
71 to 80 6 39
81 to 90 4 43
91 to 100 3 46
101 to 110 2 48
111 t0 120 2 50

This data can then be used to plot a graph of the top value of each group against its cumulative
frequency. The points to be plotted are (30, 1), (40, 4), (50, 10), (60, 20), etc., which will give the graph
shown below. Note that the cumulative frequency is always the vertical axis.

50

40 4

30
frequency

201

Cumulative 104

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Marks

Also note that the scales on both axes are labelled at each graduation mark, in the usual way. Do not
label the scales as shown below. It is wrong.
21­30 31­40 41­50
The plotted points can be joined by a freehand curve, to give a cumulative frequency diagram.

The median
The median is the middle item of data, once all the items have been put in order of size, from lowest
to highest. So, if you have n items of data plotted as a cumulative frequency diagram, you can find
the median from the middle value of the cumulative frequency, that is the 1nth value.

But remember, if you want to find the median from a simple list of discrete data, you must use the
1(n + 1)th value. The reason for the difference is that the cumulative frequency diagram treats the
data as continuous, even for data such as examination marks, which are discrete. You can use the
1nth value when working with cumulative frequency diagrams because you are only looking for an
estimate of the median.
There are 50 values in the table on this and the previous page. To find the median:
* The middle value will be the 25th value.
* Draw a horizontal line from the 25th value to meet the graph.
* Now look down to the horizontal axis.
This will give an estimate of the median. In this example, the median is about 64 marks.

632 32.9 Cumulative frequency diagrams

The inter­quartile range
By dividing the cumulative frequency into four parts, you can obtain quartiles and the inter­quartile
range.
The lower quartile is the value one­quarter of the way up the cumulative frequency axis and is given
by the }nth value.
The upper quartile is the value three­quarters of the way up the cumulative frequency axis and
is given by the nth value.

The inter­quartile range is the difference between the lower and upper quartiles.
These are illustrated on the graph below.

504

: 404 Threequarter value |

H or Middle value

5 20; :
g One­quarter value :
3 10+
S
‘

:
0 v
o 10 20 30 40 50f é0\ 70 \80 90 100 10 120
Lower quartile Midian Upper quartile
Marks

The quarter and three­quarter values out of 50 values are the 12.5th value and the 37.5th value.
Draw lines across to the cumulative frequency curve from these values and down to the horizontal
axis. These give the lower and upper quartiles. In this example, the lower quartile is 54 marks, the
upper quartile is 77 marks and the inter­quartile range is 77 ­ 54 = 23 marks.
As well as the median and the quartiles we can find percentiles. For example to find the
90th percentile:
90% of 50 is 45.
Draw a line across from a cumulative frequency of 45 and then down to the horizontal axis.
This shows that a mark of 95 is the 90th percentile.
50 90% of the students scored =< 95 marks.
Other percentiles:
* The median is the 50th percentile.
* The upper quartile is the 75th percentile.
* The lower quartile is the 25th percentile.

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 633

 Example 9 No. of Cumulative
This table shows the marks of students | frequency
100 students in a mathematics test,
21=x= 30 3 3
a Draw a cumulative frequency curve.
1=<x= 40 9 12
b Use your graph to find the median and the
inter­quartile range. MN<=x= 50 12 24
¢ Students who score less than ° 51<x< 60 15 39
44 have to have extra teaching. How many Bl<=x=< 70 22 61
students will have to have extra teaching?
71<x< 80 16 77
You will meet several ways of giving groups (for
example, 21­30, 20, x =< 30, 21, x, 30) but the 8l=x= 90 10 87
important thing to remember is to plot the top 91 = x = 100 8 95
point of each group against the corresponding
cumulative frequency. 101 = x =< 110 3 98
a and b Draw the graph and add the lines for M=x=120 2 100
the median (50th value), lower and upper
quartiles (25th and 75th values).

100+

9 80 Three­quarter value ­

£ 60;
2 40+
Is] Onequarter value

| ]
°% 30 40 30 6 70 8 100 110 120
Mark

The required answers are read from the graph.

Median = 65 marks
Lower quartile = 51 marks

Upper quartile = 79 marks

Interquartile range = 79 ­ 51 = 28 marks
€ At 44 on the mark axis, draw a perpendicular line to intersect the graph, and at the point
of intersection draw a horizontal line across to the cumulative frequency axis, as shown.
A Number of students needing extra teaching is 18.
J
Note: An alternative way in which the table in Example 9 could have been set out is shown below.
This arrangement has the advantage that the points to be plotted are taken straight from the last
two columns. Decide which method you prefer.

634 32.9 Cumulative frequency diagrams

 Mark, No. of students Less than Cumulative frequency
21=x=<30 3 30 3
31=x<40 9 40 12

MN <yx<50 12 50 24
51<x=<60 15 60 39

61<x=<70 22 70 61
71<x<80 16 80 77
81 =x=90 10 90 87

91 =x = 100 8 100 95

101 =x=<110 3 110 98

M=x=120 2 120 100

EXERCISE 321
o A class of 30 students was asked to guess Time, x (seconds) No. of students
when one minute had passed. The table shows
the results. 20<x=30

Copy the table and complete a 30 <x=<40 3

cumulative frequency column.
40 < x < 50 6
b Draw a cumulative frequency diagram.
50 < x < 60 12
Use your diagram to estimate the median time
and the inter­quartile range. 60<x=70 3
70 < x < 80 3
80 <x=90 2

A group of 50 pensioners was given the Time, x (seconds) No. of pensioners

task in question 1. The results are shown
in the table. 10<x=<20

Copy the table and complete a cumulative 20 < x = 30 2

frequency column.
30 < x < 40 2
b Draw a cumulative frequency diagram.
Use your diagram to estimate the median time 40 <x=50 9
and the inter­quartile 50 < x < 60 17
range.
Which group, the students or the pensioners, 60 <x=70 13
was better at estimating time? Give a reason 70 < x= 80 3
for your answer.
80 < x =< 90 2
90 < x = 100 1
—

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 635

 3 The sizes of 360 senior schools are
recorded in the table. No. of students No. of schools

Copy the table and complete a cumulative 100­199 12

frequency column. 200­299 18
Draw a cumulative frequency diagram. 300­399 33
Use your diagram to estimate the median size
400­499 50
of the schools and the inter­quartile range.
500­599 63
Schools with fewer than 350 students
are threatened with closure. About how 600­699 74
many schools are threatened with closure?
700­799 64
Use your graph to estimate the 90th
800­899 35
percentile.
f Use your graph to estimate the 40th percentile. 900­999 n

The temperature at a seaside town was

Temperature (°C) No. of days
recorded for 50 days. It was recorded to
the nearest degree. The table shows the results. 5­7 2

Copy the table and complete a cumulative 8­10 3

frequency column. 11­13 5
Draw a cumulative frequency diagram. Note 14­16 6
that as the temperature is to the nearest
degree the top values of the groups are 7.5 °C, 17­19 6
10.5 °C, 13.5 °C, 16.5 °C, etc. 20­22 9
Use your diagram to estimate the median
23­25 8
temperature and the inter­quartile range.
26­28 6
Use your diagram to estimate the 10th
percentile. 29­31 5
A game consists of throwing three darts
Total score, x No. of players
and recording the total score. The results of the
first 80 people to throw are recorded in the table. 1=x=20 9

Draw a cumulative frequency diagram to show 21<x=40 13

the data.
4 <x=60 23
b Use your diagram to estimate the median score
and the inter­quartile range. 61 =<x=80 15
People who score over 90 get a prize. About 81 = x= 100 n
what percentage of the people get a prize?
101 = x =< 120 7
121 < x < 140 ­ 2

636 32.9 Cumulative frequency diagrams

6 One hundred children were asked Amount of pocket No. of
to say how much pocket money they got in a money (cents) children
week. The results are in the table. 51­100 6
a Copy the table and complete a cumulative 101­150 10
frequency column.
b Draw a cumulative frequency diagram. TRE ­
Use your diagram to estimate the median 461­350 28
amount of pocket money and the inter­quartile | 251­300 18
——— 301­350 1
d Estimate the 10th percentile and the 90th
percentile. 351­400 3
401­450 2

P Johan set his class an end­of­course test Bo—

with two papers, A and B. He produced the —[Paper A|
cumulative frequency graphs, as shown. '— Paper B |
5 s04——1—1
a What is the median score for each paper? § ­
b What is the inter­quartile range for each £
paper? HS “
¢ Which is the harder paper? Explain how you 2
know. O 20

Johan wanted 80% of the students to pass re)

each paper and 20% of the students to get a ' "20 40 60 80 100
top grade in each paper. Marks
d What marks for each paper give:
i apass ii the top grade?
8 The lengths of time taken by 60 helpline 604
telephone calls were recorded. 3

A cumulative frequency diagram of this data is 3 40­ 1

shown here. s
a Estimate the percentage of calls lasting more | 20­ |
than 10 minutes. Ss
b What is the 15th percentile for call lengths? 0 Eel ed
0 S 10 15 20
Time (minutes)

9 Byron was given a cumulative frequency diagram showing the marks obtained by students
in a mental maths test.

He was told the top 10% were given the top grade.

How would he find the marks needed to gain this top award?

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 637

 32.10 Box­and­whisker plots
AAA AAA RAL A ALE A A AA LEAR EEE EE EE EE EE ER ar II III ™™M™m

Another way of displaying data for comparison is by means of a box­and­whisker plot. This requires
five pieces of data. These are the lowest value, the lower quartile (Q,), the median (Q,), the upper
quartile (Q,) and the highest value. They are drawn in the following way.

Lowest Lower f Upper Highest

valve quartile, Q Medion, Q, qvortle,(e) value

These data values are always placed against a scale so that they are accurately plotted.
The following diagrams show how the cumulative frequency curve, the frequency curve and the
box­and­whisker plot are connected for three common types of distribution.

Symmetric Negatively skewed Positively skewed

distribution distribution distribution

Q) QQ Q Qe AQ &
4 )

au = oo JE a on
Example 10 v
The box­and­whisker plot for the girls’ ~~ »,
marks in last year's examination is shown
here.

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 *

Examination mark

638 32.10 Box­and­whisker plots

 The boys’ results for the same examination are: lowest mark 39, lower quartile 65, median 78,
upper quartile 87, highest mark 112.
a On the same grid, draw the box­and­whisker plot for the boys’ marks.
b Comment on the differences between the two distributions of marks.

a The data for boys and girls is plotted on the grid below.

i
Y ­

—] }——— Girls

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 *

Examination mark

b The girls and boys have the same median mark but both the lower and upper quartiles for
the girls are higher than those for the boys, and the girls’ range is slightly smaller than the
boys".
This suggests that the girls did better than the boys overall, even though a boy got the
To i eat —y 4

EXERCISE 32]
The box­and­whisker plot shows the times taken for a group of pensioners to do a set of 10
long­division calculations.
y

3| v T T T
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 307
Time (minutes)

The same set of calculations was given to some students in Year 11. Their results are: shortest
time 3 minutes 20 seconds, lower quartile 6 minutes 10 seconds, median 7 minutes, upper
quartile 7 minutes 50 seconds and longest time 9 minutes 40 seconds.
a Copy the diagram and draw a box­and­whisker plot for the students’ times.
b Comment on the differences between the two distributions.
® The box­and­whisker plot shows the sizes of secondary schools in Dorset.
y

— | borer

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000*
Size (number of students)

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 639

 The data for schools in Rotherham is: smallest 280 students, lower quartile 1100 students,
median 1400 students, upper quartile 1600 students, largest 1820 students.
a Copy the diagram and draw a box­and­whisker plot for the sizes of schools in Rotherham.
b Comment on the differences between the two distributions.
The box­and­whisker plots for the noon temperature at two resorts, recorded over a year, are
shown on the grid below.
¥

i I [i —
ee TT itonitA
5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 *
Temperature (°C)

a Comment on the differences in the two distributions.

b Mary wants to go on holiday in July. Which resort would you recommend? Why?
The following table shows some data on the annual salaries for 100 men and 100 women.

Lowest Lower Median Upper Highest

Salary quartile salary quartile salary
Men $6500 $16 000 $20 000 $22 000 $44 500
Women $7000 $14 000 $16 000 $21 500 $33 500
a Draw box­and­whisker plots to compare both sets of data.
b Comment on the differences between the distributions.
The table shows the monthly salaries of 100 families.

Monthly salary ($) No. of families

1451­1500 8
1501­1550 14
1551­1600 25
1601­1650 35
1651­1700 14
1701­1750 4

a Draw a cumulative frequency diagram to show the data.

b Estimate the median monthly salary and the interquartile range.
¢ The lowest monthly salary was $1480 and the highest was $1740. )
i Draw a box­and­whisker plot to show the distribution of salaries.
ii Is the distribution symmetric, negatively skewed or positively skewed?
A health practice had two doctors, Dr Excel and Dr Collins.

The following box­and­whisker plots were created to illustrate the waiting times for their
patients during October.

640 32.10 Box­and­whisker plots

 Ey EO
J EE
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 *
Waiting time (minutes)

a For Dr Collins, what is:

i the median waiting time
ii the interquartile range for his waiting time
iii the longest time a patient had to wait on October?
b For Dr Excel, what is:
i the shortest waiting time for any patient in October
ii the median waiting time
iii the interquartile range for his waiting time?
¢ Anwar was deciding which doctor to try to see. Which one would you advise he sees? Why?
7 The box­and­whisker plot for a school’s end­of­year mathematics tests are shown below.
y

ren] 1 Jeme——tion
—{ 1 J}——om
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 *
Examination mark

What is the difference between the means of the boys’ and the girls’ test results?

Check your progress

Core
| can calculate the mean, median, mode and range for individual and discrete data
| can distinguish between the uses for the mean, median, mode and range
| can construct and interpret stem­and­leaf tables
| can calculate an estimate of the mean for grouped and continuous data
| can identify the modal class from a grouped frequency distribution
| can construct and use cumulative frequency diagrams
| can estimate and interpret the median, percentiles, quartiles and inter­quartile range

Extended
| can construct and interpret box­and­whisker plots

Chapter 32: Statistical measures 641

Chapter 33
Probability

chance, outcome, event, probability,

1 The probability scale Wpossible, ‘certain

outcome, equally likely, probability fraction,

Calculating probabilities random

Probability that an event

outcome
will not happen

Probability i ; CORE experimental

: probability, trials,
robability in practice relative frequency

Using Venn diagrams

Possibility diagrams possibility diagram

Tree diagrams CQ tree diagram

Conditional probability

L TILA IRR RT © «se oo ee oo a |

In this chapter you will learn how to:

e Calculate the probability of a single Calculate conditional probability using

event as either a fraction, decimal or Venn diagrams, tree diagrams and tables.
percentage. (C8.1 and E8.1) (E8.6)
Understand and use the probability scale
from 0 to 1. (C8.2 and E8.2)
Understand that: the probability of an
event occurring = 1 ­ the probability of
the event not occurring. (C8.3 and E8.3)
Understand relative frequency as an
estimate of probability. Expected
frequency of occurrences. (C8.4 and E8.4)
Calculate the probability of simple
combined events, using possibility
diagrams and tree diagrams and Venn
diagrams. (C8.5 and E8.5)
 |=4
4
Chance is a part of everyday life. Judgements are frequently made based on the
probability of something happening.
For example:

there is an 80% chance that my team will win the game tomorrow
HE
there is a 40% chance of rain tomorrow
she has a 50­50 chance of having a baby girl
ii
there is a 10% chance of the bus being on time tonight.
In everyday life we talk about the probability of something happening. Two people
might give different probabilities to the same events because of their different views.
For example, some people might not agree that there is an 80% chance of your team
SH
winning the game. They might say that there is only a 70% chance of them
(/ winning tomorrow. A lot depends on what people believe or have experienced.
Y When people first started to predict the weather scientifically over 150 years ago,
they used probabilities to do it. For example, meteorologists looked for three important 3

indicators of rain: SH

* the number of nimbus clouds in the sky

* falling pressure on a barometer
* the direction of the wind and whether it was blowing from a part of the country
with high rainfall.
i
=
I

If all three of these things occurred together rain would almost certainly follow soon.
df

Now, in the 21st century, probability theory is used to control the flow of traffic
through road systems (below left) or the running of telephone exchanges (below right),
and to look at patterns of the spread of infections. =H

¢ Fi

3
a .

|
|

al

HHNHIHTI
WHINY
dain dy
wy

a > Yelk °
dchapie: 33: Probability 643
 33.1 The probability scale
Almost daily, you hear somebody talking about the probability of whether something will happen.
They usually use words such as ‘chance’, ‘likelihood’ or ‘risk’ rather than ‘probability’. For example:
‘What is the likelihood of rain tomorrow?’
‘What chance does she have of winning the 100 metre sprint?’
‘Is there a risk that his company will go bankrupt?’
You can give a value to the chance of any of these outcomes or events happening — and millions
of others, as well. This value is called the probability.
It is true that some things are certain to happen and that some things cannot happen; that is, the
chance of something happening can be anywhere between impossible and certain. This situation
is represented on a sliding scale called the probability scale, as shown here.

be
4
2,
4
r <,
s, %,
, % %% % % % ©
6 oy p” % oy bY
| | 1 1 1 | 1 1 1 1 |

0 i 1

Note: All probabilities lie somewhere in the range of 0 to 1.

An outcome or an event that cannot happen (is impossible) has a probability of 0. For example, the
probability that donkeys will fly is 0.
An outcome or an event that is certain to happen has a probability of 1. For example, the probability
that the sun will rise tomorrow is 1.

( ­)
Example 1
Put arrows on the probability scale to show the probability of each of the outcomes
of these events.
a You will get a head when throwing a coin.
b You will get a six when throwing a dice.
¢ You will have maths homework this week.

a This outcome is an even chance. (Commonly described as a fifty­fifty chance.)

b This outcome is fairly unlikely.
¢ This outcome is likely.
The arrows show the b a c
approximate probabilities | | l ! J
on the probability scale. 0 p |

\_ ¢4

644 33.1 The probability scale

EXERCISE 33A
® State whether each of these events is impossible, very unlikely, unlikely,
even chance, likely, very likely or certain.
Someone in your class is left­handed.
2
­ You will live to be 100.
(4 You get a score of seven when you throw a dice.
d You will watch some TV this evening.
e A new­born baby will be a girl.
® Draw a probability scale and put an arrow to show the approximate probability of
each of these events happening.
The next car you see will have been made in Japan.
A person in your class will have been born in the 20th century.
It will rain tomorrow.
Qn In the next Olympic Games, someone will run the 1500 m race in 3 minutes.
oo During this week, you will have noodles with a meal.
Draw a probability scale and mark an arrow to show the approximate probability of each
of these events.
A The next person to come into the room will be male.
B The person sitting next to you in mathematics is over 16 years old.
C Someone in the class will have a mobile phone.
What number on your scale corresponds to each arrow?

Give two events of your own for which you think the probability of an outcome is:
> impossible
@ very unlikely
Nn evens
OO likely
m certain.
Draw a probability scale numbered from 0 to 1 and put an arrow for each of
your events.
C What number on your scale corresponds to each arrow?
®» ‘The train was late yesterday soitis very likely that it will be late today.’

Is this true?

Chapter 33: Probability 645

 33.2 Calculating probabilities
AAA AR RAE EE A AE EEE EE EE EE RR yy yr yr a mmm TITTY

In Exercise 33A, you may have had difficulty in knowing exactly where to put some of the arrows on
the probability scale. It would have been easier for you if each result of the event could have been
given a value, from 0 to 1, to represent the probability for that result.
For some events, this can be done by first finding all the possible results, or outcomes, for a
particular event. For example, when you throw a coin there are two equally likely outcomes: it lands
heads up or tails up. (The ‘head’ of a coin is the side which usually shows a head, the ‘tail’ is the side
which shows the value of the coin.)
If you want to calculate the probability of getting a head, there is only one outcome that is possible.
So, you can say that there is a 1in 2, or 1 out of 2, chance of getting a head. This is usually given as a
probability fraction, namely J. So, you would write the event as:
P(head) = 3
Probabilities can also be written as decimals or percentages, so that:
P(head) = 2 or 0.5 or 50%
The probability of an outcome is defined as:

P(outcome) =
number of ways the outcome can happen
total number of possible outcomes
This definition always leads to a fraction, which should be cancelled to its simplest form.

Another probability term you will meet is at random. This means that the outcome cannot be
predicted or affected by anyone.
7 ali
Example 2
The spinner shown here is spun and the score on the side on \ LZ
which it lands is recorded. J)
What is the probability that the score is: \
a2
b odd
¢ less than 5?

a There are two 2s out of six sides, so P(2) == 1.

b There are four odd numbers, so P(odd) = 2 = 2

c All of the numbers are less than 5, so this is a certain event.

P(less than 5) = 1
J

646 33.2 Calculating probabilities

 mr)
ff S 3
Bernice is always early, just on time or late for work.

The probability that she is early is 0.1, the probability she is just on time is 0.5.
What is the probability that she is late?

As all the possiiities are covered ­ that is ‘early’, ‘on time’ and ‘late’ — the total probability
is 1. So:

P(early) + P(on time) = 0.1 + 0.5= 0.6

> the probability of Bernice being late is 1 ­ 0.6 = 0.4.

EXERCISE 33B
@ There are ten balls ina ag One is red, two are blue,
i Advice and Tips
three are yellow and four are green. A ball is taken out fs
without looking. If an event is agioniibin,
What is the probability that it is: hs pe 3 the probability
a red i —
b green
c¢ green or yellow
d red or green
e white?

@ An 8­sided spinner has the numbers 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7 and 8

on it. It is spun once.
What is the probability that the score is:
a3
b more than 3
¢ an even number?
» A bag contains only blue balls. If | take one out at random, what is the probability of
each of these outcomes?
a |get a black ball.
b |get a blue ball.
­ Ten number cards with the numbers 1 to 10 inclusive are placed in a hat. Amir takes a
number card out of the bag without looking. What is the probability that he draws:
a the number 7
b an even number
¢ anumber greater than 6
d a number less than 3
e a number between 3 and 8?

Chapter 33: Probability 647

 A pencil case contains six red pens and five blue pens. Paulo takes out a pen without looking
at it. What is the probability that he takes out:
a ared pen
b a blue pen
c¢ a pen that is not blue?

A bag contains 50 balls. 10 are green, 15 are red and the rest are white. Galenia takes a ball
from the bag at random. What is the probability that she takes:
a agreen ball
b a white ball
¢ a ball that is not white
d a ball that is green or white?
There are 500 students in a school and 20 students in Ali's class. One person is chosen at
random to welcome a special visitor.

What is the probability the person is in Ali's class?

Anton, Bianca, Charlie, Debbie and Elisabeth are in the same

class. Their teacher wants two students to do a special job.
a Write down all the possible combinations of two
people, for example, Anton and Bianca, Anton and Advice and Tips
Charlie. (There are 10 combinations altogether.) Try to be systematic when
TT How many pairs give two boys? writing out all the pairs.
Nn What is the probability of choosing two boys?
Q How many pairs give a boy and a girl?
oO What is the probability of choosing a boy and a girl?
f What is the probability of choosing two girls?

A bag contains 25 coloured balls. 12 are red, 7 are blue and the rest are green. Ravi takes a ball
at random from the bag.
a Find:
i P(he takes a red)
ii P(he takes a blue)
ili P(he takes a green).
b Add together the three probabilities. What do you notice?
¢ Explain your answer to part b.
The weather tomorrow will be sunny, cloudy or raining.

If P(sunny) = 40%, P(cloudy) = 25%, what is P(raining)?

At morning break, Priya has a choice of coffee, tea or hot chocolate.

If P(she chooses coffee) = 0.3 and P(she chooses hot chocolate) = 0.2, what is
P(she chooses tea)?

648 33.2 Calculating probabilities

 Chapter 33 pi

n The following information is known about the classes at Bradway School.

Year Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 h§­
Class P Q R S T u w X ¥ Zz A
Girls 7 8 8 10 10 10 9 n 8 12 14 15
Boys 9 10 9 10 12 13 n 12 10 8 16 17

A class representative is chosen at random from each class.

Which class has the best chance of choosing a boy as the representative?

n° The teacher chooses, at random, a student to ring the school bell.

Tom says: ‘It's even chances that the teacher chooses a boy or a girl.’

Explain why Tom might not be correct.

33.3 Probability that an event will

not happen
AAR AA ARE A A AA EE EE EE EE ER RR yy yy yy mmm TTY"
.

In some questions in Exercise 33B, you were asked for the probability of something not happening.
For example, in question 5 you were asked for the probability of picking a pen that
is not blue. You could answer this because you knew how many pens there were in the case.
However, sometimes you do not have this type of information.

The probability of throwing a six on a fair, six­sided dice is P(6) = L

There are five outcomes that are not sixes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

So, the probability of not throwing a six on a dice is:

P(not a 6) = 2
Notice that:
1 5 and P(nota
P(6) = 6) =
= 5

So,

P(6) + P(nota 6) = 1

If you know that P(6) = 3 then P(not a 6) is:

1.1.5
6 6
So, if you know P(outcome happening), then:

P(outcome not happening) = 1 ­ P(outcome happening)

Chapter 33: Probability 649

 oser at random. What the SRbabikty Hat Fram red?
meni =) ­
meron tarstschounkal
­ "vg IJ mean ay 9 > APE all i Ay #
at a red is not chosen is 1 ~3e%

EXERCISE 33C
a) a The probability that a football team will win their next match is x What is the probability
that the team will not win?
b The probability that snow will fall during the winter holidays is 0.45. What is the probability
that it will not snow?
¢ The probability that Paddy wins a game of chess is 0.7 and the probability that he draws
the game is 0.1. What is the probability that he loses the game?

Look at Example 4.

What is the probability that the pencil is:

a not blue
b not yellow
¢ not black?
These letter cards are put into a bag.

m][a][r][n][E][m]
[a][x] [x] e][a][x]
a Lee takes a letter card at random.
i What is the probability he takes a letter A?
ii What is the probability he does not take a letter A?
b Ziad picks an M and keeps it. Tasnim now takes a letter from those remaining.
i What is the probability she takes a letter A?
iil What is the probability she does not take a letter A?
@ Hamzah is told: ‘The chance of your winning this game is 0.3.’
Hamzah says: ‘So | have a chance of 0.7 of losing.’

Explain why Hamzah might be wrong.

650 33.3 Probability that an event will not happen

 Chapter 33 . Topic 4

33.4 Probability in practice

Suppose you toss a coin many times and count how many times it lands with the
‘heads’ side showing.
The value of ‘number of heads + number of tosses’ is called an experimental probability.
As the number of trials, or experiments, increases, the value of the experimental probability
gets closer to the theoretical probability, which in this case is .

Experimental probability is also known as the relative frequency of an event. The relative frequency
of an event is an estimate for the theoretical probability. It is given by:

relative frequency of an outcome or event = frequency of the outcome or event

total number of trials
Fi

Speed (km/h) 20­29 | 30­39 40­49 50­59 60­69 70+

Freguers 14 23 28 35 52 8
a "What is
i the experimental probability hed: fils travelling faster than 70 km/h?
b If 500 vehicles pass the speed check, estimate ow many will be travelling faster than 70 km/h.

a The experimental probability is the relative frequency, which is 3, lo

160 20°
—

b The number of vehicles travelling faster than 70 km/h will be = of 500.

500 =20=25

EXERCISE 33D
» Naseer throws a fair, six­sided dice and records the number of sixes that he gets after various
numbers of throws. The table shows his results.

Number of throws 10 50 100 200 500 1000 2000

Number of sixes 2 4 10 21 74 163 329
a Calculate the experimental probability of scoring a 6 at each stage that Naseer recorded
his results.
T How many ways can a dice land?
Nn How many of these ways give a 6?
Q What is the theoretical probability of throwing a 6 with a dice?
®” If Naseer threw the dice a total of 6000 times, how many sixes would you expect him to get?

Chapter 33: Probability

 2 Marie made a five­sided spinner, like the one shown in the diagram.
She used it to play a board game with her friend Sarah.

The girls thought that the spinner was not very fair as it seemed to land >
on some numbers more than others. They threw the spinner 200 times and
recorded the results. The results are shown in the table. No
Side spinner lands on 1 2 3 4 5
Number of times 19 27 32 53 69
a Work out the experimental probability of each number.
b How many times would you expect each number to occur if the spinner is fair?
¢ Do you think that the spinner is fair? Give a reason for your answer.

A bottle contains 20 balls. The balls are either black or white.

Kenny conducts an experiment to see how many black balls there are in the
bottle. He tips one ball at a time into a clear sealed tube at the end of the bottle.
He records the number of black balls and tips them back into the bottle.

The results are shown in the table.

Number of samples Number of black balls | Experimental probability

10 2
100 25
200 76
500 210
1000 385
5000 1987

a Copy the table and complete it by calculating the experimental probability of

getting a black ball at each stage.
b Using this information, how many black balls do you think there are in the bottle?
Use a set of number cards from 1 to 10 and work with a partner. Take turns to choose
a card and keep a record each time of what card you get, before returning it to the pack.
Shuffle the cards each time and repeat the experiment 60 times. Put your results in a copy
of this table.

Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

a How many times would you expect to get each number?

b Do you think you and your partner conducted this experiment fairly?
¢ Explain your answer to part b.

652 33.4 Probability in practice

5 A four­sided dice has faces numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4. The score is the
face on which it lands. Five students throw the dice to see if it is biased.
They each throw it a different number of times. Their results are shown in the
table.

of throws

Ali 20
Balvir 50 19 16 8
Caryl 250 102 76 42 30
Deema 80 25 25 12 18
Emma 150 61 46 26 17

a Which student will have the best set of results for finding the probability of each score?
Why?
b Add up all the score columns and work out the relative frequency of each score.
Give your answers to 2 decimal places.
¢ Is the dice biased? Explain your answer.

Andrew made an eight­sided spinner.

+ He tested it to see if it was fair.

He spun the spinner and recorded the results.

Unfortunately his little sister spilt something over his

results table, so he could not see the middle part.

Number spinner lands on 1 2 3 6 7 8

Frequency 18 19 | 22 19 | 20 | 22

Assuming the spinner was a fair one, try to complete the missing parts of the table
for Andrew.

At a computer factory, tests were carried out to see how many faulty computer chips were
produced in one week.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday | Thursday Friday

Sample 850 630 1055 896 450
Number faulty 10 7 12 n 4
On which day was it most likely that the highest number of faulty computer chips were
produced?

Steve tossed a coin 1000 times to see how many heads he got.

He said: ‘If this is a fair coin, | should get 500 heads.’

Explain why he is wrong.

Chapter 33: Probability 653

 33.5 Using Venn diagrams
PE EE ttre rrr trent lr terres sei Ine nessnensonsesnsnesessesesssnsss

Sometimes you want to find the probability of two events happening at the same time.
Venn diagrams are one way of answering these questions.

™ 6
There is a set of 15 cards. Each card has an integer from 1 to 15.
You take a card at random. Find the probability that it is

a A multiple of 3 and a factor of 12

b A multiple of 3 and not a factor of 12
¢ Neither a multiple of 3 nor a factor of 12.
Show the sets M = {multiples of 3} and F = {factors of 12} in a Venn diagram.

M F

13

a The numbers 3, 6 and 12 are in both M and F so n(M N F) = 3. bri 1% = 1

E
b The numbers 9 and 15 are in M but not in F. The probability is
¢ There are 7 numbers outside both sets. The probability is ­
“ J

EXERCISE 33E
a £€ = [integers from 1 to 021) E = {even ro T = {multiples of 3}
a Show these sets on this Venn diagram.

E T

654 33.5 Using Venn diagrams

 b A set of cards have the integers from 1 to 21.
A card is chosen at random.
Find the probability that it is
i an even number
ii a multiple of 3
iii both an even number and a multiple of 3.

e There are 100 people in a survey.

This Venn diagram shows how many went last year to the doctor or the dentist or both.

dentist doctor

25

For example, 42 people went to the dentist but not the doctor.

. One person is chosen at random. Find the probability that the person went to
a the dentist b the doctor
¢ both the dentist and the doctor d neither.
® 60 people are asked if they play football (F) or basketball (B)

Here are the results

basketball basketball
| Number of
12 30 8 10
people
a Show the numbers in this Venn diagram.

F 8

b A person is chosen at random.

Find the probability the person plays
i football and basketball ii football iii basketball

Chapter 33: Probability 655

 . &= {integers from 1 to 100} T = {multiples of 10} F = {multiples of 15}
a Put the elements of 7 and F in this Venn diagram

T F

b A number between 1 and 100 is chosen at random.

Find the probability that the number is
i a multiple of 15
ii a multiple of both 10 and 15
iii not a multiple of 10 or 15.

Ya
4 X X X X
3 oe NB 0
2] % R­% %
El aE AEN
0 >
01 2 3 4 =

£€ = {points marked with a cross}

A ={pointson the liney=x} B= {point on the line y= 4 ­x}

a Put the coordinates of the points in this Venn diagram.

A 8

b One of the points is chosen at random.

Find the probability that it is

i onlineA

ii onlineB
iii on both lines

656 33.5 Using Venn diagrams

0) ¢ = {integers from 1 to 100}

T= {multiples of 10} F = {multiples of 4}

a How many elements are in set 77?

b On this Venn diagram show the number of elements in each region.

T F

¢ A computer generates an integer between 1 and 100 at random.

Find the probability that it is
i amultiple of 10
ii a multiple of 4
iii a multiple of both 10 and 4
iv not a multiple of 10 or 4

33.6 Possibility diagrams

AAA AA REE EEE EE EE EE EE EE ERR RR yy ya x yy mn mmm TT

Venn diagrams are not the only way to show two events happening at the same time.
Suppose that you throw two dice. One is red and one is blue.
You can show all the possible outcomes in a possibility diagram.

>3
Ow =X X X 3% xX X

Lh X BB XX xX XX

A XX XX xX X

blue WW XB KX KX XX

® XX

NN 5 XK Xx xX XX

= xX %x­ xX x x x

4 =
OO

o ~N 3 5 o
red

There are 36 different outcomes.

The cross with a circle round it is 5 on the red dice and 3 On the blue dice.

Chapter 33: Probability 657

 (Eeample 7
Two dice are thrown. Find the probability of getting

a two 3s b exactly one 3 c at least one 3 d no3s

Here is a possibility diagram.

Ya ~
6 x x [xX] x x x
51 a a Belk. a se
La x x {¥) x x x
I ERXEECX
2] x xX) x x x
ox xx) x x x
0 —»
0 3 203d. 5 P
First dice

a There are 36 outcomes. There is only one way to get two 3s. It is shown with a square box.
ore
The probability is 36|

b There are 10 ways to get one 3. They are in the four loops.
10_5 :
The probability is 36­18
c At least one 3 means getting one or two. There are 10 + 1 = 11 ways.
ility =
The probability = 36 11
d No 3s means any of the 25 crosses that are not in a loop.
Probability = 22
36

~N
Example 8
Two dice are thrown and the numbers are added. Find the probability of a total of
a8 b 8 or more ¢ less than 8

Here is a possibility diagram. The totals have been written for each outcome.

Ya
6| 7 @
51 6 7\\8
84)
“9
5 6 7\&8
BI 4 5 6 7
B2l 3 VE
1] 2 Biss 6 7
0 >
[) SATE 4 *
First dice

658 33.6 Possibility diagrams

 a The diagonal loop shows 5 ways to get a total of 9.
Probability = 2
b The triangular loop shows 10 ways to get a total more than 8.
To get a total of 8 or more there are 5 + 10 = 15 ways.
Probability = = 2
¢ The crosses that are not in a loop are the ways to get a total of less than 8.
There are 21 of these.
29° =>
Probability = £2 =

EXERCISE 33F ]
ry) Two dice are thrown. Use a possibility diagram like the one in Example 7 to answer these
questions.
a What is the most likely score?
b Which two scores are least likely?
¢ Write down the probabilities of throwing all the scores from 2 to 12.
d What is the probability of a score that is:
i bigger than 10
ii between 3 and 7
iii even
iv a square number
Vv a prime number
vi a triangular number?
T Two dice are thrown. Use a possibility diagram like the one in Example 8 to answer these
questions.
a the score is an even ‘double’
b at least one of the dice shows 2
¢ the score on one dice is twice the score on the other dice
d at least one of the dice shows a multiple of 3?
@® Two dice are thrown. Use a possibility diagram to find these probabilities.
a both dice show a 6
b at least one of the dice will show a 6
¢ exactly one dice shows a 6

Chapter 33: Probability

 . The diagram shows the scores for the event y
‘the difference between the scores when B5 1 10
two fair, six­sided dice are thrown’. Copy and 8 4
complete the diagram: | sl 4
For the event described above, what is the probability 2 3
of a difference of: 8 2
al b oO 8 0 >
1 2 3 4 85%
c 4 d 6 Score on first spinner
e an odd number?
When two fair coins are thrown together, what is the probability of scoring:
a two heads
b ahead and a tail
¢ at least one tail
d no tails?

Use a diagram of the outcomes when two coins are thrown together.

Two five­sided spinners are spun together and the total score of the faces that they land on is
worked out. Copy and complete the possibility diagram shown.

{TH Az
6 10

we
second spinner 4 |

2{ 3 EN
11­2
——
1 2 3 4 5 6
Score on first spinner

a What is the most likely score?

b When two five­sided spinners are spun together, what is the
probability that:
i the total score is 5
ii the total score is an even number
ili the score is a ‘double’
iv the total score is less than 7?

Two eight­sided spinners showing the numbers 1 to 8 were thrown at the same time.
a Draw a possibility diagram to show the product of the two scores.
b What is the probability that the product of the two spinners is an even square number?
Isaac throws two dice. He multiplies the numbers together. Find the probability that the
product is between 19 and 35.

660 33.6 Possibility diagrams

33.7 Tree diagrams
Here is the question in Example 7 again.
Two dice are thrown.
Find the probability of getting

atwo3s bexactlyone3 «c atleastone3 d no3s

You answered this question with a possibility diagram.

You can also use a tree diagram.

First Second outcome probability
dice dice
3 33 x "
Of wi
of
w
Ol=—
not 3 3, not 3 Oa Of
x
Ola
/\­

k 3 not 3, 3 ­—
|]
Oltn Oita
*%

s not 3 x
not 3, not 3 on Olr Fir

The probability that a dice shows 3 is 1.

The probability that a dice does not show 3 (a ‘not 3') is 2
Write these probabilities on each branch.
The branches show four outcomes, with each dice either ‘3’ or ‘not 3".
To find the probability of each outcome, multiply the probabilities on the branches.

a The probability of 3, 3 is : x 3 = = This is the answer to part a.

b The probability of 3, not 3 is : x 2 = = This is 3 on the first but not the second.

The probability of not 3, 3 is 2 x 2 = = This is 3 on the second but not the first.

Add these two: 3 + ­ ­. 3 This is the answer to part b.

36 36 36 18
¢ For at least one 3, add the three probabilities:
1.5.5.
6*36"36" 136 _
This is the answer to part c.

d The probability of not 3, not 3 is2 x 2 = = This is the answer to part d.

Chapter 33: Probability 661

 EXERCISE 33G
A coin is tossed twice. Copy and complete this tree diagram to show all
the possible outcomes..
First event Second event Outcome Probability

H HH 3x3­3

ad H
i
<> .
T

Use your tree diagram to work out the probability of getting:

a twoheads b aheadandatail c¢ atleast one tail.

There are two black balls and one white one in a bag.

Luis takes one at random.

He replaces it and then takes another one at random.
a Copy and complete this tree diagram.
First Second outcome probability
ball ball
3 _—8 BB gxi=3
1 8
3 <7, BW
B w, 8
w<_
w Ww, W
1.1_1
3%3%9
b Find the probability that he takes
i two white balls ii one ball of each colour iii atleast one black ball
On my way to work, | drive through two sets of road works with traffic lights that only show
green or red. | know that the probability of the first set being green is 1 and the probability of
the second set being green is J.
a What is the probability that the first set of lights will be red?
b What is the probability that the second set of lights will be red?
¢ Copy and complete this tree diagram to show the possible outcomes when passing through
both sets of lights.

662 33.7 Tree diagrams

 First event Second event Outcome Probability

R
d Using the tree diagram, what is the probability that:
i 1do not get held up at either set of lights
ii | get held up at exactly one set of lights
iii | get held up at least once.
e Over a school term | make 90 journeys to work. On how many days can | expect to get
two green lights?
­ There are two bags of sweets.

The first bag has 5 sweets and 4 of them are red.

The second bag has 5 sweets and 2 of them are red.

Delia takes one sweet from each bag.

a Copy and complete this tree diagram.
First Second oulcome probability
sweet sweel
red red, red
red
not red, not red

red not red, red

ie =not not red, not red

b Find the probability that she takes

i two red sweets
ii at least one red sweet
ili no red sweets

An English exam has two parts, an oral test and a written test.

The probability that Chen passes the oral test is 0.9

The probability that Chen passes the written test is 0.6

Chapter 33: Probability 663

a Copy and complete this tree diagram
First Second oulcome probability
exam exam
pass pass, pass
pon
fail pass, fail

poss fail, pass

fail >i
fail fail, fail

b Find the probability that Chen

i passes both parts ii passes only one of the two.
A football team is playing two matches.

The probability that the team will win the first match is 0.6

The probability that the team will win the second match is 0.7
a Copy and complete this tree diagram to show probabilities.
First
match match
win
win ~~]
not win

win
not win il
not win

b Find the probability that the team will win at least one of the two matches.
Ahmed is playing a computer game.
The probability that he wins each time is 0.3.

He plays 2 games. Find the probability that:

a Ahmed wins both games b the computer wins both games
¢ Ahmed and the computer both win one game.
The probability of rain on Monday is 0.25.
The probability of rain on Tuesday is 0.6.

Find the probability of:

a rain on Monday but not on Tuesday
b no rain on either day
¢ rain on at least one day.
Abebe is running in an 800 m race and a 1500 m race.

The probability that he wins the 800 m is 0.65

The probability that he wins the 1500 m is 0.4

Find the probability that he wins one race and loses the other.

33.7 Tree diagrams

 a If the first piece is an orange, what is the probability that the second is:
i an orange
ii alemon?
b What is the probability that:
i both are oranges
ii both are lemons?
A bag contains three black balls and seven red balls. A ball is taken out and not replaced. This
is repeated twice. What is the probability that:
a all three are black
b exactly two are black
¢ exactly one is black
d none are black?
On my way to work, | pass two sets of traffic lights. The probability that the first is green
is 1. If the first is green, the probability that the second is green is 1. If the first is red, the
probability that the second is green is 2. What is the probability that:
a both are green
i b none are green
c¢ exactly one is green
d at least one is green?
An engineering test is in two parts, a written test and a practical test. 90% of those who take
the written test pass. When a person passes the written test, the probability that he or
she will also pass the practical test is 60%. When a person fails the written test, the
probability that he or she will pass the practical test is 20%.
a What is the probability that someone passes both tests?
b What is the probability that someone passes one test?
¢ What is the probability that someone fails both tests?
d What is the combined probability of the answers to parts a, b and ¢?

33.8 Conditional probability IE

Here is the Venn diagram from Example 6.
There is a set of 15 cards. Each card has an integer from 1 to 15.
You take a card at random.

M = {multiples of 3} and F = {factors of 12}

ee

Chapter 33: Probability 665

 14

13
7 8 10 n

There are 5 numbers in set M.

The probability of picking a multiple of 3 is 2

There are 6 numbers in set F.

The probability of picking a factor of 12 is Ss,

15°ha
Suppose you know the card is a factor of 12.
Now the probability that is a multiple of three is different.

You want the probability that it is in M, given that it is in F.

This is 3.1
2= >

This is called a conditional probability.

Suppose you know the card is a multiple of 3.

What is the conditional probability that the number is a factor of 12 given that it is a multiple of 3?
You want the probability that it is in F, given that it is in M.
. 3
This is 5

You sometimes need conditional probabilities on a tree diagram.

Example 9
To SRE sowiod hd
pens are taken out at random.
at they are :

bbabe ene ot enh gibi) 8

Fr
tod blue,red Judged

666 33.8 Conditional probability

 The probabilities on the branches are not the same sc time.
When the first pen is taken, the probabilities are red = 2 and blue =3,
<

5
These are on the first pair of branches.
If the first pen is red, there are 1 red and 3 blue pens left.
The conditional probabilities are red = Zand blue = 2
These go on the top pair of branches for the second pen.
If the first pen is blue, there are 2 red and 2 blue pens left.
The conditional probabilities are red = 2.1
a (or J) and blue Lf. 4
= yy (or LD)!
These go on the bottom pair of branches for the second pen.
a The probability they are both red is 2 ool
574 20 10
Ny x2= 6 =3
b The probability they are both blue is 5 5a To = 10
¢ One of each colour is either the second or the third outcome.
Add the two probabilities.

(2 ) +
\_ Ls

EXERCISE 33H 33H

El 100 people are asked if they have a brother or a sister.

|

The numbers are in this Venn diagram.

8 S

17

B = {people with a brother} § = {people with a sister}

One person is chosen at random.
a Find the probability that the person has a brother.
b The person has a brother. Find the probability that the person has a sister.
¢ Another person is chosen at random. This person has a sister. Find the probability that this
person has a brother.

Chapter 33: Probability 667

 a ¢€ = {integers from 1 to 25}

S = {factors of 16}

T= {factors of 24}
a Put the elements of £ in this Venn diagram.

S T

An integer between 1 and 25 is chosen at random.

b Find the probability that it is a factor of both 16 and 24.
¢ If the number is a factor if 24, find the probability that it is a factor of 16.
d If the number is a factor if 16, find the probability that it is a factor of 24.
e If the number is a not a factor if 16, find the probability that it is a not a factor of 24.
¢= {integers from 1 to 30}

E = {even numbers}

T = {multiples of 3}
F = {multiples of 5}
a Put the elements of £ in this Venn diagram.

E T

An integer between 1 and 30 is chosen at random.

b Find the probability that it is a multiple of 3.
Nn Find the probability that it is a multiple of 3 and 5.
Oa If the number is a multiple of 5, find the probability that it is also a multiple of 3.
0 If the number is a multiple of 5, find the probability that it is an even multiple of 3.

­­ If the number is a multiple of 3, find the probability that it is also a multiple of 5.

668 33.8 Conditional probability

( 120 students take exams in English (E), maths (M) and science (5).

This Venn diagram shows how many students pass each exam.

A student is chosen at random.

a Find the probability that the student passed maths.
b Find the probability that the student passed all three subjects.
A student is chosen at random. This student passed maths.
¢ Find the probability that the student passed science.
d Find the probability that the student passed English.
A student is chosen at random. This student failed maths.
‘e Find the probability that the student also failed science.
5 Two dice are thrown. The numbers are added together.
a Show the possible totals on a possibility diagram.
b Find the probability of a total of 6.
¢ If the total is 6, find the probability that one of the numbers is 2.
d Find the probability that at least one of the numbers is 2.
e If at least one of the numbers is 2, find the probability that the total is 6.

a
NIE
A spinner can show the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 with equal probabilities.

The spinner is spun twice and the numbers are added.

a Find the probability that the total is less than 5.
b If the total is 5, find the probability that the numbers on each spin are the same.
¢ If both numbers are the same, find the probability that the total is less than 5.

——

Chapter 33: Probability 669

 @ Driving to work, Karim passes two sets of traffic lights.

The probability that the first set is red is 0.3.

If the first set is red, the probability that the second set is red is 0.8.

If the first set is green, the probability that the second set is red is 0.4.
a Put probabilities on the branches of this tree diagram.
First Second
set se!
red
rnd sl
green

red
areen<_
green

b Find the probability that both sets of lights are red.

¢ Find the probability that both sets of lights are green.
d Find the probability that one set is red and the other is green.
Laura has 4 $5 notes and 6 $10 notes in her purse.

She takes out two notes at random.

a Find the probability that the first note is $5.
b If the first note is $5, what is the probability that the second note is also $5?
¢ Put probabilities on the branches of this tree diagram.
First Second
nole note
$5
5<_
$10
$5
s10<_
$10
d Find the probability that the total value of the two notes is:
i $10 ii $15 iii $20

An engineering exam has two parts, a written test and a practical test.
The probability that a student passes the written test is 0.9.
If a student passes the written test, the probability of passing the practical test is 0.8.

If a student fails the written test, the probability of failing the practical test is 0.4.
a Put probabilities on the branches of this tree diagram.

670 33.8 Conditional probability

 First Second
note note
pass
pos _
fail
poss
wi
fail

b Find the probability that a student passes both parts.

¢ Find the probability that a student passes one part and fails the other.

10 A box has 3 red counters and 5 white counters.

Sara takes out counters at random, one at a time.

a Find the probability that the first two counters are red.
b Find the probability that the first two counters are white.
¢ Sara takes out 3 counters all together. Find the probability that all are the same colour.
n Aaron and Barak play a game.
There are 5 white balls and one red ball in a bag.

Aaron takes out 3 balls, one at a time, without looking.

If one of the balls is red, Aaron wins the game. If they are all white Barak wins.
What is the probability that Aaron wins? Give a reason for your answer.

Check your progress

Core
* | can calculate the probability of a single event as a fraction, a decimal or a percentage
* | can understand and use the probability scale from 0 to 1
* | understand that the probability of an event not occurring = 1 ­ the probability of the event
occurring
* | understand relative frequency as an estimate of probability
* | can calculate the probability of simple combined events using possibility diagrams, tree diagrams
or Venn diagrams with two sets
* | can calculate the probability of simple combined events using Venn diagrams with three sets

Extended
* | can calculate conditional probability using tables, tree diagrams or Venn diagrams

Chapter 33: Probability 671

 Examination questions: Statistics
and probability
BN EN rN NN Nr I NP IT IP PF RIN EET N INN I POE PINION eessesssssssSENRPTORBRERSRRSES

Past paper questions reproduced by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education.

Other exam­style questions have been written by the authors.

PAPER 1

CH Jim scores the following marks in 8 tests.

788y69105
His mean mark is 7.5.
Calculate the value of y. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q9 Oct/Nov 2015

­ Chico has a bag of sweets.

He takes a sweet from the bag at random.
The table shows the probabilities of taking each flavour of sweet.
Flavour Lemon Lime Strawberry | Blackcurrant Orange
Probability 0.15 0.22 0.18 0.24
a Complete the table. [2]
b Find the probability that the sweet is lemon or lime. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q15 Oct/Nov 2015

The scatter diagram shows the number of sun hats and ice creams sold by a shop each day for
two weeks.
4
40 1 EE TF —%
= ii == x | ——
30———1 —y
IB x |
Number of —F =" 1
ice creams 20 + 4 (VS SES |
sold | _ =. EE ——
104+——1 ox 1 | BN —
Xf x [ |
0 : | ­ >
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Number of sun hats sold )
a Write down the type of correlation shown by the diagram. [1]
b Describe the relationship between the number of sun hats sold and the number of
ice creams sold. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q9 May/June 2015

672 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

a These are the heights, correct to the nearest centimetre, of 12 children.

132 114 151 130 132 145 163 142 153 170 132 125
Find the median height. , [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q5 Oct/Nov 2014

5 Cheryl recorded the midday temperatures in Seoul for one week in January.
Day Tue | Wed | Thu Fri Sat Sun
Temperature (°C) ­5 <3 ­n ­8 ­3 =1

a Write down the mode. [1]

b On how many days was the temperature lower than the mode? [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q10 Oct/Nov 2014

The table shows the average monthly temperature (°C) for Fairbanks, Alaska.

Month Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec
femperature ­23.4/­19.8(­11.7| ­0.8 | 9.2 | 15.4 (16.9 13.8 | 7.5 | ­5.8 |­21.4|­21.8
i &

a Find
i the difference between the highest and the lowest temperatures,
ii the median. [1]
b A month is chosen at random from the table. [2]
Find the probability that its average temperature is below zero. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q19 May/June 2014

J)
S|P|A|CI|E]S | (|

One of the 6 letters is taken at random.

a Write down the probability that the letter is S. [1]
b The letter is replaced and again a letter is taken at random.
This is repeated 600 times.
How many times would you expect the letter to be S? [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q14 Oct/Nov 2013

. The probability of Sachin’s team winning any match is 0.45.

a Write down the probability of Sachin’s team not winning any match. [1]
b In a season there are 40 matches.
How many matches should Sachin’s team expect to win in a season? [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q12 May/June 2013

Examination questions: Statistics and probability 673

 [ Marco throws a six­sided dice 27 times.
The bar chart shows his results.
8A :

yl
[2
(3

8157871541343102945
a Write down the mode. Mm
b Work out the median. [2
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 11 Q16 Oct/Nov 2013

674
 Examination questions: Statistics and probability
PAPER 3

‘» a 120 children take part in an athletics competition.

i Complete the table to show the number of children in each group.

[2]
ii One child is selected at random.
Find the probability that it is a girl aged 16.
Give your answer as a fraction in its lowest terms. [2]
ili Write down the ratio number of girls aged 15 : number of boys aged 15.
Give your answer in its simplest form. [2]
b Here are the distances, in metres, recorded in the boys’ shot putt.
9.23 6.21 9.86 8.64 7.15 7.72 9.01 7.34 6.53 6.89
i Find the median. [2]
ii Find the range. [1]
iii Another boy was a late entry to the competition.
After his attempt, the range increased by 20 cm.
Work out the two possible distances of his attempt. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q1 Oct/Nov 2015

® All the children in a school are asked to choose their favourite colour.
The pie chart shows the results.

Green
Red

Yellow

a Write down the least favourite colour chosen. [1]

b 27 children choose yellow as their favourite colour.
Work out the total number of children in the school. [3]
¢ Work out the percentage of the children in the school who choose red. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q5 May/June 2015

Examination questions: Statistics and probability 675

 Examination question Statistics and probability

Athlete B ] D | F 5. | J K L
100 m time 0. [ 28 | 107 26 | 11.2 | 120 | 12.4 106 | 127 | 11.8 | 11.1
(seconds) i Ig

Long jump 7.60 | 5.15 | 7.25 | 6.72 | 6.30 6.20 | 6.90 | 5.70 | 6.85 | 6.70
(metres) 1% Oo EE eT
a The scatter diagram shows the times and distances for athletes B to H.
i Plot the times and distances for athletes |, J, K and L. [2]
A
8.0

H
7.5

x
7.0

(meters)
o (2)
jump

Long

6.0

5.54 ! H |

5.0 >
10.0 10.5 11.0 1.5 12.0 12.5 13.0
100m time (seconds)
ii On the scatter diagram, draw a line of best fit. [1]
iii Athlete A did not take part in the long jump.
Use your line of best fit to estimate a long jump distance for athlete A. 1]
iv What type of correlation is shown on the scatter diagram? [1
v Describe in words the relationship between the time for 100 metres and the
distance in the long jump. [1]
b Use the table of times and distances to work out
i the mean of the 100 metres times, [2]
ii the percentage of athletes who ran 100 metres in less than 11.5 seconds, [2]
iii. the range of the distances jumped by the 11 athletes, B to L. []
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q3 Oct/Nov 2014

676 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

a a Amir asked 15 friends how many hours they spent playing sport last weekend.
His results are shown in the table below.

Number of hours 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 6 2 3 1 2 1
i Write down the mode. [1]
ii Find the median. [1]
iii Calculate the mean. : [3]
iv On the grid, draw a bar chart to show the information given in the table. [4]
A

Frequency

Number of hours

b Amir also asked these 15 friends which was their favourite sport.
His results are shown in the table below.

Football 4
Cricket 5
Basketball 2
Badminton 4

Amir picks one of these friends at random.

Write down the probability that his friend's favourite sport is
i cricket, 1)
ii not football, [1]
iii basketball or badminton. [1]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q3 Oct/Nov 2012

Examination questions: Statistics and probability 677

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

PAPER 2

® Paul and Sammy take part in a race.

The probability that Paul wins the race is kJ
35°
The probability that Sammy wins the race is 26%.
Who is more likely to win the race?
Give a reason for your answer. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q5 May/June 2015

A travelbrochure has 72 holidays in four different countries.

The pie chart shows this information
a There are 24 holidays in Thailand.
Show that the sector angle for Thailand is 120°. [2]
b The sector angle for Malaysia is 150°.
The sector angle for Singapore is twice the sector angle for Hong Kong.
Calculate the number of holidays in Hong Kong. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q17 May/June 2014

Leon scores the following marks in 5 tests.

848y9
His mean mark is 7.2.
Calculate the value of y. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q6 May/June 2012

678 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

a If it rains today the probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.4.

If it does not rain today the probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.2.
On Sunday it rained. =
a Complete the tree diagram for Monday and Tuesday. [2]
Monday Tuesday

0.4 Rain

Rain

0.6 No rain

Rain

No rain

No rain

‘b Find the probability that it rains on at least one of the two days shown in the tree
diagram. 3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q18 Oct/Nov 2014

® ;

19

The Venn diagram shows the number of red cars and the number of two­door cars in a
car park.
There is a total of 50 cars in the car park.
R = {red cars} and T = {two­door cars}.
a Acar is chosen at random.
Write down the probability that
i itisred and itis a two­door car, [1]
ii itis notred and it is a two­door car. [1]
b A two­door car is chosen at random.
Write down the probability that it is not red. [1]
¢ Two cars are chosen at random.
Find the probability that they are both red. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q22 Oct/Nov 2013

Examination questions: Statistics and probability 679

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

6 The table shows the probability that a person has blue, brown or green eyes.

Eye colour Blue Brown | Green

Probability 0.4 0.5 0.1

Use the table to work out the probability that two people, chosen at random,
a have blue eyes,
b have different coloured eyes.
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q20 Oct/Nov 2015

In this question, give all your answers as fractions.

A box contains 3 red pencils, 2 blue pencils and 4 green pencils.
Raj chooses 2 pencils at random, without replacement.
Calculate the probability that
a they are both red,
b they are both the same colour,
¢ exactly one of the two pencils is green.
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q21 May/June 2012

680 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability
PAPER 4

NOT TO
SCALE

Girls Boys

The pie charts show information on the grades achieved in mathematics by the girls and
boys at a school.
a For the Girls’ pie chart, calculate
ix [2]
ii the angle for grades B, C or D. 1
b Calculate the percentage of the Boys who achieved grades E, F or G. [2]
¢ There were 140 girls and 180 boys.
i Calculate the percentage of students (girls and boys) who achieved
grades A or A*, (3]
ii How many more boys than girls achieved grades B, C or D? [2]
d The table shows information about the times, t minutes, taken by 80 of the girls to
complete their mathematics examination.

Time (r minutes) 40<1<60 | 60<r<80 | 80<r=120 | 120 <r=< 150

Frequency 5 14 29 32
i Calculate an estimate of the mean time taken by these 80 girls to complete
the examination. [4]
ii On a histogram, the height of the column for the interval 60 < r < 80 is 2.8 cm.
Calculate the heights of the other three columns.
Do not draw the histogram. [4]
iii 40 < t = 60 column height = ..................... cm
80 < t = 120 column height = ................... cm
120 < t = 150 column height = ............... cm [4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q1 Oct/Nov 2012

2 120 students take a mathematics

examination.
a The time taken, m minutes, for each student to answer question 1 is shown in this table.

O<m=1|1<m=2|12<m=3|3<m=4(4<m=S5|5<m=6

Frequency 72 21 9 1" 5 2
Calculate an estimate of the mean time taken. [4]

Examination questions: Statistics and probability 681

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability
b i Using the table in part (a), complete this cumulative frequency table. (2
m I m=2 m=3 m=4 m=5 m=6
Cumulative frequency 72 120
ii Draw a cumulative frequency diagram to show the time taken. 3]
120

110

100

90

®Oo

70
frequency
60

50
Cumulative

40

30

20

10

1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (minutes)

iii Use your cumulative frequency diagram to find

a the median,
b the inter­quartile range,
¢ the 35th percentile.
¢ A new frequency table is made from the table shown in part (a).

0<m=1 1<m=3 3<m<=6

Frequency 72

i Complete the table above.

ii A histogram was drawn and the height of the first block representing the time
0<m=1was3.6cm.
Calculate the heights of the other two blocks. 3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q6 Oct/Nov 2015

682 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

@ 30 students were asked if they had a bicycle (B), a mobile phone (M) and a computer (CO).
The results are shown in the Venn diagram.
S

a Work out the value of x. [1]

b Use set notation to describe the shaded region in the Venn diagram. [1]
¢ Find n(C Nn (MU BY). [1]
d A student is chosen at random.
i Write down the probability that the student is a member of the set M". [1]
ii Write down the probability that the student has a bicycle. [1]
e Two students are chosen at random from the students who have computers.
Find the probability that each of these students has a mobile phone but no bicycle. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q4 M/J 2015

EF ‘a A square spinner is biased.

The probabilities of obtaining the scores 1, 2, 3 and 4 when it is spun are given in the
table.
Score 2 3 4

Probability A 0.2 04 | 03
i Work out the probability that on one spin the score is 2 or 3. [2]
ii In 5000 spins, how many times would you expect to score 4 with this spinner? [1]
iii Work out the probability of scoring 1 on the first spin and 4 on the second spin. [2]
b In a bag there are 7 red discs and 5 blue discs.
From the bag a disc is chosen at random and not replaced.
A second disc is then chosen at random.
Work out the probability that at least one of the discs is red.
Give your answer as a fraction. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q6 May/June 2014

Examination questions: Statistics and probability 683

 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

E Lauris records the mass and grade of 300 eggs. The table shows the results.
Mass (a
30<x=40(40<x=50(50<x<60(60<x=<70[70<x=280|80<x=<090
grams)

15 48 72 81 54 30
Grade small medium large very large
a Find the probability that an egg chosen at random is graded very large.
(1
b The cumulative frequency diagram shows the results from the table.
i
300

frequency

Cumulative

30 50 60 70
Mass (x grams)

Use the cumulative frequency diagram to find

i the median, (1
ii the lower quartile, (1
iii the inter­quartile range, (1
iv the number of eggs with a mass greater than 65 grams. (2)
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 21 Q18 Oct/Nov 2012

684 Examination questions: Statistics and probability

 Examination questions: Mixed type
Past paper questions reproduced by permission of Cambridge Assessment International Education.
Other exam­style questions have been written by the authors.

PAPER 3

a Luis buys a season ticket to watch his local football team.

The season ticket costs $595.
i Luis buys the season ticket online and gets a 5% discount on the $595.
Work out how much Luis pays for the season ticket online. [2)
ii A ticket to watch one match costs $3 8.
Luis watches 16 matches.
How much did Luis save by buying a season ticket online instead of 16 tickets
at $38 each? [2]
b The football stadium has 26 272 seats.
The number of people who attend one match is 23 854,
Calculate the percentage of the 26 272 seats that are empty. [2]
¢ The total number of people attending matches at the stadium last season was 506 762.
Write 506 762 in standard form, correct to 3 significant figures. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q3 Oct/Nov 2015

Three friends are going on holiday.

They travel by plane.
a Ahmed’s suitcase has mass m kilograms.
i The mass of Sonia's suitcase is 5 kg more than the mass of Ahmed's suitcase.
Write down an expression, in terms of m, for the mass of Sonia’s suitcase. [1]
ii The mass of Halas suitcase is twice the mass of Ahmed's suitcase.
Write down an expression, in terms of m, for the mass of Hala's suitcase. [1]
iii The total mass of the three suitcases is 47 kg.
Write down an equation in terms of m. [1]
iv Solve your equation and find the mass of each suitcase. [3]
Ahmed's suitcase ......... kg
Sonia's suitcase ......... kg
Hala's suitcase ......... kg
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q4 Oct/Nov 2015

686 Examination questions: Mixed type

 Examination questions: Mixed type

3 Denzil grows tomatoes. He selects a random sample of 25 tomatoes.

The mass of each tomato, to the nearest 5 grams, is shown below.
55 65 50 75 65
80 70 70 55 60
70 60 65 50 75
65 70 75 80 70
55 65 70 80 55
a i Complete the frequency table.
You may use the tally column to help you. [2]
Mass (grams) | Tally Frequency
50
55
60
65
70

75
80
ii Write down the mode. (1
iii Find the range. (1
iv Show that the mean mass is 66 g. [2]
b Denzil picks 800 tomatoes.
4% of the 800 tomatoes are damaged.
How many of these tomatoes are not damaged? [2]
e Denzil sells 750 of his tomatoes.
i The mean mass of a tomato is 66 g.
Calculate the mass of the 750 tomatoes in kilograms. [3]
ii Denzil sells his tomatoes at $1.40 per kilogram.
Calculate the total amount he receives from selling all the 750 tomatoes. [1]
iii The cost of growing these tomatoes was $33.
Calculate his percentage profit. [3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q4 May/June 2014

Examination questions: Mixed type 687

Examination questions: Mixed type

. Sonia works in a toy shop.

a i One week she works for 30 hours and is paid $180.
Calculate the amount she is paid per hour. n
iil The next week Sonia works for 38 hours and is paid $220.
Find the difference in her pay per hour for these two weeks. [2]
b The shop sells bags of 40 marbles.
One bag has marbles in the ratio red : blue : green=1:3:4,
i Calculate the number of marbles of each colour. [2]
ii A second bag of 40 marbles contains 11 red marbles, 9 blue marbles
and 20 green marbles.
All the marbles from the two bags are mixed together.
Write down the ratio of marbles red : blue : green.
Give your answer in its simplest form. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 31 Q3 May/June 2015

Examination questions: Mixed type

 Examination questions: Mixed type

PAPER 4

& a Luc is painting the doors in his house.

He uses 3 of a tin of paint for each door.
Work out the least number of tins of paint Luc needs to paint 7 doors. (3
b Jan buys tins of paint for $17.16 each.
He sells the paint at a profit of 25%.
For how much does Jan sell each tin of paint? [2]
¢ The cost of $17.16 for each tin of paint is 4% more than the cost in the previous year.
Work out the cost of each tin of paint in the previous year. [3]
d In America a tin of paint costs $17.16.
In Italy the same tin of paint costs €13.32.
The exchange rate is $1 = €0.72.
Calculate, in dollars, the difference in the cost of the tin of paint. [2]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q1 Oct/Nov 2015

‘as a A company makes compost by mixing loam, sand and coir in the following ratio.
loam :sand : coir=7:2:3
i How much loam is there in a 72 litre bag of the compost? [2
ii In a small bag of the compost there are 13.5 litres of coir.
How much compost is in a small bag? [2
iii The price of a large bag of compost is $8.40.
This is an increase of 12% on the price last year.
Calculate the price last year. 3]
b Teresa builds a raised garden bed in the shape of a hexagonal prism.
2m
NOT TO

A i 3
. ee

The garden bed has a height of 45 cm.

The cross section of the inside of the garden bed is a regular hexagon of side 2 m.
i Show that the area of the cross section of the inside of the garden bed is 10.4 m?,
correct to 3 significant figures. 3]
ii Calculate the volume of soil needed to fill the garden bed. [2]
iii Teresa wants to fill the garden bed with organic top soil.

—_—

Examination questions: Mixed type 689

 Examination questions: Mixed type

She sees this advertisement in the local garden centre.

ORGANIC TOP Number of tonnes purchased
SoiL 1to 5 6 to 10 Over 10

Organic top soil is sold in one tonne bags.

1 m3 of organic top soil has a mass of 1250 kg.
Calculate the cost of the organic top soil needed to fill the garden bed
completely. [1 tonne = 1000 kg] (4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q1 Oct/Nov 2014

®.
NOT TO
(2x + 3)em SCALE
[x + 2)em

­
B Fos
In triangle ABC, AB = (x + 2) cm and AC = (2x + 3) cm.
. 9
sin ACB = 16

Find the length of BC. [6]

b A bag contains 7 white beads and 5 red beads.
i The mass of a red bead is 2.5 grams more than the mass of a white bead.
The total mass of all the 12 beads is 114.5 grams.
Find the mass of a white bead and the mass of a red bead. (]
ii Two beads are taken out of the bag at random, without replacement.
Find the probability that
a they are both white, [2]
b one is white and one is red. 3]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q7 May/June 2013

690 Examination questions: Mixed type

 Examination questions: Mixed type

CY a The running costs for a papermill are $75 246.

This amount is divided in the ratio labour costs : materials = 5 : 1.
Calculate the labour costs.
[2
b In 2012 the company made a profit of $135 890.
In 2013 the profit was $150 675.
Calculate the percentage increase in the profit from 2012 to 2013.
3]
¢ The profit of $135 890 in 2012 was an increase of 7% on the profit in 2011.
Calculate the profit in 2011.
(3
d 2¢m
= NOT TO
SCALE
[=

2lem

= Po.

­ 30cm

Paper is sold in cylindrical rolls.

There is a wooden cylinder of radius 2 cm and height 21 cm in the centre of each roll.
The outer radius of a roll of paper is 30 cm.
i Calculate the volume of paper in a roll.
3]
ii The paper is cut into sheets which measure 21 cm by 29.7 cm.
The thickness of each sheet is 0.125 mm.
a Change 0.125 millimetres into centimetres.
nl
b Work out how many whole sheets of paper can be cut from a roll.
[4]
Cambridge International IGCSE Mathematics 0580 Paper 41 Q3 May/June 2014

Examination questions: Mixed type 691

 Glossary
n pi the value of the circumference of any circle Angle bisector a line which divides an angle into two
divided by its diameter. Approximately 3.142 equal parts
12­hour clock used to give a time of day using times Angle of depression looking down this is the angle
up to 12 and am for morning times and pm for between the horizontal and the line of sight
afternoon times
24­hour­clock used to give a time of day using times
up to 24 and does not need am or pm.

Absolute value the positive value of the difference

between a number and zero Angle of elevator

Acceleration the rate at which the velocity of a

moving object changes ­

Acute angles are angles which are smaller than 90°

Angle of elevation looking up this is the angle
Adjacent side the side adjacent (next) to the known
between the horizontal and the line of sight
or required angle in a right­angled triangle
Angle of rotation the angle through which a shape
is turned when it is rotated about a point
Angles at a point the sum of the angles at a point is
360° For example: a + b+ ¢ + d + e = 360°
Adjacent

Allied angles are made when a line crosses a pair of

parallel lines. Allied angles are sometimes called
interior angles

oO
/

\
Angles on straight lines the angles at a point on a
Alternate angles are made when a line crosses a straight line add up to 180", for example:
pair of parallel lines. The alternate angles are on
alternate sides of the line
."
/ \
\ dle

vd WR of NAS
a+b=180° c+d+e+f=180°

Annual rate the amount something changes in a

Amplitude the maximum displacement of a cyclical year, often referring to an interest rate which is
function from its central position given as a percentage
Angle an angle measures the amount of turn or the Anticlockwise the opposite direction to which the
change in direction between two lines hands of a clock turn

692
Appropriate sensible for the context being Bisect cut in half
considered Boundary
Approximation a value that is close but not exactly 1) edge of an area
Appropriate sensible for the context being 2) class boundary is the largest or smallest value in a
considered equal to another value which can class
be used to give an idea of the size of the value.
Box plot a graph that shows the distribution of data
For example, a journey taking 58 minutes may
along a number line
be described taking about an hour. The sign
Brackets used to group terms together in algebra
=indicates ‘is approximately equal to’
(Arbitrary) constant of integration the constant Cancel dividing both the numerator and denominator
introduced due to integrating a function can in a fraction by the same number
take any value so is an arbitrary constant
Capacity the amount a container holds when it is full
Arc part of the circumference of a circle
Cartesian coordinates are an ordered pair (x, v) of
Minor numbers used to specify the position of a point
arc
where the x­value, or x­coordinate, gives the
Major
arc
distance parallel to the x­axis and the y­value, or
y­coordinate, gives the distance parallel to the
Area the amount of space in a 2­D shape y­axis
Area scale factor the factor by which an area is Cartesian plane the plane in which the x­axis and
multiplied y­axis lie
Area sine rule a formula used to find the area of a Centilitre one hundredth of a litre
triangle Centimetre one hundredth of a metre
Arithmetic progression a sequence of numbers Centre
are in arithmetic progression if they difference 1) of a circle is where the compass point is placed
between consecutive numbers are constant when drawing a circle using a pair of compasses
Average a value which is chosen to represent a set 2) of a transformation is a fixed point from which a
of data. Mode, mean, and median are common transformation is described
examples of an average Centre of enlargement the lines joining
Average speed the ratio of distance + time for a corresponding points in an object and its image
journey all meet at the centre of enlargement
Axis (plural axes) a fixed reference line for the Centre of rotation the fixed point about which an
measurement of coordinates object is rotated
Axis of symmetry a line through a shape so that one Certain having a probability of 1
side is a reflection of the other. Chance likelihood
Chord a line across a circle
Bar chart a type of frequency diagram drawn using
bars or rectangles of equal widths to display AN
discrete data
Base
1) base number is the number which is being raised Circumference the distance around the outside
to a power (perimeter) of a circle
2) the base of a 2­D shape is the horizontal line Class frequency the number of values in a class
drawn at the bottom of the shape Class interval the width of a group in a grouped
3) the base of a 3­D object is the flat part of the frequency distribution
object upon which it stands Classes are groups
Bearing an angle measured clockwise from North to Clockwise the hands of a clock turn in this direction
describe a direction

693
 Coefficient a constant term which is multiplied by a Correlation a connection between two sets of data
variable. For example, 2x, or 5x2, the ‘2’ and the Corresponding angles angles which are in the same
'5" are coefficients of x and x? respectively position and are equal
Collinear lying on the same straight line
Column vector an ordered set of 2 or 3 numbers
used to give the position of a point or to
describe the change in position of a point
Common factors factors which are common to more
than one term or number
Compasses drawing instruments used to draw arcs Corresponding sides sides which are in the same
and circles position
Complement the complement of set A is everything Cosine the ratio of the adjacent side to the
outside of set A hypotenuse
Completing the square a way of simplifying or Cosine rule a rule connecting sides and an angle of
solving a quadratic equation by adding an any triangle usually used when the triangle is not
expression to both sides to make one part of the right­angled. a? = b? + ¢? — 2bc Cos A
equation a perfect square Cross­section a face formed by cutting through a 3­D
Composite function a function that is made from object
two or more separate functions Cube a 3­D solid consisting of six square faces
Compound interest the overall interest earned on
investment when the total interest earned in
each period is added back to the original capital
Cone a 3­D shape with a circular base and a curved Cube number the number you get when you
sloping face multiply a number by itself and then again. For
example 8 is a cube numberas2 x2 x2=8. 8
is called the cube of 2 and can be written as 2°,
2 cubed ‘
Congruent two shapes are congruent if they have Cube root the opposite of cubing a number, so the
exactly the same shape and size cube root of 8 is 2
Consecutive next to each other Cubic function is a function in which the highest
power of x is x?
Consistency how varied a set of values are
Cubic sequence a sequence in which the values are
Constant a value that does not change
obtained using n* in some way.
Constant of proportionality the constant value of
Cuboid a 3­D solid consisting of 6 rectangular faces
the ratio between two proportional quantities
Constant speed a particle has constant speed if its Cumulative frequency obtained by adding
frequencies together to accumulate them
speed does not change
Curved surface a part of a cylinder
Construct use only pencil, straight edge and compasses
Cyclic quadrilateral a quadrilateral whose vertices lie
Continuous data data that can have any value in a range
on a circle
Conversion graph a graph used to convert from one
Cylinder a prism whose constant cross­section is a circle.
unit to another
Coordinate method the way in which an object or curved surface

an image can be found in ‘enlargements’ by

counting squares
Coordinate grid a grid used to show the positions of
points ­ constant

Coordinates used to specify the location of a point. circular

cross­section
See Cartesian coordinates

694
 Glossary

Dashed line a line which has regular gaps, Discrete data data that takes only particular values in a
sometimes called broken range
Decagon a polygon with 10 sides Dispersion spread or variation
Decay a reduction which follows a predictable Displacement when an object moves from a position
pattern A to a position B the displacement is the
Deceleration the rate at which speed or velocity magnitude of the vector AB
decreases with time Distance a measured length between two points
Decimal a number written using only digits and a Distance travelled the measured length between
decimal point, for example 12.34 two points of a journey
Decimal equivalent a number written as a decimal Distance­time graph a graph plotting the distance
which has the same value as a number written in a travelled against the time taken
different form Dividend a number being divided by another. For
Decimal place the position of a digit after the example 12 + 4 = 3, here 12 is the dividend
decimal point in a number Divisor a number being divided into another. For
Decrease become smaller or reduce example 12 + 4 = 3, here 4 is the divisor.
Denominator the number on the ‘bottom’ of a
fraction Edge the line where two faces of a solid meet
Derivative the result of differentiation, the gradient Element a member of a set
function Eliminate remove. For example when two
Diameter the distance from one point on a circle to simultaneous equations are solved you eliminate
another passing through the centre of the circle one of the letters, that is you combine the two
equations by removing one of the letters
Empty set a set with no elements. Also called the
null set
Enlargement a transformation in which the shape of
an object remains the same but the size usually
Difference
changes
1) the result when one number is subtracted from
Equally likely have the same probability
another
Equals has the same value as
2) the gap between consecutive numbers in a
Equation a statement which involves two expressions
sequence
which have the same value so have an ‘=’ sign
Difference of two squares a results used to
between them
factorise algebraic expressions
Equation of line the relationship between the
X= =(x+yx­y)
x­coordinate and the y­coordinate for each of
Differentiate find the gradient function
a set of points
Differentiation the process used to find the gradient
Equidistant at the same distance
function
Equilateral triangle an equilateral triangle is a
Digit a single number, for example in the number
triangle with all its sides equal. All three angles
234 the digit in the ‘tens column’ is ‘3°
in an equilateral triangle are 60°
Direct proportion two quantities are in direct
Equivalent fractions two or more fractions which
proportion if one increases as the other increases
have the same value as each other. For
Direct variation same as direct proportion
Directed number a positive or negative number or example 2 and 2 are equivalent fractions, both
zero
are equivalent to 3
Direction in vectors the direction is indicated by an
arrow on the vector Estimate find an approximate value for
Estimated a value which has been found approximately

695
 Event a set of outcomes in probability Fraction a number which is written using two parts
Exact form written without using decimals or any called the numerator and denominator
approximations Frequency the number of times a value occurs in a
Exchange rate the equivalence between two set of data
different currencies Frequency density the ratio of the frequency to
Expand multiply all the terms inside the brackets the class­width in a frequency distribution.
by those outside the brackets. (opposite of Frequency density is used to draw histograms
factorise) Frequency table a table showing frequencies
Expansion when brackets are expanded the result is Function a rule which takes one number and changes
called the expansion of the brackets it into another.
Experimental probability the ratio of the number
of times the event occurs to the total number of Gradient a measure of how steep a line is
trials Gram (g) a basic unit of mass in the metric system
Exponential having a constant base raised to a Greater than ‘greater than’ means the same as
variable power ‘more than’
Exponential decay a reduction which follows Grouped data data which has been sorted into
a pattern predictable using an exponential groups or classes
function Grouped frequency table a table which shows the
Exponential form written in the form of a* number of values in each of a set of groups or
Exponential functions functions which involve a classess.
constant base raised to a variable power
Heptagon a polygon with 7 sides
Exponential growth an increase which follows
Hexagon a six­sided polygon
a pattern predictable using an exponential
function Highest common factor (HCF) the largest factor
which is common to two or more other numbers
Exponential sequence a set of numbers which
follow an exponential pattern Histogram a chart drawn using rectangles that uses
the area to represent frequencies
Expression a series of terms connected by plus and
minus signs Hypotenuse the longest side of a right­angled ]
triangle. It is always opposite the right angle.
External angles angles turned through when going
round the perimeter of a polygon
Image the new shape after a transformation
Extreme values values which stand out as being
Impossible an event with probability 0
particularly large or small relative to the other
values in a set. Improper fraction a fraction in which the numerator
is greater than the denominator
Face one flat surface of a solid which is enclosed by Included in inequalities lines on the boundary of a
edges region which are included in that region are
Factor a whole number which divides exactly into drawn using a solid line
another whole number Included angle the angle between two adjacent
Factor pair a pair of numbers which multiply to give sides
another number. For example, 3 and 4 are a Increase go up in value
factor pair of 12. Index (plural indices) .
Factorise take all common factors outside brackets. 1) the power of a number
(opposite of expand) 2) a quantity which allows comparisons to be made
Formula (plural formulae or formulas) a rule over time, for example a cost of living index allows
expressed in words or letters costs over time to be compared

696
Inequality a statement about the relative size of two Length how long an object is
values or expressions using the symbols < (less Less than the sign < is used to mean less than’. For
than), = (less than or equal to), > (greater than), example, 2 < 3 means 2 is smaller than 3, or 2 is
= (greater than or equal to) less than 3 :
Infinite going on for ever Like terms terms containing the same variable raised
Integer a whole number to the same power. These terms can then be
Intercept the place a line crosses an axis, for added or subtracted to be combined
example the Y­intercept is the place a line Limits of accuracy the upper and lower bounds
crosses the y­axis when approximating
Interior angles Line a one­dimensional object extending infinitely in
1) Interior angles are the angles inside a polygon. The both directions
sum, S, of the interior angles of a polygon with n Line bisector a line which cuts another line in two
sides is given by the formula § = 180(n — 2)° equal parts at right angles
2) Allied angles are sometimes called interior angles Line of best fit a single straight line which passes
Inter­quartile range the distance between the lower through a set of points and is as close as possible
to as many of them as possible
and upper quartiles
Line of symmetry a line drawn so that one side of
Intersection
the line is a reflection of the other side
1) a set of elements that belong to both of two other
sets Line segment the part of a line that joins two points
2) the point where two lines cross Linear of a straight line
Inverse something that has an opposite or reverse effect Linear equations equations that do not contain any
Inverse functions functions which have the reverse powers or roots such as yx, or y?
effect to each other Linear programming problem solving using graphs
Inverse operations operations that have the reverse of straight lines
or opposite effect to each other. For example, Linear scale factor a multiplier which is linear
addition and subtraction are inverse operations, Linear sequence a sequence of numbers so that
multiplication and division are inverse operations the difference between consecutive numbers is
Inverse proportion the relationship between two constant
variables where one decreases as the other Litre a basic unit of capacity in the SI system
increases Locus (plural loci) the path of a moving point
Irrational number a number that cannot be written Loss the difference between the amount taken when
as a fraction it is sold and the amount paid for it initially when
Irregular polygon any polygon which is not regular the amount taken is smaller than the amount
Isosceles triangle a triangle with two equal sides. An paid initially
isosceles triangle has two equal angles (at the Lower bound the smallest possible value of a
foot of the equal sides). rounded quantity
Lower quartile the value which 25% of the data are
Key an explanation of what a diagram shows. For below or equal to
example, in a pictogram the key will show a
Lowest common multiple (LCM) the smallest
symbol and how many items it represents and it
number which is a multiple of two or more
states what the items are
other numbers. For example the LCM of 6
Kilogram (kg) a measure of mass in the metric
and 10s 30
system. 1 kg = 1000 g
Lowest terms a fraction which has been cancelled
Kilometre (km) a measure of distance in the metric
as much as possible so that it is not possible to
system. 1 km = 1000 m
cancel it further is said to be in its lowest terms.
Kite a kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of equal
adjacent sides.

697
 Glossary

Magnitude the size or length of a vector Natural number the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, ...
Map scale the scale on a map indicates how many Negative less than 0
centimetres on the ground are represented by Negative correlation a correlation where one
one centimetre on the map variable decreases as the other increases
Mapping the process which changes one number to Negative enlargement an enlargement involving a
another negative scale factor. A negative enlargement
Mapping diagram a diagram showing two sets of produces an image shape on the opposite side of
numbers and how each number in one set is the centre of enlargement to the original shape
mapped to each number in the other Negative index an index which is below 0
Mass the amount of matter in an object Net a 2­D pattern that can be cut out and folded into
Maximum the largest possible value a 3­D shape
Mean a measure of average, found by adding all the Nonagon a polygon with 9 sides
values and dividing by how many there are Non­linear not following the pattern of a straight line
Median a measure of average, found by listing all nth term counting from the first term in a sequence
the values in order and taking the value in the itis the term in position a. It is used to give a
middle general formula that can be used to find every
Metric system the system of weights and measures term in the sequence
most commonly in use Null set a set with no elements
Middle value the value in the middle Number line a line labelled with numbers.
Midpoint the point which is exactly half way Sometimes used to help working with negative
between two others numbers
Millilitre (ml) a unit used for measuring capacity. Numerator the number which is on the ‘top’ of a
1000 millilitres = 1 litre fraction.
Millimetre (mm) a unit used for measuring distance.
Object the original shape before a transformation
1000 millimetres = 1 metre
Obtuse angles greater than 90° but less than 180"
Minimum the smallest possible value
Obtuse­angled triangle a triangle with one angle
Mirror line a line of symmetry greater than 90°
Mixed number a number containing a whole Octagon a regular eight­sided polygon
number part and a fraction Operation +, —, x, + are all operations
Modal class the class which has the highest Opposite angles are made by two straight lines
frequency
crossing each other. The diagram shows a and
Modal value the value with the highest frequency c are opposite angles, and b and d are opposite
Mode the value with the highest frequency angles. Opposite angles are equal so a = ¢ and
More than the sign > is used to mean ‘more than’. b = d. Opposite angles are sometimes called
For example, 5 > 4 means 5 is larger than 4, or 5 vertically opposite angles
is more than 4
Multiple a number which is obtained by multiplying
two other numbers
/ ~
Multiplier a number which is used to multiply p >in ™
4 C
another number is called a multiplier
Mutually exclusive two events are mutually Opposite side the side opposite the known or
required angle in a right­angled triangle
exclusive if one prevents the other from
happening. For example, when you follow a
maze and get to a junction where there are Opposite
exactly two possible choices: you can turn left or
right, these are mutually exclusive as you cannot
Order when numbers are organised into a sequence
go both left and right at the same time.
they are said to be in order

698
 Glossary

Order of rotational symmetry the number of times

—»
a shape will fit onto itself exactly in one full >

rotation when rotated about a point

jt—

Origin (0, 0) the point where the x­axis and y­axis cross <— base —»

Outcome result. Pictogram a chart which uses identical pictures to

show frequencies
Parabola the shape of the graph of a quadratic
Pie chart a circular chart showing how a whole set of
function
data is divided into parts. The angles, or areas,
Parallel lines which have exactly the same direction,
are used to represent frequencies
are always the same distance apart and never
Plane area the area of a flat shape
meet
Plane of symmetry a plane in a solid which divides
Parallelogram a quadrilateral in which opposite sides
are parallel the solid into two parts each of which is a
reflection of the other
Patterns predictable arrangements or sequences of
Point of contact the position where a line touches a
numbers
curve
Pentagon a five­sided polygon
Point of inflexion a point on a curve where the
Percentage out of each hundred
gradient changes from decreasing to increasing
Percentage change the difference between the or from increasing to decreasing
current and the original value as a fraction of the
Polygon a 2­dimensional shape made using only
original value multiplied by 100
straight lines
Percentage decrease a negative percentage change
Position vector a vector which gives the position of
where the current value is lower than the original
a point
value
Positive greater than 0
Percentage increase a positive percentage change
where the current value is higher than the Positive correlation a correlation where one variable
increases as the other increases
original value
Percentage loss the difference between the current Possibility diagram a diagram which shows all the
possible outcomes of an event
and the original value as a fraction of the
original value multiplied by 100 when the values Power an index
are money and the current value is lower than Power 0 any value or expression raised to the power
the initial value 0 has a value of 1. For example 3° = 1, and
Percentage profit the difference between the Bx)°=1
current and the original value as a fraction of the Power 1 raising any value or expression to the power
original value multiplied by 100 when the values 1 does not change its value. For example 3' = 3,
are money and the current value is higher than and (3x)! = 3x
the initial value Prime factorisation writing a number as a product
Perimeter the distance around the outside of a 2­D of all its factors which are prime
shape Prime number a number which has exactly 2 factors
Perpendicular two lines are perpendicular if they are Principal the amount of money invested
at right angles to each other Prism a 3­D solid which has the same cross­section
Perpendicular bisector a line that cuts a line in half throughout its shape (a uniform cross­section).
at right angles Triangular prisms (with a triangular cross­section)
Perpendicular height the height of a 2­D shape and cylinders (with a circular cross­section) are
measured from the base of the shape and at examples of prisms
right angles to it. The perpendicular height of
a shape does not have to be inside the shape, A NT)
as seen in this parallelogram, the perpendicular // % \ me a /|
height is labelled h in the diagram

699
 Probability how likely an individual outcome of an Quadratic sequence a sequence of numbers form a
event is to occur. Probability is measured on a quadratic sequence if they differences between
scale from Oto 1 consecutive numbers are in an arithmetic
Probability fraction a probability which is written as a progression. The formula for the nth term of a
fraction quadratic sequence is a formula in which the
Product the product of two or more numbers is highest power of n is n?
obtained by multiplying the numbers together Quadrilateral a polygon with four sides
Product of prime factors see prime factorisation Qualitative descriptive rather than numerical
Profit when you sell something for more than you Quantity an amount of something
paid for it the difference is the profit Quartile a value which is one quarter way through
Proof a set of statements which together form a step a set of data when it is listed in order. Lower
by step mathematical argument quartile is the value which is one quarter way
Proper fraction a fraction in which the numerator is from the lowest value, upper quartile is the value
less than the denominator which is one quarter way from the highest value.
Proper subset a set of elements which is contained
Radius (plural radii) the distance from one point on a
within another set, but not the same as that set.
circle to the centre
For example, Set A ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then set
D=({1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of A Random a random number is a number which is not
predictable
Protractor used to measure angles
Prove make a proof Range
1) the distance between the largest and smallest
Pyramid a solid shape with triangular faces. The base
value in a set of data
of a pyramid does not have to be triangular
2) the set of y values for a function
Pythagoras’ theorem a relationship between the
sides of a right angled triangle. a? + b? = ¢2 Rate the rate of interest when borrowing or saving
where ¢ is the hypotenuse of the triangle. money
Rate of increase how quickly a variable or value
Quadrant the axes divide a page into four quadrants increases relative to another variable A
Ratio a way to compare two quantities with each
Ya
other
Second First Rational number a number which can be written as
quadrant quadrant
a fraction (3 ) where a and b are integers
0 “x
Third Ray methods the way in which an object or an
Fourth
quadrant quadrant image can be found in ‘enlargements’ by
drawing lines or ‘rays’ from the centre of
enlargement
Quadratic equation an equation in which the Real number any rational or irrational number
highest power of x is x?
Rearrange rewrite in a different order
Quadratic expression an expression in which the Reciprocal the reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by
highest power of x is x?
the number. For example, the reciprocal of 3 is
Quadratic formula the formula used to solve a
1 and the reciprocal of 2g
quadratic equation Eek sb —dac where a,
—dac
3 5 3

b, and ¢ are the coefficients of x2, x, and the Rectangle a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel
sides and four right angles
constant term, respectively
Recurring decimal a decimal with an infinite number
Quadratic graph a graph of a quadratic equation
of decimal places the last digit or group of digits
repeats

700
 Reflection a transformation which results in a copy Scale factor a number which tells you how many
of the object looking as though it is the object times larger an image is of an object
viewed in a mirror Scatter diagram points plotted on Cartesian axes
Reflex angles are greater than 180° which are used to see any correlation or to make
Regular polygon A polygon is regular if all its interior predictions
angles are equal and all of its sides are the same Sector part of a circle enclosed between part of the
length circumference and two radii
Relative frequency the ratio of the number of the Segment part of a circle enclosed between part of
successful outcomes to the total number of the circumference and a chord
trials, which can then be used as an estimate of Semi­circle half a circle
probability Sequence a set of numbers which follow a rule
number of successful outcomes
relative frequency = ­ Set a collection of items
number of trials
Set square used to find right angles
Representative in place of, for example when a Significant figures the digits of a number
single value is used to represent a set of values it Similar two shapes are similar if they have the same
is used in place of all the values
shape but not the same size
Required to be found. The required angle is an angle Simple interest ­ a charge for borrowing or lending
whose size is to be found
PRT
money. I = Tos
Rhombus a parallelogram with all its sides equal
Right angle an angle of 90°
Simplest form the way in which a fraction or ratio
Right­angled triangle a triangle which has an angle is written so that the smallest possible whole
of 90°
numbers are used
Rotation turning an object or shape about a point
Simplify
by a given angle in either a clockwise or anti­
1) in an expression or equation this means to collect
clockwise direction
any like terms so there are as few terms as
Rotational symmetry a shape has rotational possible
symmetry if when it is rotated about a point it
2) in a fraction or ratio this means write a fraction so
fits exactly onto itself at least once before being
that the smallest possible whole numbers are used
turned 360°
Simultaneous linear equations two equations with
Round
two unknowns
1) circular in shape
Sine the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse
2) replace a number with one which is approximately
Sine rule a rule connecting the sides and angles of a
equal
triangle which is not right­angled
Rounded down replace a number with one which is
approximately equal but smaller than the original a _ bb _ ¢ sinA _ sinB _sinC
number sind sinB sinC a bc
Rounded up replace a number with one which is Single fraction a fraction which consists of exactly
approximately equal but smaller than the original one numerator and one denominator only
number Single unit value in unitary method it is the cost of
Rule a general statement one unit or the time it takes for one item
Ruler used to draw straight lines and measure lengths. Slant height the sloping distance from the circular
base of a cone to the apex at the top
Sample a selection from a larger population
Scalar a single number
Scale the ratio between the lengths on a scale
drawing and the actual length represented
Scale drawing an accurate drawing in which the Solid line a line which has no breaks or gaps
lengths are in proportion to the original Solid shapes 3­D objects
———

701
 Soluble can be solved or worked out Tangent
Solution answer to a problem 1) a straight line that touches a circle at one point
Solve only
1) a triangle work out any missing sides or angles 2) the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side
2) an equation work out the value of the letter in a right­angled triangle
Speed the rate of change of distance with time Term
Speed­time graph a graph which shows how speed 1) an expression forming part of a larger equation or
varies with time part of an equation
Sphere a solid shape which appears round no matter 2) asingle item in a sequence
what position it is viewed from, for example a Term to term rule a rule which links one term in a
football sequence to the next term
Spread the distance(s) between the values Terminating decimal a decimal that has a finite
Square number of digits
1) a square is a regular four­sided polygon Three­figure bearing a bearing which has 3 digits
2) to square a number is to multiply it by itself, for exactly
example the square of 5 is 25 Time in speed distance and time, time is how long
Square number the result of squaring an integer a journey takes, measured in hours minutes or
seconds
Square root the opposite of squaring a number. For
example the square root of 36 is 6 Timetable a table giving arrival and/or departure times
Standard form a way to write very large and very Tonne a metric unit for measuring mass.
small numbers using a number between 1 and 1 tonne = 1000 kg
10 multiplied by a power of 10 Top heavy a fraction in which the numerator is
Stem­and­leaf diagram shows data arranged by greater than the denominator. See improper
place value, for the purpose of comparing fraction
frequencies Transformation a change in the position or size
Straight­line graph the graph of a linear function of a shape. Reflections, rotations, translations
or enlargements are all examples of
Subject the subject of a formula is the letter in front
transformations
of the equals sign. For example, int = 2s + 3, ris
the subject of the formula Translation a transformation which moves a shape
from one position to another without changing
Subset if all the elements of a set C are in a set A
the orientation or size of the shape
then Cis a subset of A
Transversal a line crossing a pair of parallel lines
Substitute replace a letter with either an expression
or a value Trapezium a quadrilateral with two parallel sides
Subtended made. The angle subtended at the Tree diagram a diagram with branches which shows
circumference of a circle is the angle made there all the possible outcomes of an event and their
probabilities
Supplementary supplementary angles add up to
180° Trial an experiment which is repeated a number of
times
Surface area the total area of the faces of a solid
Turning point a point on a graph where the gradient
Symbol each of +, —, x, + is a symbol.
changes from being either positive to negative or
Tally chart a chart used to collect data with a tally from negative to positive.
used to record each value. Tallies are marked
Union the union of sets A and B is the set of all
as |s and grouped in 5s as a 5­bar gate. For
elements which are in either set A or in set B or
example this tally represents 7 values being
in both
recorded Note the 5­bar gate is 4 vertical lines
with one diagonal line Unitary method a way to solve proportion problems
by finding the value of a single item
JHT I
702
Universal set the set containing all the things being Vertex a corner of a shape, where two edges meet
considered Vertical height distance of one point above another
Upper bound the largest possible value of a rounded point or line
quantity Vertically opposite angles vertically opposite angles
Upper quartile the value below which three­quarters are the same as opposite angles
of the data lie. ~ Volume the amount of space a solid shape occupies

Variable a quantity that can take different values Volume scale factor a multiplier for enlargements
using volumes.
Variation
1) see proportion Weak correlation when there is little connection
2) how the values in a data set are spread out between two sets of data
Vector a way of writing the position of a point or Width distance from one side to the other.
describing a movement from one position to
another Zero correlation when there is no connection
Venn diagram a way to show the elements of between two sets of data.
different sets

703
 Answers to Chapter 1

Answers to Chapter 1

1.1 Square numbers and cube 5 ais b 28 c 15

numbers 6 5 numbers: 18, 36, 54, 72, 90

Exercise 1A 1.3 Factors of whole numbers

1 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, 196, 225, 256, 289, 324,
361, 400 Exercise 1E
2 4,9, 16, 25, 36, 49 1 a1,2510 b 1,247 14 28
3 a 50,65, 82 b 98, 128, 162 € 1,236,918 d1,17
c 51,66, 83 d 48, 63, 80 e 1,525 f 1,2,4,5, 8,10, 20, 40
4 a 25,169, 625, 1681 g1,23,5,6,10,15, 30 h 1.3.59, 15,45
b Answers in each row are the same i 1,2,3,4,6,8 12,24 j 1.2,4,816
5 ai13 bs c9 2 ass b 67 c 29
dn e20
d 39 e 65 f 80
36 and 49
3 a2 b2 c3 ds e3
f3 g7 hs i 10 in
, 36 b 20, 40, 60 ¢ 15, 30, 45 4 5
e 35,70, 105
Exercise 1F
Square number] Factor of 70 1 ai68 b 105 c 84 d 84
Even number 16 10 e 96 f 54 g75 h 144
Multiple of 7 49 35 2 a8 b7 cd d 14
ed fo 95 ha
3 4761 (699)
i3 j 16 k 5S 1 18
4 24 seconds
3 18and 24
S 30 seconds
6 a2 bo <6 d 13
e 15 f 16 9 10 h17 1.4 Prime numbers
Exercise 1C Exercise 1G
1 1,8,27,64,125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000, 1331, 1728 = 23 and 29
2 9, 36, 100: square numbers 97
1+8+27+64+125=225 WN All these numbers are not prime.
1+8+27+64+125+216=441 3.57
1+8+27+64+125+216+343=784 ms Only if all 31 bars are in a single row, as 31 is a prime number
3 al26 217 344 and its only factors are 1 and 31.
b 124 215 342
c 250 432 686 1.5 Prime factorisation
d 216 125 64
4 a 153, 370, 371 Exercise 1H
b Each answer is the sum of the cubes of its digits 1 a36 b105 «¢ 250 d 816
Ss 1729 e714 £1715 g 1089 h 1352
6 692 =4761 and 693 = 328509 The answers use all the digits 2 a2x3x5 b 23x19 c 2¢
from 0 to 9 exactly once. d2x3x5x11 e172 f 2°x%?
g It is a prime number and cannot be factorised.
1.2 Multiples of whole numbers h7x11x13 .
3 77=7x11,129=3x43;221=13x17
Exercise 1D 4 a9%0=22x3x5 b 1800 = 23x 32 x 5?
1 a3,691215 b 7,14, 21, 28, 35 €c 1350=2x3¥x 52
c 9,18, 27, 36, 45 d 11, 22,33, 44,55 5 144 22x 3°
e 16, 32, 48, 64, 80 200 SE x 3?
2 a 72132216 b 161,91 c 72,102,132, 78, 216 324 2) x 52
3 ao9s b 99 c 96 d 95 e 98 f 9% 500 ———22x 53
4 4or5(as 2, 10 and 20 are not realistic answers)

704
€ a2xFeTR7=210 1.7 Real numbers
b Theanswertoax 11=2x3x5x7 x 11=2310
7 a2x31x17 b2x32x17 € 22x3x17 p———
8 71,73 and 79 because they are prime numbers 1 ayes § id C yes d yes. &i
9 456533=7'x11 £ yes 9 no h yes i yes
2 a rational b rational c irrational
1.6 More about HCF and LCM d rational e irrational f rational
g rational h irrational i irrational
Exercise 11 ) 3 aL b Lor 3; cL d 04
1 a2x3=18 b 23 x 3* = 648 :
2 a3s b 735 4 ;and05
3 a2*x3x5 b2x3*x7 ¢6 d5040 5S
4 a 2?x3%and2?x3? b 36 c 216 6
5 alib b 576 6 a 2.5and 3.5 is one possible answer
6 a33 b 2772 b 0.4 x 2.5 is one possible answer
7 a2?x3=12 b 22x32x5=360 ¢ Not possible
8 as b 1575 7 V2 x V8is a possible answer
9 als b 23625 8 nand4­ nis a possible answer
10 a 72 b 2° x 3* 9 There are many possible answers. You could just give the
1 al b 12 600 same answer as question 5.
1 1 _10_5 8 3_23 4
12 a72x162=11664 b 18 x 648 = 11664 10a byg=3s=7 ©7=8 d57="7" The reciprocal is 3;
¢ You could do a similar calculation for the numbers in i )
questions 2 to 6. You should find that the two products are Notice that in part b you could use a calculator to get 1 + 2.8 =
equal each time. 0.3571 to4 dp.
d There is not a similar result in this case. This is only an approximate answer. For an exact answer you must
S use fractions.

Answers to Chapter 2
" 10 35 9 37 a1 17
2.1 Equivalent fractions Tey Wig cf Wy af 13
5 13 43 29 19 89
Exercise 2A
9; bw3T iF IF ky IJ
8 Students check their own answers.
AE d 2x6,12 v3
ex312 9 <%
¥ a0
25.8 9 yy
2]
7 __e3I A _el65.
=63% HP5 = 63.
| 5027;
13_g) :
7" is the biggest ince 11
since
18 12 4 is less than 1 and 3 is greater than
2 a 3
2 bz
4 c3
5 2 ae 2
d +63 . )
5 3 10 Any mixed number which is between 7.7272 and 7.9.
e 25+5,2 f 30+3,+ For example 73

3 ai bi ci d3 el o
: : ; : : 2.2 Fractions and decimals
ob 935 hg i3 ia
125 153 217 Exercise 2B
4 a338 b3gT 53m ­ . y 5 :
dl23
2'33 111
643 £349
50 wg13 b§1 <3 Ww °%
h 19 | 1 16
6 alilod,3_7 iw 93 % o hx
TRE R 2 aos b 0.75 c 06 d 09 e 0333
Explanations may involve ruling out other combinations f 0625 g 0667 h 035 i 0636 j 0444
b 1 as the smallest denominator the bi
t unit fraction
2 wok
is
IR Dest Tacy 3 2033.06 b03Z,08 c015},035
Diagrams may be used but must be based on equal sized area. 3 p :
. d 071,072 e 07,308 f ==,
6 a 23 b 23
2
C 22
1 10 a 20 0.08,0.1
1
: : 9 04,1055 h1.2,1.231}
di: e 2! £12
4 Store A­ 5 (0.33) is greater than : (0.25)

705
 5 a 12_2
30°­5 b 04 3 a $45 b $6.30 c 1288kg d 1.125kg
e 1.08 h f 378cm g $0.12 h 294m
7
6 5(=0875) i $7.60 j 33.88min k 136kg I $162

7 i=067) 4 $2410
5 aB86% b 215
6 8520
2.3 Recurring decimals 7 287
8 99%
Exercise 2C 9 Mon: 816, Tue: 833, Wed: 850, Thu; 799, Fri; 748
1 a0333.0r03 bo075 ¢ 0.8333...0r0:83 10 a $3.25 b 2.21 kg c $562.80
d 0222..0r02 e 065 f 08181...0r0.81 d $6.51 e 4293 m f $24
g 0.1875 h 0.916 66... or 0.916 11 480 cm’ nitrogen, 120 cm? oxygen
2 a 04666..0r046 b 09333. 0r0.9 12 13
3 a0.1111... bO0.1666... ¢ 0.2777... d 0.0555... 13 $270
8
14 More this year as it was 3% of a higher amount than last year.
te
> 3
6 %
1 2.6 Increasing or decreasing
1 quantities by a percentage
7 2
7
8 2% Exercise 2F
9 0.230769 1 an b 1.03 c 12 d 1.07 e 1.12
10 a 0.09 b 0.18 ¢ 0.27,0.36and 0.63 2 a $62.40 b 1296kg «¢4725¢g d 599.5m
11 a 0285714 b 0428571 «¢ %=0571428,3= 0.14285 e $38.08 f $90 g 391 kg h 824.1 cm
i 2535¢g j $143.50 k 736 m | $30.24
i i and § = 0.857142
12 a 5570 3 $29425
4 1690200
b % is a terminating decimal if the only prime factors of N are 5 a Caretaker: $17 325, Driver: $18 165, Supervisor: $20475,
2 or 5. Otherwise it is a recurring decimal. Manager: $26 565
b 5% of different amounts is not a fixed amount. The more
pay to start with, the more the increase (5%) will be.
2.4 Percentages, fractions and 6 $411.95
decimals 7 193800
8 S759
Exercise 2D 9 918
1
2
a 7%
1
b 3
1
[4 a
7
d 20
9
e 10 f
3
2 10 60
11 TV. $287.88, microwave; $84.60, CD player: $135.13,
2 a027 b08 ¢013 d006 e08 f 032 stereo: $34.66
3 2 9 17 1 5 12 $10
3 ag by cx dx a 3 13 c¢ Both the same as 1.05 x 1.03 = 1.03 x 1.05
4 a29% bS55% c3% d16% e60% f 125% 14 a Shop A, as 1.04 x 1.04 = 1.0816, so an 8.16% increase.
5 a28% b30% c9%5% dM% e 275% f 875% 15 $540.96
6 a06 bO007S c¢07 d03125 e005 f 0.125
7 a 63%, 83%, 39%, 62%, 77% b English Exercise 2G
1 a092 b 0.85 c 0.75 d 0.91 e 0.88
8 34%,0.34,
17.
% 85%, 0.85, 17,
37 7.5%, obs, 45%,
3.
os 9.
2 a $9.40 b 23 kg c 21249 d 3395m
30%, 03,55;8 67%, 0.67, 2,
% 84%, 084, 21;. 45%, 0.45, 2 e $4.90 f 396m g 731m h 8352¢g
37.5%, 0.375, H i 360cm i M7min k 81.7kg | $37.70
3 $5525
4 a528kg b 66 kg
2.5 Calculating a percentage c 45.76 kg
"5 Mr Patel $176, Mrs Patel $297.50,
Sandeep $341, Priyanka $562.50
Exercise 2E ) 6 448
1 a0s88 b 03 ¢ 0.25 d 0.08 e 1.15 ~ 705
2 a78% b 40% c 75% d 5% e 110% 8 a 66.5kmh b 73.5 km/h

706
 9 No, as the total is $101. She will save $20.20, which is less 9 a Simple b 6.5%
than the $25 it would cost to join the club. 10 a $13800 b $15870
10 10% off $50 is $45; 10% off $45 is $40.50; 20% off $50 is ¢ Student's own explanation
$40
n" a 2652.25 and 5304.50 b £796.37
11 $765
12 1.10% 0.9 =0.99 (99%)
2.9 A formula for compound interest
13 Offer A gives 360 grams for $1.40, i.e. 0.388 cents per gram.
Offer B gives 300 grams for $1.12, i.e 0.373 cents per gram, so
Offer B is the better offer. Exercise 2)
Or Offer A is 360 for 1.40 = 2.6 grams per cent, offer B is 300
$2249.73
for 1.12 = 2.7 grams per cent, so offer B is better.
$5681.15
2.7 One quantity as a percentage a $5071.50 b $5591.33 ¢ $6164.44
of WN

a $3589.07 b $4458.69
another SAE

$4272.64
a $3941.57 b $441.57
Exercise 2H
8 years
b 60.6%
NOV

1 a25% ¢c 46.3% d 12.5% The interest in the second five years will be more than
e 41.7% f 60% g 20.8% h 10%
0

* the interest in the first five years. The missing number is

i 1.9% j 83% k 45.5% I 10.5% 5000 x 1.06'% = 8954.24.
32% a $15000 b $16 288.95
6.5% 10 a $1268.24
EWN 33.7% b The interest over the year is $268.24.
a 492% b 64.5% c 10.6% This is 2faes x 100% = 26.824% of $1000,
17.9%
NOM 4.9%
2.10 Reverse percentage
oO 90.5%
OW a
Brit Com: 20.9%, USA: 26.5%, France: 10.3%, Other 42.3%
Exercise 2K
b Total 100%, all imports
1 a 800g b 250m ¢ 60cm
­ o Nadia had the greater percentage increase.
Nadia: (20 ­ 14) x 100 + 14 = 42.9%. d $3075 e $200 f $400
Imran: (17­12) x 100 + 12 = 41.7% Nn 80
11 Yes, as 38 out of 46 is over 80% (82.6%) w T shirt: $8.40, Tights: $1.20, Shorts: $5.20, Sweater: $10.74,
12 Vase 20% loss, radio 25% profit, doll 175% profit, toy train Trainers: $24.80, Boots: $32.40
64% loss $833.33
$300
2.8 Simple interest and compound 240
interest 537.63 dollars
4750 blue bottles
Exercise 2I $2585
a 7420 dollars $1440
3600 dollars $2450
WN 4 years 95 dollars
a $15 600 $140
SE b $16 224
WV a $1272 b $1348.32 c $1429.22 $945
a Amar 3200 $, Mona 3328 § $1325
b Mona, 128 §
a $9528.13 $1300
b £1528.13
Lee has assumed that 291.2 is 100% instead of 112%.
£3840
He rounded his wrong answer to the correct answer of $260.
ONO

Answers to Chapter 3
3.1 Order of operations 2 aleé b 2 c 10 d 10 eb f 18
g6 h15 i 9 j12 k3 18
a+) b No brackets needed
Exercise 3A
c(2+1) d No brackets needed
1 al b6 c 10 d 12 e 11 f 13
e(4+4) f (16­4)
gn h12 i122 ja k 13 13

707
 Poet
No brackets needed
wr hs
h No brackets needed
3.4 Adding and subtracting
H fractions
k (5+5) 1 (442)
m(15­5) n@7­2) Exercise 3D
o0(3+3) p No brackets needed 1 a: bi <3 ds
q No brackets needed r (8­2)
4 No, correct answer is 5 + 42 = 47 2 a3 bg cq di
5 a2x3+5=1 b2x(3+5=16 6 3 4 2 6 2 2 1
€2+3x5=17 d5­(3­2)=4 3 ag=3 bg=% €35=3 d3=3
e5x3­2=13 f 5x3x2=30 a 1 4 2 4 2 8 4
6 44+45x3=19 + 25­3 big=5 ©5=3 9%=3
(+5) x3=27.54+5 x 3 is smaller 12_6_ 41 9.1
7 G­2x6x18 5 ag=s=ls bg=1
9
<5="3
8 8:(5­3)=4 dii=13 el=1d f 1­1!
g2=3=11 hi=1l
3.2 Choosing the correct operation ET. a
10_5_ 41 6_3_.1
6 ag=3=13 bi=3=1
Exercise 38 5. 16_8_43
1 a 6000 cg dyg=5=15
b 5 cans cost $1.95, s0 6 cans cost $1.95. 32 = (5 x 6) + 2. 7 al b=1l cl d3
Cost is $10.53. S vg 2 3 .
2 a288 b 16 e; fs 97G=5 h 3%
3 a38
b Coach price for adults = $8, coach price for juniors = $4, NT
money for coaches raised by tickets = $12400, cost of 1 a B b> c Z dg el fj
coaches = $12 160, profit = $240 ‘ A : : : :
4 (39 x 20) + (90 x 30) = 1050 = $10.50 9% hs Iw Ig kg 13
6 (7.58...) Michaela must work for 8 weeks. 59 22 3
7 $8.40 per year, 70 cents per copy Sw te va
8 $450
§ 15 2 a 3535 b 1023 [4 2;1 d 3531
47
10 Gustav pays 2296.25 ­ 1840 = $456.25 e4 to
41
95
29
h 1%
43

i j 13 k 13
3.3 Finding a fraction of a quantity a r A
3%
Exercise 3C
1 1 i
ais b 10 i i8 d 28 4 a; b 30, must be divisible by 2 and 3
2 a $1800 b 128g c 160 kg 2
d $116 e 65 litres f 90 min 35 me pa and dividing
3 aZof40=25 b3of280=210 actions

c50f70=56 d2of72=60 Exercise 3F

1 1
4 $6080 1 a; b <3
3
d3
3
ex 8
5 $31500 i 2 3 1 2
6 S2kg fg 97 h 5 i3 is
3
bz 3
7 a 856 b 187675 7
2 ag C35.
8 a $50 b $550 al ad §5
9 a $120 b $240 45 5 8
10 Lion Autos ­3 =
11 OfferB

“3

708
5 al b 235 Exercise 3G
<6} d 24 1 az 3
big2 Cc l%
1
dig 1 ed
«32 S 4 3
f 3l fa g5 hs i3 ig
0 } 2 18
9 12} h 30 3 40
2. 56143 4 15
6 Sof63=23 5 16
2 7 9 1 256
6 as b cz d5 eG fs
1 3
7 aly b3

Answers to Chapter 4

4.1 Introduction to directed numbers | 4 6°C ­2°C ­4°C 2°

5S a 1or0or­1or­2 are the possible answers b No solution
Exercise 4A ¢ Any integer larger than 2. Thatis3 ord or Sor...
1 ao°C b 5°C ¢c­2°C d­5°C e=1°C d Any integer smaller than 3. Thatis—4 or­Sor­6or...
2 a 11 degrees Celsius b 9 degrees Celsius
3 han. mes 4.4 Adding and subtracting directed
4 38 degrees Celcius numbers
5 a 2 degrees Celcius between Helsinki and Moscow
b 34 degrees Celcius between Dubai and Helsinki Exercise 4D
5 1 a ­2° b­3° c ­2° d ­3° e ­2° f ­3°
4.2 Everyday use of directed 93 h3 i­1 j­1 k2 1­3
numbers m ­4 n­6 0­6 p­1 q­5 r 4
s 4 t ­1 u­5 v­4 w­=5 x ­5
Exercise 48 2 a 7 degrees Celsius b­6°C
1 ­$5 3 a2­8
2 ­200m b2+5­80r2+4­70r8­4­5or8­2­70r5­4­2
See c2­5­7­8
d2+5­4­7­8
4 Sh 4 250 metres
5 2°
6 ­70km Exercise 4E
7 +5 minutes 1 a8 b­10 c­11 d­3 e2 f­5
8 ­5kmm gl ha i7 j ­8 k ­5 1­1
9 ­2 mn neé6 o8 ps8 q ­2 r­1
10 a ­11°C b 6 degrees Celsius s 9 t­5
11 1.54 am 2 a 10 degrees Celsius
b 7 degrees Celsius
4.3 The number line ¢ 9 degrees Celsius
3 a2 b­3 c­5 d­7 e ­10 f ­20
Exercise 4C 4 a2 ba c ­1 d­5 e­11 f8
1 ac< b> c < d< e> f < 5S ai3 b2 cS di el f ­2
g< h> i > i< k< | > 6 a­10 b­5 c­2 d4 e7 f­4
2 a< b< c< d> e< f < 7 a+6+45=1 b+6+­9=­3
32%A 43 2 3 06
— a
1 %2
—
3 4 3. ¢ ¥6­­9=13 mee
; 8 It not come on as the thermometer inaccuracy might be
may
€25 20 ­15 ­10 ­5 0 5 10 15 20 25 between 0° and 2° or 2° and 4°
d0 5 © + 2 0 3 4 & 8 to | 9 ­tands
®._50 ­40 ­30 ­20 ­10 0 10 20 30 40 50

709
 4.5 Multiplying and dividing N ANE Nm 2am
directed numbers Dan. ig =
8 Forexample: 1 x (12), =1 x 12, 2 x (­6), 6 x (­2), 3 x (­4),
4 x(­3)
4F
Exercise 9 For example: 4 + (1), 8 + (~2), 12 + (­3), 16 + (4), 20 + (5),
1 a­15 b­14 c¢­24 d6 eld £2 24 + (­6)
g­2 h8 i­4 j3 k­24 1­10 10 ­5x4,3x­6,­20+2,­16+­4
m­18 n 16 o 36 p­4 q­12 r 4 1 a4 b 25 c 12 di
s 7 t 25 u 18 12
2 a9 b16 c¢­3 d­32 e18 f18 RE Ne NE
g 6 h­4 i 20 j 16 k8 | ­48 ­5 10 | ­15 | 20
m 13 n­13 o­8 po q 16 r ­42 21 4 6 ­8
3 a­2 b 30 c 15 d ­27 e ­7 012 ]|­18] 24
4 a4 b ­9 c ­3 d6 e­4
5 a­9 b3 cl

5.1 Squares and square roots §« Ta

One possible answer is 8° = 4°

Exercise SA 4 Number Square Cube

1 ads b 100 c 144 d625 e 256 f 400 10 100 1000
g961 h2025 i9 j 64 k025 | 025 5 25 125
2 a3and­3 b 10and­10 c 1land­11 16 64
d1.2and­1.2 e 20 and ­20 f 3.5and­3.5
g land ­1 h 100 and ­100 i 121 133
3 as b6 ¢ 10 d7 es 9 729
£15 g 55 h12 i 20 j 05
4 ag b 40 c100 di4 e 36 8 08.0808, 108.
£15 g 49 h 12 i 25 j 21
5 a2 b 31 c 45 d 40 e 67 5.3 More powers and roots
f 101 g 36 h 65 i 139 Jj 22.2
6 50, 3%, V90, 4° Exercise SC
7 a 6%is 36 and 7% is 49; 40 is between 36 and 49 1 a2a3 b 2401 c 1000000 d 256
b 6.3245553...... 2 ao b 118 c 513
8 4dand5S 3 a 2592 b 227 c or0.3789t0 4 d.p.
9 aB8and9 b 9and 10 4 |HS=31,RHS=32­1=31
¢ 12and 13 d 15and 16 5 as b 11 c3 d 20
10 V324=18 6 a20000 bori.125
115 7 2x{8=16 3¥x'W024=18 V6ax¥125=20
13621 x 6a = 22
5.2 Cubes and cube roots 8 a3 b125
9 as bi
Exercise 58 10 a 3 bg cS
1 a8 b 27 c 512 d 1000 11 a3 b4 c8
e 1.331 f 15.625 g ­27 h ­125 12 a 15625 b 1953125
i 8000 j eso k ­68.921 13 a x=4 andy = 2 is one possible pair.
2 a2 b5 c9 di e3 b x=8 and y=4is a second possible pair; x = 12 and
f­3 g 10 h15 i 45 j 05 y= 6 is a third possible pair
3 aS5andé bé6and7 14 a 1024 b 1048576 c¢ 32 dd
¢ 7and 8 d ­8and­7 e 2
4 2’ because it equals 8, the rest equal 9

710
5.4 Exponential growth and decay 5 218,238,259
6 182,166, 15.1
7 a $6312 b 6 years
Exercise 5D
1 ai 8 a $100000 b $195 313
10million ii 20 million iii 40 million
bi 15 million ii 45 million iii 135 million 9 The correct value is 150 000 x 1.2° = 373 248
2 a 6000 b 9000 10 a $20 b $20 480
c 13500 d 20250
11 a 1185 b 351
3 a 6000 b 1500 ¢ 375
12 272 million
4 a 4800 b 768 c 123
13 a $18 b $32 ¢ $340 d $11568

Answers to Chapter 6

6.1 Inequalities

Exercise 6A
1 a> b < c < d=
e = f > g > h <

2 §<3<3
3 ad456 b1.2 c6 d 1.2345
e234 f as g 123 h6
4 a underweight b overweight
¢ normal d normal
6 aiaA=({4 222,20, 12,10, 28, 30)
5 20,22,26,28
ii B=(2, 20,12, 6, 26, 16, 18}
6 ad9 b 45
c 369 d 16,17,18,19,20 iii AN B={10,12, 28, 30}
7 a true b false c true ivAaANC=(2,2012 ANBNC=(12)
d true e false f true bi7 {10 iii 12 iv 13 c¢ The even numbers up to 30.
8 a678 b 26, 27, 28 c ­7,­6,­5,­4 7 aiXx={1,2,510 iiv={123466,8, 12, 24}
d ­2,­1,0,1 e therearenone ff 33 b i factors of 10 ii factors of 24

9 aN=8BorN=­8 bN=4 ¢ N<­4 d no solution cif1,23,6) i (1,2) iii [1,2 3)

dis i 10 iii 12
8 aifl0
6.2 Sets and Venn diagrams ii (7,15) ili none
bié6 ii 9 iii 7
iv 14 v 12
Exercise 68
9 aif4,8 12} ii 2,4,6,8,10,12,14)
1 a The elements can be listed in any order.
iii {10} iv{4,8 12)
if2 3,124, 10, 11} ii {4,5,11,10}
bi ii 0
iii {4,10,11)
bié 10 a 15 b 21 c 35 d 105
ii 7 iii 12
¢ The first 12 natural numbers. 11 a8 b 10 ¢c {1,2 4) d (2,7)
2 ai 7 ii 5 iii 2 iv 10 12 aifa,bcdefl ii {d, e, f}
banprlorn cqgord iii (b,c. def aql ivib, d, e}
b3

T fe) 13 a {1,2,3,4,56,7,810,13) b{1,24,6,78, 10,13)

c {1,4,7,10} d{1,24,67 10, 13}

6.3 More about Venn diagrams

Exercise 6C
& 1 a {8 11,12, 14,15 b (6,9, 14, 15} c {14,15}
4 8 10 d (8 11,12} e (69)
2 abe# b7ea c8e(AN By
4 a 100isinAbutnotinB b6 d9¢ AUB e9%e¢A UB f9¢ (AUB)
¢ multiples of 6.

mm
 3 aiXNris3 XNYis2 GxUrisa 9 aandd
iv (XU nist vX Nrist vix Uy is2 |
b (XN 1" = XU ¥ because they have the same diagram. TARE TT 1
Aso (XUN =x Nr | 4 EAE
4 a = lj ELC E
"

A B [1 2­

3.2 a9
(OO) | ]

14

bcC
5 nlA) + n(B) counts the elements in the intersection twice but «
n(A U B) only counts them once. This means that n{A U 8B) =
n(A) + n(B) —n(A N B)
If nA U B) = nA) + n(B) there are no elements in the 10 ¢ 5d
intersection. Hence A N B= @ gey=é go
6 x =2 because 2 is the only even prime number. f
b
T 4

¢ T={even numbers} so T" = {odd numbers}

b Any coordinates of the form (0, )where­3 <¢ <6

1 a

5 Q T

8 a CgBistrue b AN Cistrue
c ltisfalse; CUB=8 ditisfalse; BNC=C
e ltisfalse, A'NC=C f Itisfalse; CUA" =
b RN T= (equilateral triangles)

712
12 a 13 A Venn diagram shows the sets

b No prime number is a square number andso SN P=

¢ The smallest natural number that is not prime or a WNyY=w bwUY=Y ¢XNz=Z dZ2Uy=2
square is 6,

7.1 Ratio Exercise 7C

1 a3:2 b 32 c 80

7A
Exercise 2 10009
1 21:3 b1:4 c2:3 d2:1 & 1053
e2:5 f2:5 g5:8 hs: 4 a 14min i JES
2 as: b12:1 €5:6 d1:24 5 a 11 pages b 32%
e 48: 1 fs5:2 g3:8 h1:5 6 Ren $2040, Shota $2720
3 7 a lemonade 20 litres, ginger 0.5 litres
10 b This one, one­thirteenth is greater than one­fiftieth.
4 R=
5 Ka 3 7.2 Increases and decreases using
5 5 ratios
6 a’ b 3
10 10
7 al b7 c 3 Exercise 7D
: ­ 1 a600 b300 c2000 d350 e240 f 220
8 3:1 2 a20 b60 ¢8 dss e16 f 64
Exercise 78 3 a 160 cmby 120 cm b 60 cm by 45 cm
1 a 160g, 240g b 80 kg, 200 kg 4 125cmby15¢m b 3:2
¢ 150, 350 d 950 m, 50 m 5 a9wmbyl15ecm b 6.75cmby 11.25cm
e 175 min, 125 min f $20, $30, $50 6 a $7500 b 50% c¢ $9375 d 25%
g $36, $60, $144 h 50g, 2509, 3009 e 87.5% f One way is to cancel 9375 : 5000
i $1.40,$2, $160 j 120kg, 72 kg, 8kg 7 a One possible answer is to say £ = 1.2 and this is the
2 al7s b 30% multiplier for a 20% increase
3 az28 b 42 b 11:10 ¢ 9:10
4 21 8 100
5 Joshua $2500, Aicha $3500, Mariam $4000 9 40cm’?
6 a 1:400000 b 1:125000 c 1:250000
d 1:25000 e 1:20000 f 1:40000 7.3 Speed
g 1:62 500 h 1:10000 i 1:60000
7 a 1:1000000 b 47 km c 8mm
8 a1:250000 b2km c 48cm Exercise 7€
9 a 1:20000 b 0.54 km ¢ 40cm 1 18 km/hour
10 a1:16 b1:325 © 1:1:125 2 440 kilometres
di:144 e 1:54 £ 1:18 3 52.5 km/hour
g1:48 h 1:42 i 1:21.28 4 11.50am
Mec ar rm rb. mpogin 12 ­ ­ 5 500s
ures vse KOI BINNS) | 5 aTnemiow bEBhows © Mm d Sim
e 64 km/h f 325km g 4.3 hours (4 h 18 min)

713
 7 a?775h b 85.2 km/hour
8 a225h
7.5 Direct proportion
b 157.5 km
9 al125h b 1h 15 min
Exercise 7G
10 a 48 kmvhour b 6 h 40 min
11 a 120km 60g
b 48 knvh
$5.22
12 a 30 min b 12 kmh
WN 45
13 a 10mss b33ms c 16.7 ms d 41.7 mss
$6.72
e 208 m/s
E

a $312.50 b8
14 a 90 km/h b432km/h cc 144knvh d 108 km/h
e 1.8 km/h a 56 litres b 350 km
15 a 648kmvh b 28s a 300 kg b 9 weeks
¢ 8.07 (37 min journey) NOW

16 a 6.7 ms b 66 km 40s
¢ Sminutes d 133.3 metres oO

17 6.6 minutes OW a i 100 g margarine, 200 g sugar, 250 g flour,

150 g ground rice

7.4 Rates ii 150 g

225 g
margarine, 300 g sugar, 375 g flour,
ground rice
iii 250 g margarine, 500 g sugar, 625 q flour,
Exercise 7F 375 g ground rice
1 a35wm b 20 days b 24
2 a 15litres b 20 seconds 10 Pieter’s shop as | can buy 24. At Paulo's shop | can only buy 20.
3 a 10.59 g/cm’ b 50 cm?
4 1600 days (4.38 years) 7.6 Inverse proportion
5 a 0.5mmiear b 125mm c¢ 40 years
6 a d444cm’to3dp. b 360g Exercise 7H
¢ No. The density is 8 g/cm’, not 9 g/cm? a 20 minutes
7 a 625Paor Nm? b 250 Pa or N/m? 16
c 187.5 Pa or N/m? WN a 36 b 48
8 a 318litres b 5.3 litres c 1.06 d 0.106 AE $10.80
e 943 km a 16 days b 20
9 a 145kg b 2900 kg ¢ About 8 kg/day OV The missing times are 5 hours, 1 hour 40 minutes,
10 724N 1 hour 15 minutes
~ ab b 15
8 $8

Answers to Chapter 8

8.1 Rounding whole numbers 8.2 Rounding decimals

Exercise 8A Exercise 88
1 a2 b 60 c 80 d 50 e 100 1 ads b 38 c 22 das e 37
f 20 g 90 h 70 i 10 j 30 f 46.9 g 239 h 95 i 1 j 335
2 a 200 b 600 ¢ 800 d 500 e 1000 2 as578 b 2.36 c 0.98 d 33.09 e 6.01
f 100 g 600 h 400 i 1000 j 1100 f 23.57 g 91.79 h 8.00 i231 j 2392
3 a 2000 b 6000 c 8000 d 5000 3 ade b 0.08 c 45716 d 9485 e 602.1
e 10000 f 1000 g 6000 h 3000 f 671.76 g7.1 h6904 i 1378 j 01
i 9000 j 2000 4 a8 b3 c8 d6 ed
4 aTue bFalse ¢ True dTue e True ff False f7 g2 h 47 i 23 j 9
5 a Highest Germany, lowest Italy 5 3+9+6+4=22dollars
b 36000, 43000, 25000, 29000 6 3,346,335
¢ 25499 and 24 500 7 4.72750r4.7282
6 a 375 b 25 (350 to 374 inclusive)
7 A number between 75 and 84 inclusive added to a number
between 45 and 54 inclusive with a total not equal to 130,
for example 79 + 49 = 128

714
 Answers te

8.3 Rounding to significant figures q 3.95 = distance in metres < 4.05

r 7.035 = mass in kg < 7.045
s 11.95 = time in seconds < 12.05
Exercise 8C
t 6.995 = distance in metres < 7.005
1 a 50000 b 60000 ¢ 30000 d 90000
3 a7585 b 255,265 °
e 90000 f 05 g 03 h 0.006
c 245,255 d 845, 85.5
i 005 j 0.0009 k 10 I 9
e 2.395, 2.405 f 0.15,0.25
m 90 n 200 o 1000
g 0.055, 0.065 h 2509, 3509
2 a 56000 b 27000 ¢ 80000 d 31000 i 0.65, 0.75 j 365.5, 366.5
e 14000 f17 gd h 2.7 k 165, 175 I 205, 215
i 80 j 42 k 0.80 | 0.46
4 C: The chain and distance are both any value between 29.5
m 0.066 nlo o 0.0098 and 30.5 metres, so there is no way of knowing if the chain is
3 a 60000 b 5300 c 89.7 d 110 longer or shorter than the distance.
e9 f g 03 h 0.7 5 2 kg 450 grams
i 04 j 08 k 0.2 1 07 a <6554q b 645g
4 a5 74 b 95, 149 ¢ 950, 1499 c <26209 d 25809
5 Satora 750, 849, Nimral 1150, 1249, Korput 164 500,
165499
6 One, because there could be 450 then 449.
8.5 Upper and lower bounds for
7 Vashti has rounded to 2 significant figures or nearest 10000.
calculations

8.4 Upper and lower bounds Exercise 8E

1 65kgand 75 kg
2 al25kg b 20
Exercise 8D
3 9kg 535­445
1 a65and75 b 115 and 125
4 a 26 cm = perimeter < 30 cm
¢ 3350 and 3450 d 49.5 and 50.5
b 25.6 cm = perimeter < 26.0 cm
e 5.50 and 6.50 f 16.75 and 16.85
g 15.5and 16.5 ¢ 50.5 cm = perimeter < 52.7 cm
h 14450 and 14550
i 54.5and 55.5 j 525and 57.5 5 a 38.25cm’ = area < 52.25 cm?
2 5.5 = lengthincm < 6.5 b 37.1575 cm? = area < 38.4475 cm?
16.5 = massinkg < 17.5 ¢ 135,625 cm? = area < 145.225 cm?
31.5 = time in minutes < 32.5 79.75 m’ = area < 100.75 m?
237.5 = distance in km < 238.5 216.125 cm’ = volume < 354.375 cm’
7.25 = distance inm < 7.35 No 12.5 metres
25.75 = mass in kg < 25.85 0 Yes, because they could be walking at 4.5 kmvh and 2.5 kmvh
3.35 = time in hours < 3.45 meaning that they would cover 4.5 km + 2.5 km = 7 km in
86.5 = massing < 87.5 1 hour
4.225 = distance in mm < 4.235 10 20.9 m = length < 22.9 m (3 sf)
2.185 = mass in kg < 2.195 11 a 1465s = time < 14.755
12.665 = time in minutes < 12.675 b 99.5 m = length < 100.5 m
24.5 = distance in metres < 25.5 c 6.86 m/s (3 sf)
35 = length in cm < 45 12 14s =time< 30s
595 = mass in g < 605
13 337.75 and 334.21
25 = time in minutes < 35
14 1773 and 169.4
995 = distance in metres < 1050
vso33—x——­ga=­0ancoe

Answers to Chapter 9
9.1 Standard form g 246x10° h 7.6 x 107° i 76x10
j 999x107" k 2.3456 x 10° | 9.87654 x 10’
m 6x10 n 5.67 x 107 0 5.60045 x 10
Exercise 9A
W 2.7797 x 10*
1 a 250 b 345 c 0.00467 d 346 3.211 97 x 10°, 4.491 863 x 10°
e 0.020789 f 5678 g 246 h 7600
LAE

1.298 x 107, 2.997 x 10°, 9.3 x 10°

i 897000 j 0.00865 k 60000000 | 0.000567
2 a 100
25x10? b 3.45 x 10” c 467 x 10°
d 34x10° e 2078x110" f 5678x107 NOW 61.8 kilometres.
0 7.78 x 10% 5.8 x 107; 5.92 x 10°

715
 9.2 Calculating with standard form 7 380x10"sqkm
8 S5x10°
p—— 9 23x10°
1 a567x10° b6x10° ¢ 346 x10” 10 4.55 x 10° kq or 455070 tonnes
d 7.5 10° o 56x 10° § 6x 10° 11 a 100000000 (100 million) ~ b 1.4%
g 7x10 h16 i 23x10 12 a 2.048 x 10° b 4.816 x 10°
2 a108x10° b 4.8 x 10° c 12x 10° 13 9.41 x 10°
d 1.08 e 6.4 x 10? f 1.2x10' 14 Any value from 1.00000001 x 10° to 1 x 10° (excluding
g 2.88 h 2.5 x 107 i 8x10 1.x 10%, i.e. any value of the form a x 10° where 1 <a < 10
3 a27x10 b 16x10? c 2x10" 15 a India b India and Jamaica
d4x10® e 2x 10° f 6x10 c 22x10 d 210r22 e 480
4 2x107, 1x10", mass=2x10%g 16 a Togo b Sri Lanka
5 a (2%),9.2 x 10" grains ¢ Sri Lanka d Russian Federation
b2%­1=18x10" eur
6 a 1.0x10°sqkm
b 31%

10.1 Units of measurement 3 a 1605 b 0715 ¢ 6 hours 45minutes

4 a 1050 b 1635 ¢ 5 hours 45 minutes
Exercise 10A 5 a 1210 b 2hous 50 minutes
T—— b @ometres 6 a 12 minutes b 40 minutes ¢ 54 minutes
¢ millimetres d kilograms or grams 7 1 hour 13 minutes
e litres f tonnes 8 1415
g millilitres h metres 9 0715 the next day
i kilograms j millimetres 10 a 0330 b 0600
2 Check individual answers.
3 The 5 metre since his height is about 175 cm, the lamp post 10.4 Currency conversions
will be about 525 cm

10.2 Converting between metric Peg

units 2 164
3 The missing values are 4.30, 7.76, 38.78, 193.88, 387.75,
Exercise 10B 775.50
1 al25m b 82cm c 0.55m d 42kg 4 43.01
e 5751 f 85d g 0755kg h08l 5 aan b 172.74
i 21 j 103m’ ko053m’ | 34000m 6 ai34983 ii 24692 iii 432.90
2 a3400mm b 135mm ¢ 67cm d 640m b 54000 yen, S00 euros, 650 dollars
e 2400 ml f S90 cl g 3750 kg h 0.00094 | 7 a 2391.38 b 3489.75
i 2160¢cl j 152009 k 140001 | 0.19mi ¢ Taiwandollar d 1.4593
3 He should choose the 2000 mm x 15 mm x 20 mm 8 a 74.7755 b 0.14747
4 1000000
5 400 hours 10.5 Using a calculator efficiently
6 75x10°
Exercise 10E
10.3 Time S$ ods b: 108
2 al1254 b 27.45
Exercise 10C 3 219648 b 1.023 ¢ 0.236 d 4219
1 a 1 hour 10 minutes; 2 hours 3 minutes; 2 hours 9 minutes; 4 a 358 bé6
1 hour 4S
b the 0900
minutes S 2497.95 b 110.978625
6 a312 b 0.749 c 90.47
2 a 9:45am, 10:36am, 1:33pm, 4:49pm d 184.96 e 5.56 27.52
b 3 hours and 48 minutes, 6 hours and 13 minutes

716
 Answers to Chapter 11

11.1 The language of algebra 11.3 Rearranging formulae­

Exercise 11A Exercise 11C
1 ax+2 bx­6 cx+k dx­t = k=1
ex+3 fd+m gb­y hp+t+w y=X+1
i8 i hi kxsdorf | 2+xor? WN
p=30
mystord now od pe A­9
Fa =m
2 a x+3years b x ­4 years []
A

3 F=2C+30 n= We!
3
nn

4 Rulec am=p­1t
S ain
Oo

b3n+3 cn+l dn­1 bt=p­m

6 Anil: 2n, Reza: n + 2, Dale: n­ 3, Chen: 2n + 3 m=gv
7 asd b $(10­x) «¢ $(y­x) d $2x ow m=Nr
8 a$7s b $15x c $4A d $Ay
r=
9 (A­B8)dollars oo

Vin

10 $A + Sor $3. b=
==

11 a Dad: (72 + x) years, me: (T+ x) years b 31 years 1=E2e

n
12 aT+20r] bT+2+40ri+4 c T'­x
13 a 8x b 12m c 18t 12 p= Vm ­2

14 Andrea; 3n ­ 3, Barak: 3n ­ 1, Ahmed: 3n ­ 6 or 3(n ­ 2), Dina: 0, 13 a­40­32=­72,­72+9=­8,5x­8=­40

Emma: 3n­n=2n. Hana: 3n­3m
b68­32=36,36+9=4,4x5=20
15 For example, 2 x 6m, 1 x 12m, 6m + 6m, etc.
¢ student's own demonstration

11.2 Substitution into formulae 14 aa=­* br="t

Exercise 11B
15

16
i
an="! br=W­3n
1 a8 b 17 c 32
2 a3 b 11 c 43 17 a y=13E bw=5­x
3 a9 b 15 c 29
18
4 a9 bs c ­1
5 a3 b 33 c78 19 ar=u­v bu=vw+r
6 a0 b 13 c 58
20 am=k­n bn=Vk­m
7 a4 b 13 km ¢ Yes, the fare is $5.00
8 a2x8+6x11­3x2=76 21 ret
bSx2­2x11+3x8=12
22 aw=K­50 bn= Kx
Any values such that lw = 1bh or bh = 2Iw
10 a 32 b 64 c 160 11.4 More complicated formulae
1" abs b 05 c­25
12 a2 bsg c ­10 Exercise 11D
13 a3 b25 c­5
14 ab b3 c2
1 a25 ba=Vd­p
15 a12 bs <1 2 a60 ba="2"
16 a 120 b $925 3 ab=ac­2 bc=22
17 ai odd ii odd iii even ivodd
b Any valid expression such as xy + 2 4 1=243
18 a $20 5 e=(2­1)
bi ­$40 ii Delivery cost will be zero, ¢ 40 kilometres
6 as bu=VwW­2as ¢s="
7 aL=(L)6 b Student's proof
 8 aR=/2i b,a/WD Lal Lt
FJ
a
9 ax=50r­5 b x= JILta7 c y= EN 12 a12 " PI
10 aa=(ic+3 be=ald ­3 cus Aves

12.1 Simplifying expressions 2 aS(­NandSi­5

b Yes, as 5(­ 1) when r=4.50is 5 x 3.50 = $17.50
, 3 He has worked out 3 x 5 as 8 instead of 15 and he has not
Exercise 12A multiplied the second term by 3. Answer should be 15x ­12.
1 a6 b 15y c Bw d 5h° e 2 4 a 3(2y +3) b 2(6z + 4) or 4(3z + 2)
f 8’ g 67 h 157 i 2m i Sq
k 6mn | 6qt m 10hk n 2ipr Exercise 12D
2 a All except 2m x 6m b2and0 1 a7r b 9d ¢ 3e d 2
3 drm e 57° f 4y? g Sab h 3d%d
4 ay b 3° car d 6n’ er 2 a2vand1ly b a and 8b
fw g 120" h6d ia i? 3 ax­3 b 10x­ 16 or 2(5x ­ 8)
k128 1 a5' m3Im? nen 08wY | 4 aus b21419k € 2242 d14e3g
Exercise 128 5S a2+2h b9 +5 c 17k+16 d6e+20
1 at b $(4r+ 3) 6 adm+3p+2mp b 3k + 4h + Shk
2 .& Gras b Tie i WobA C 12r+24p + 13pr d 19m + 20k ­ 6m
" : y 7 a9+13r b13y? +5 ¢ 10­6 d 14K ­3kp
3 ab5a b 6¢ Cc 9e d 6f
e 4 f 3q go fw 8 a 17ab + 12ac + 6bc b 18wy + 61y ­ 8nw

.
lef
: a
wy
. >
ko
gu hs
bat Aries
or x­coefficients,
lor3and4or1and7.
or 1 and 4; for y­coefficients,
i
5 an nd
’
S a7x+5 bSc+6 c Sp d 5v+6 10! Hwa 2) —~Nide ­ Y=iSp­ 98
eSp+r+5 ff 8w­5k gc h Bk­6y+10 2 :
6 a2c+3d b 5d + 2¢ c f+3g+4h 12.3 Factorisation
d 6u­3v e 7m­7n f 3k+2m+5p
g 2v h 2w­3y i NM¥­5y Exercise 12E
j »­22 k &­2 1 a6im+2) b 3G3r+p) c 42m + 3k)
7 a8+6 b3x+16 Cc 2x+2y+8 da(r+21) e min+3) f ¢(5¢+3)
8 Any acceptable answers, e.g. x + 4x + 2y + 2y 9 2(2w­31) h y3By +2) i f4r­3)
or 6x —x + 6y—2y i 3mim­p) k 3p(2p + 31) I 2p(4r + 3m)
9 a 2vand2y b a and 7b mah2a ­c) n Sbelb­ 2) 0 2b(4ac + 3de)
10 a Sy—1­x b 10x ¢ Ban P 22d’ +3a+4) q3bRa+3c+d) r (51+4+a)
11 Maria is correct, as the two short horizontal lengths are equal $ 3mi2t­1+3m) t 2abldb +1 ­2a) u 5p +3 +p)
to the bottom length and the two short vertical lengths are 2 a Suni has taken out a common factor.
equal to the side length. b Because the bracket adds up to $10,
c $30
12.2 Expanding brackets 3 a, d, fand h do not factorise,
b m(5 + 2p) c tr­7) e 2m(2m~­ 3p)
Exercise 12C g alda ­ Sb) i b(5a­ 3bc)
1 a 6+2m b10+5 c 12­3y
g * 8b Ouwon : common
Ahmed has not taken out the largest possible
d 20+8k e 6­12f f 10­6w factor. Craig has taken m out of both terms but there isn't
g 10k+ 15m h 12d ­8n i P43 an m in the second term.
i # 3 3k k ar " 4 ! * ­2 5 There are no common factors.
m­ po ­ Be ha . 38x 6 numerator 4x’ ­ 12x, denominator 2x ­6
C whoa § ean b 150° — 16ab 7 adk+1) b2Ax+d cdx+1) d23x+2)
v 12p°­15mp w12) + Big x 8m’ + 2m"

718
 <

12.4 Multiplying two brackets: 1 11 15¢°­16g +4

12 124° + 5d­2

Exercise 12F 13 8p + 26p +15

­ P+50+6 14 6° +71+2
P+T1+12 15 6p + 1p +4
WN wl 4+4w+3 16 ­10P­71+6
LE m+ 6m+5 17 ­6n°+n+12
KE 4+8k4+15 18 6/2 ­5/­6
a +5a+4 19 ­ 102 +7g +12
NOW 2+2x­8 20 ­6p°­7p+3
00 F+2t­15 21 ­67 +101 +4
WwW 2w­3 22 a ¥­1 b 4x ­1 c 4­9
d 9­25
©

10 f2­f­6
1 g°­3g­4 23 a (3x­22x + N=6F­x­2
(2x­1)2x­1)=4% ­ax +1
12 y¥4+y­12 (6x=3)x+ 1)=62+3x­3
13 X+x­12 (Bx + 22x + 1)=6+7x +2
14 pP­p­2 b Multiply the x terms to match the x? term and/or multiply
15 K¥­2k­8 the constant terms to get the constant term in the answer.
16 y +3y­10
Exercise 12H
17 @° +2a­3
42­1
18 ¥­9
97­4
19 7­25
WN 25y%­9
20 m*­16
16m*­9
21 7­4
42­9
22 y­64
16h% ­1
23 pP­1
4­97
24 25­¥
NSOWVME

25­47
25 49­¢°
36 ­ 25)?
26 ¥­36
WO

ah a ­b
27 (x+ 2)and (x + 3) a0 9 ­ i
28 aB1ix(x­2 Ci1x2 D:2x(x­1)
wh

am* ­ 9p?
blx­2)+2+2x­1) =3x­2 oh

€ Area A= (x—1)x~2) = area of square minus areas lh 25K ­

WN

B+C+D) 14 AV ­Ad
=­(3x­2) 15 a*­bp*
=x­3c+2 16 a i*­ 1°
29 a ¥*­9 b Dimensions: a + b by a ­ b; Area: a* ­ b?
bi 9991 ii 39991 ¢ Areas are the same, 50 &* — b% = (a + b) x (a ­ b)
17 First shaded area is (2k)? ­ 12 = 4k ­1
12.5 Multiplying two brackets: 2 Second shaded area is (2k + 1)(2k­1)=4k* ­1

Exercise 12!
Exercise 12G = 2 +10x+25
6% + 11x +3
m® + 8m +16
12° +17y +6 WN A+12t+36
WN 6° + 17145
pP+6p+9
8° +2­3
SE

mi ­6m+9
SAE

10m? ­ 11m ­6 rf ~101+25

12K = 11k =15 NOUVm*­8m+ 16
6p’ + 11p­10
K­14k + 49
NOOWVM

10w? + 19w + 6 © 9 + 6x + 1
6a’ ­7a­3 10 16° +2414 9
OO

10 87 ­10r+3 11 25% + 20y +4

719
 Answers to

12 am’ + 12m +9 12.7 Quadratic factorisation

13 1677­24149
14 9° ­12¢+4
Exercise 12K
15 25° ­20r+4
(x + 2)(x + 3)
16 25 ­60r + 36
(r+ 1)r+4)
a2 +)? WN (m + 2)(m + 5)
m* = 2mn +n J
(k + 4)k + 6)
af + ary + y*
p+2)p+12)
= m® ­6mn + 9°
(r+ 3)r+6)
~N1 XP +4x
(w+ 2)(w +9)
= 10x
NOWVSESE

(r+ 3)x +4)

21x
(a + 2a + 6)
4x
WO

10 (k+3Xk+7)
GREN
a Marcela has just squared the first term and the second
term. She hasn't written down the brackets twice. 1M (f+ 1)f+21)
b Paulo has written down the brackets twice but has worked out 12 (b+ 8)b+12)
(3 as 3¢ and not 9x. 13 (r­2Xe­3)
c 9¥ +6x+1 14 (d­3a)d­1)
26 Whole square is (2x) = 4x%. 15 (g­2)g­5)
Three areas are 2x­ 1, 2x­ 1 and 1. 16 (x­3)x­12)
Af ­(2x­ 1420­1 + N=4" ­ 8x1) =4¢ ­ dx + 1
17 (c­2)c­ 16)
18 (1­4)r­9)
12.6 Expanding three brackets 19 (y­4)Xy­12)
20 (j­6)j­8)
Exercise 12) 21 (p­3)p­5)
1 ad+22x­3 b+ 2¢­3x cx +4 +x­6 22 (y+6)Xy­1)
ax­7x+10 bx ­6744+3x­10 23 (144) 1­2)
c 27­13% +13x+ 10
24 (x + 5)(x­2)
3 ax’­3%­13+15 b 3x’ + 31% + 78x + 56
Cc © ­14¥ +53x­ 40
25 (m+ 2)m­6)
4 ar+4x+4 26 (r+ 1)r­7)
br+6¢%+12x+8
c 82 +12 +6x+1 27 (n+ 3)n­6) .
S ar+xX­4x­4 b2Y¥­3¢%­11x+6 28 (m+ 4)m­11)
cP +4¢° ­4x­16 29 (w+ 4)w­86)
6 ar’+6%+11x+6 30 (r+9)r­10)
by ­67+11x­6
31 (h+8)h­9)
7 ar +4x¥­3x­18 bx? ­ 6x2 ­ 15x + 100
¢ 9° + 78+" ­ 16x + 40 32 (r+ 7Xt­9)
8 ale+1P­(x=­1P=r+3+3x+1­(P­3%+3x­1) 33 +17
=r +3 ++ 1­P +38 3x +1 34 (y+ 10¢
=67+2=23¢ +1) 35 (1­47
b 43 + 4) 36 (m­9y
9 The volume of the cube is (x + 1)? 37 (x­12¢
One of the eight pieces is a cube of side x and volume +*
Three of the eight pieces are cuboids, with sides x, x and 1
38 (d+3)d­4)
and each has volume 39 (r+4)r­5)
Three of the eight pieces are cuboids with sides x, 1 and 1 40 (q+ 7)q­8)
and each has volume x 41 (x + 2)(x + 3), giving areas of 2x and 3x, or (x + 1)(x + 6), giving
One of the eight pieces is a cube of side 1 and volume 1 areas of x and Gx.
Add these eight volumes to get x* + 3¥ + 3x + 1 which
is (x + 1)° Exercise 12L
10 aa=6 bb=5 cc=­8 1 (x+3)x­3)
1M ad­1 bi ­8 "2 (r+5Xr­5)
c­27=(+3x+9k­3) 3 (m+4)m­4)
12 6° + 115% 46x + 1 cm? 4 B+x)3­x

720
 (7+7­0 14 a All the terms in the quadratic have a common factor of 6.
(k + 10)k ­ 10) b 6(x + 2)(x + 3). This has the highest common factor taken
NOW+y2­y out.
¢ For example, ‘A rectangle could be split in many different
00 (x + 8)(x­8)
ways. 3
vw (t+ 9)r­9)
10 a ¥
bi (­2) iil+2 iii Wx­2)=x­2 iv 4
12.8 Algebraic fractions
¢ A+B­C =x ­4, which is the area of D, which is
(r+ 2) x ~2). Exercise 12N
1M ad+dc+4­(P + 2v+1)=2v+3 1 a=Sx 19x
bss 23x
LT) d Jus32v
b (a + b)a ­ b)
Py+8 S5r47 7x+3 13x+5
Cl+2+x+ 1x +2­x­1)=(2x+3)1)=2x+3 ac F% 973 h =
d The answers are the same. 3­7 5¢­10
e (ra lax=1)v+1­x+1)=(2x)02)=4x i= 1 =3
12 (c+ yx­y) x 11x Ix 3c­2y
2 az b 55 € 3% d 3
13 (x + 2y)x­2y)
on ­8 x=1 +1 ­7x­5
14 (x + 3y)x­3y) e 5 973 h =
15 (Bx + 1)(3x­1) £=1 2­3x
16 (4x + 3)4x­3)
An =
17 (Sx +8)5x­8) 3 a <
3 b ED
7) <3 8 d 23
18 (2x + 3yM2x­3y) ¥Y­2 1 6 4 S41 27 4x
19 (31+ 2w)3r­2w) LT fs 973 h <5
2x4 I A
20 (4y + 5x)(4y ­ 5x) i x=­3 i 2x

Exercise 12M 4 ax bs x 3 3d d3
= (2x + Nx +2) 17541 13x +9 3¢ ­5¢­2 i+3
(7x + 1)x+1) LT t=% 9 0% h ==
i 27­6
WN (dx + 7Nx­1) 3
AE (Br+2)8r +1) 7x49 11x­10 2­13
(314+ 1)51­1) 5 agen beeen C@msked
(4x­1y d 8­
(2o= e+ 1)
10x e x+1
(2e=1)3x­1)
y+ 7N2y­3)
6
NOWV

First, he did not factorise and just cancelled the +%s. Then he
4(y + 6){y­4) cancelled 2 and 6 with the wrong signs. Then he said two
0

© (2x + 3)4x­1) minuses make a plus when adding, which is not true.
(2t + 1)31 +5) 2 4+x­3
­«Oo (x­6)3x +2) 4a’ ­9
a 9x +13 b —1dx+19 20 +x­13 d x41
(x=57x­2) (vs Na +2)
eh

@­1c+ 1) c+ 1) Ze­ 103x­1)

4x+1and3x +2 x­1 2x +1 2­1 x+1 2x+5
9 Ami
lh WN

BLS =) dd 5 *1

13.1 Solving linear equations 3 a Elif

b Second line: Mustafa subtracts 1 instead of adding 1;
fourth line: Mustafa subtracts 2 instead of dividing by 2.
Exercise 13A
1 as6 b2 cb d3 ed Exercise 138
f 2 93; h 2} ia ji 21 1 a3 b7 c5 d3 ed fo
k 72 | 56 mo n­7 0­18 g8 h1 is 1 i 231 ks 1 113 1
p 36 q 36 r 60 s7 t 1 m2 n ­2 0­1 p­2 q­2 r=
u?2 v7 w2s8 x1 y 11.5 2 Any values that work, e9.a=2, b= 3 and ¢ = 30.
202 3 55
2 a­4 b 15

721
 Exercise 13C 17 ­2,5
1 ax=2 by=1 ca=7 dr=4 18 ­3,5
ep=2 f k=­1 gm=3 hs=­2 19 ­6,2
2 3x­2=2x+5zx=7 20 ­6,3
3 ad=6 bx=1 cy=1 dh=4 21
e b=9 fc=6 22 2
4 6x+3=6x+10;6x~­6x=10­3;0=7, which is obviously 23
false. Both sides have 6x, which cancels out. 24 4
5 Check student's example.
25 ­2,­6
26 7
13.2 Setting up equations 27 a x(x­3)=550, x ­3x­550=0
b (x­25)(x + 22) = 0, x = 25 years
Exercise 13D 28 x(x + 40) = 48000, x” + 40x — 48000 = 0,
90 cents or 0.90 dollars (x + 240)x ­ 200) = 0. Fence is 2 x 200 + 2 x 240 =880 m,

als b2 29 ­6,­4
WN a 15cm b 6.75 cm? 30 2,16
17 31 ­6,4
32 ­9,6
8
33 ­10,3
a 8­10=56 b $8.25
34 4.1
NOME a B: 450 cars, C: 450 cars, D: 300 cars
35 ­8,9
b 800 c 750
36 8,9
8 360 dollars
9 3years 371
38 Mario was correct: Sylvan did not make it into a standard
10 9 years
quadratic and only factorised the x terms. She also incorrectly
11 3am solved the equation x­3 = 4.
125
Exercise 13F
13 a4x+40=180 bx=35
14 a 210­950 b $37.50 1 a3­3 bi c­32
15 No,asx+x+2 +x+4+x+6=360 gives x = 87° so the d ­2}3} e+ fa
consecutive numbers (87, 89, 91, 93) are not even but odd
16 4x +18 =3x + 1 + 50, x = 33. Large bottle 1.5 litres, 9 3­3 h3­1 id
small bottle 1 litre | 2}
[IRV RE kil
13.3 Solving quadratic equations by m ­2;.0 n £12 0­13
factorisation 2 a ­67 b­33 c­67
d 1.1 e­23 £341
13E
Exercise
­2,­5 9 43 h­2.1 ia
­3,­1 I ­2.3 k—30 1 ­5,5
6,4
3,2
DLEWN=
­1,3 3 a Both have only one solution: x= 1.
­4,5 b Bis a linear equation, but A and C are quadratic equations.
NOUV1,2 4 a (5x­1) = (2x + 3)* + (x + 1°, when expanded and
2,­5 collected into the general quadratics, gives the required
equation.
7,4
CO

b (10x + 3)2x ­ 3), x = 1.5; area,= 7.5 cm.

Wr
3,2
=O 1,5
NE

4,3 13.4 Solving quadratic equations by

­4,­1
a WN
the quadratic formula
­9,­2 AH

Exercise 13G
2.4
Sr

PT 3,5 AV
1 1.77,­227
2 ­0.23,­143

8
3 3.70,­2.70 6 11.5and 25.5
4 0.29,­0.69 7 8and­3
5 ­0.19,­153 8 ax+y=75 by=2x € x=25y=50
6 ­1.23,­243 9 ax+y=300 bx=y+600ry=x­60
7 ­041,­1.84 ¢ x=180and y= 120
8 ­1.39,­2.27 10 a xr=y­260ry=x+260ry­x=26 bx+y=50
9 1.37,­4.37 ¢ Ahmed is 12 and his mother is 38.
10 2.18,0.15 MM ax=y­040ory=x+04 bx+y=86 ¢45m
11 ­0.39,­5.11
12 0.44,­1.69 Exercise 13)
13 1.64, 061 1 ax=4y=1 bx=1y=4
14 0.36,­0.79 cx=3y=1 dx=5y=­2
15 1.89,0.1 ex=7,y=1 f x=5,y=3
16 13 gx=4y=11 hx=­2y=4
17 ¥­3x­7=0 i x=25L y=­13Li =) vag
i x=24,y=63
18 Hasan gets x = £¥0 and Miriam gets 2x­ 17 = 0; k x=4,y=3 | x=5,y=3
each method only gives one solution, x = 1
2 2 a 3is the first term. The next term is 3 x a + b, which
equals 14.
13.5 Solving quadratic equations by blda+b=47
completing the square ca=3b=5
d 146, 443
Exercise 13H
Exercise 13K
1 a(w+2°­4 b(x+77­49
¢ (x­3°­9 d(x+3°­9
1 ax=2y=­3 bx=7y=3
e (r­15F­225 f (x­45)7­20.25 cx=4,y=1 dx=2y=5
g (x +65) ­42.25 h (x+57­25 ex=4,y=­3 f x=1y=7
i (x+4¥­16 j e=17­1 gx=2y=1} hx=­1y=2;
k (x+1)7­1
2 alx+2P%­5 b (x+7)­54 i x=6,y=3 | ped
md
= 1Y vied
c (x­37­6 d(x+37­2 kx=­1,y=5 | x=13y=3
e (r­ 157­325 f k+3°­6 a They are the same equation. Divide the first by 2
and it is the
g (x­4.57­10.25 h (x + 6.57 ­7.25 second, so they have an infinite number of solutions.
i (x+47­22 J es1)­2 b Double the second equation to get 6x + 2y = 14 and
k (x­17­8 I (x+1¥­10 subtract to get 9 = 14. The left­hand sides are the same if
3 a­2:1\§ b­7+3V6 c3+V6 the second is doubled so they cannot have different values.
d­3+V2 e 1.5:£V325 f­3xV6
g 4510.25 h­65+V725 i ­42v22 Exercise 13L
j ­1242 k1+2\2 I ­1+£\10 1 a x=5y=1 bx=3y=8
4 a 145­345 b 5.32,­1.32 c ­4.16,2.16 ¢c x=9,y=1 dx=7,y=3
5 ax=152V375 bx=1xv0.75 e x=4,y=2 f x=6,y=5
¢ x=­1.25% V6.5625 d x=7.5+v40.25
6 p=­14,49=­3 g x=3,y=­2 hr=2y=1
7 a 3rd, 1st, 4th and 2nd ­ in that order i x=­2,y=­3 j x=­1,y=2}
k x=23,y="% | x=­13 y=4}
13.6 Simultaneous equations 1 yml
mxs= 3 y=­63Li nx=33y=1;

Exercise 131 [] x=­23,y=­3}

1 ax=5y=10 bx=18,y=6 C x=12,y=48 (1, the solution to equations A and C; (­1, 3) is the solution
<2) is
2 ax=6,y=18 bx=125y=25 c x=05y=45 to equations A and D; (2, 1) is the solution to B and C; (3, ­3) is

3 ax=13,y=7 the solution to B and D.

bx=9y=14 cx=10,y=­4
4 ax=05y=4 bx=55y=145 Cc x=2,vy=8
3 Intersection points are (0, 6), (1, 3) and (2, 4). Area is 2 cm?
4 Intersection points are (0, 3), (6, 0) and (4, ­1). Area is 6 cm?
S$ Carmen 32, Anish 8

723
 Answers tc

13.7 Linear and non­linear kx=3

«—e
03
simultaneous equations | 12525 0525
Exercise 13M 2 a8 bé c 16
1 a(5­1) b 4,1) c (8­1) d3 e7
2 a1, 2and(­2 ­1) b (4, and (­2, 2) 3 an b 16 c 16
3 a@3,49and(4,3) b(0,3)and(­3,0) «¢(3,2)and(­2, 3) 4 2x+3<20,x< 8.50, so the most each could cost is $8.49
4 a (2,5and(­2,­3) b (­1,­2)and (4, 3) ¢ (3, 3)and (1, ­1) 5 a Because 3 +4 = 7, which is less than the third side of
5 a(­3­3,0,1 b (3,­2),(­2,3) c (=2,­1),(,2) length 8
bx+x+2>10, 2x+2>10, 2x > 8, x > 4, so smallest
d 2­131 e (­2,1),(3,6) f(1.­4).4,2 value of x is 5
g 4,5), (­5,­49)
6 a x=6andux < 3 scores ­1 (nothing in common), x < 3 and
ax+y=122+y"=90 b Either 391290 or 931290 Xx > 0 scores 1 (1 in common for example), x > 0 and x = 2

7 12 years old scores 1 (2 in common), x = 2 and x = 4 scores ­1 (nothing

8 a+)" in common), soweget­1+1+1­1=0
=85and(x+yP=121 b2and9
b x > 0and.x=6 scores +1 (6 in common), x=6and x = 4
scores +1 (6 in common), x = 4 and x = 2 scores ­1
13.8 Solving inequalities (nothing in common), x = 2 and x = 3 scores +1 (2 in
common), +1 +1­1+1=2
Exercise 13N ¢ Any acceptable combination, eg. x=2,x< 3,x>0,x = 4,
x=6
1 ax<3 To 3
7 ax>­6 br<$
bi>­2 20
cys4 dx=­2
cp=­10 006 ew=55 fers
dx<5 5 8 ax=2 bx>38
eys<3 0 3 € x<6] dx=7
fi>3 0 3 er>15 fy<l
9 ad b 99 cn dn eb
gx<6 “36 10 a 0,10­10 bx<16
hy=­15 "54 11 ax<9 bx=1 cx=3
122 ax=>75 br=s­2 cx<h
ir>18 0 18 dx>15 ex=>­5 fx<05
j x<7 “0 7

14.1 Conversion graphs 6 ai 370 ii $29

bi $85 ii $38
Exercise 14A 7 ai 95°F ii 68°F iii 10°C iv 32°C
b 32°F
1 ai 8ikg ii 2jkg iii 9b iv 221b
b22b 8 a Check student's graph b $50
© Read off the value for 12 Ib (5.4 kg) and multiply this by 4 9 a Student's own graph b about 48 kilometres
(21.6 kg) ¢ about 16 miles

2 ai 10m Wi 23am ii 2in iv 82in 10 a Student's own graph b about 9 centimetres

¢ about 4 hours
b 23cm 11 a Student's own graph b about 23 minutes
¢ Read off the value for 9 in (23 cm) and multiply this by 2
(46 cm)
14.2 Travel graphs
3 ai $320 ii $100 iii £45 iv £78
b $3.20 Exercise 148
¢ It would become more steep. 1 ai 2h ii 3h iii 5h
4 ai $120 ­ ii $82 bi 40km/h ii 120 km/h ili 40 km/h
bi 32 ii 48 c 530am
5 ai $100 ii $325 2 ai 125km ii about 25 km/h
bi 500 ii 250 bi Between 2 pmand 3pm ii About 12 km/h

724
3 a30km b 40 km ¢ 100 km/h
4 ai 263 m/min(3 sf)
ii 15.8 km/h (3 sf)
Exercise 14D
b 500 m/min
1 aandb y

¢ Yuto by 1 minute
5 a Patrick ran quickly at first, then had a slow middle section but
he won the race with a final sprint. Araf ran steadily all the
way and came second. Sean set off the slowest, speeded up
towards the end but still came third.
bi 1.67mi ii 6 km/h

6 o Ee Tia (8)

c 8mss d 16ms
2 a

I
P

a 7

Thm b 10 m/s d 0nvs

b At 1130
7 ai Because it stopped several times
ii Ravinder
b Ravinder at 1558, Sue at 1620, Michael at 1635
ci 24 kmh
ii 20.6 km/h
Jil 5
8 a 50 metres b student's graph ¢ 1 metre/second b 4 m/s ¢ 6 m/s downwards d afterds
9 a student's graph b 80 km/hour e 12m/s
10 a 1300 b 15km ¢ student's graph 4 a
“0

d For the three stages, 5 kmvhour, 4 kmvhour and 2 kmvhour, I»

For the whole trip 3.75 kmvhour
|

14.3 Speed­time graphs 0

LP [Eg So
Exercise 14C
po ¢ about 7.4 mys? d about 2.7 m/s?
1 a20ms b

HE
0.5 mss?
c 1m? d 600 metres
e 10m
a 0.6 mvs’ b 750m
3 ao02ms’ b 0.1 m/s?
¢ 75 metres d25m/is % 0 2 2
4 aims b 2m? b about 0.73 of
¢ 6 kilometres (or 6000 metres) ¢ after 20 seconds
d 30 m/s d about 0.65
S a student's graph b 0.8 m/s? ¢ 80 metres 6 a
a 26 mss b students graph ¢ 144 metres
a 13 mss? i
b They are together. They have both travelled 450 metres
8 a2ms
b i after 20 seconds
ii 100 metres
¢ 1150 metres b about 0.72 m/s? ¢ about 0.36 mvs?
9 a 15 seconds b 13 ms?
d about 0.72 m/s? e after about 23 sand 57 s
10 a 6ms b student's own graph
¢ 15 metres

725
 15.1 Drawing straight­line graphs 15.3 More about straight­line graphs
Exercise 15A Exercise 15C
1 Extreme points are (0, 4), (5, 19) 1 ay=­25x+5 b­25and(0,5)
2 Extreme points are (0, ­5), (5, 5) C
3 Extreme points are (0, ­3), (10, 2)
4 Extreme points are (­3, ­4), (3, 14) 4
S$ Extreme points are (­6, 2), (6, 6)
6 a Extreme points are (0, ­2), (5, 13) and (0, 1), (5, 11) 2
b (3.7)
7 a Extreme points are (0, ­5), (5, 15) and (0, 3), (5, 13) A AH
b (4.11) ­2
8 a Extreme points are (0, ­1), (12, 3) and (0, 2), (12, 4)
b (6,1) 2 ay=­jx+5 b­land(0,5)
9 a Extreme points are (0, 1), (4, 13) and (0, ­2), (4, 10) [4
b Do not cross because they are parallel
10 a Values of y: 5,4, 3, 2, 1, 0. Extreme points are (0, 5), (5, 0)
b Extreme points are (0, 7), (7, 0)
11 a yes b no c yes d no e yes f no
12 a 6 b 35 c2
13 a2 b ­10

15.2 The equationy = mx + ¢ 3 ay=­05c3 b ­0.5 and (0, ­3)

. y
4
Exercise 158
34
1 a3 b2 <3 24
1
d3 es
ie 14 .
2 ay=2­2 by=x+1 cc y=2x­3
d2y=x+6 ey=x fy=2x LTRS ERIN BEE
3 ay=2x+1,y=­2x+1 b Sy=2x­5,5y=­2x~­5 +24
Cy=x+1l,y==x+1
4 ay=­2x+1 b 2y=­x cy=­x+1 TS
dSy=­2x­5 ey=­3x­3or2y=­3r­6 4 ay=­x­20 by=3x+15 Ccy=­07x+3
S$ a3 b (0,3)
dy=02x­8 ey=15¢x­1 f y=­05x+6
6 a4 ba
5 a­1and(0,­20) b 3and(0, 15) ¢ ­0.7and (0, 3)
7 The first and last are parallel because they both have a
gradient of 4. The middle one has a gradient of 3. d02and(0,­8) e 1.5and(0,­1) ff ­0.5and(0, 6)
6 a­l b 3 cb
8 y=0.6x
d ­0.5 e2 f 56
9 abandd
7 ac bA cD dB
8 lined, 3x­2y= 12, all the rest are the same line.
9 a (9 0) and(0, 15)
b (20, 0) and (0, 10)
¢ (0,­10) and (­5, 0)

15.4 Solving equations graphically

cy=­05x+3 ey=­05x­3 Exercise 15D
1 a8 b ­0.4 c27
2 a­16 b 380r39 c ­38

726
3 a3 b 16 c 09 ay=2r­3 by=}x+4 cy=4c­2 dy=­3v+8
4 a23 b ­29 cl a (5,3) b (4, 5) c 3,2
5 a69 b29 c42o0rd3
d 3,3) e (1,35) f (­0.5,0)
6 a­08 b26 c 03
a student'sgraph b y=05xv+65 ¢ (1,3)
dy=­x+8
15.5 Parallel lines as b 13 c 10 d17
oa Show that the distance from each point to (2,1) is 5.
Exercise 1S5E
AB = V32, AC = V80, BC = V80, so two of the sides are the
1 a2x3+6=12 b2 ¢ students graph same length.
dy=2% ey=2x+3
2 a(0­Nand(4.0) by=jx+3 15.7 Perpendicular lines
3 a­2 b (4,0) c student's graph
dy=­2x ey=­2x+14 Exercise 15G
4 al by=5­9 1 a­2 b­3 <3
5 I
y=3t­3 ­
2 The gradients are 5 and ­3; 5 x —3 = ~1
6 ay=2x­4 by=2x+8 3 a­! b­2 c 25 ­%
7 ad4+2x1=6 by=­2v+6 4 a b2 <3 d­6
c ­2 dy=­2x 5 ay=­m by=­fx+10 €y=­fx+2
6 y=3x+2
15.6 Points and lines 7 y=­gx+3
8 y=<5r+11
Exercise 15F 9 6x + 3y=7is the odd one out
1 a3 b 10 y=2x+6

Answers to Chez apter 16

16.1 Quadratic graphs c 05

dx=­270r0.7
6 ax­4­3­2­101223,4
Exercise 16A
y:­4,3,8,11,12,11,8,3,4
1 ax­3­2­10123 b 9.75
¥:11,6,3,2,3,6, 11 c x35
b students graph d 2.2and­2.2
2 ax­3­2­1,01,23,4,
©:9,4,1,0,1,4,9,16,25
5W
Tar Ts[«[3][=2]1]o]1]2
­3x:9,6,3,0,­3,­6,­9, ­12, =15 2l2s[w6|lo9]al1]|o]1]a
»:18,10,4,0,­2,­2,0,4, 10 +4x|­20|­16|­12|­8|­4| 0 | 4 | 8
b18
dx=15
c (1.5, ­2.25) y|5|]0|­3|4|­3|]0] 512
ex=42o0r­12
3 a)70­5­8­9­8­507 bx=40r­2 bx=­4and0
¢ The graph should give a value of about ­8.75 c ­38
d The graph should give values of about 4.5 and ­2.5 d­4,0
4 ay 10,4,0,­2­204,10 8 ax­10123,4°5,67
b (2.5, ­2.25) 10,3, ­2, ­5, ­6, =5, ­2, 3, 10
cx=25 bx=060r55
d The graph should give a value of about 6.75 c ­58
ex=1o0rd d ­03,6.5
f The graph should give values of about 0.2 and 4.8 9 a yvalues:­6,0,4,6,6,4,0, ­6
5 ax­4,­3,­2,­1,01,2 b student's graph
v7,2,­1,­2­1,27 c (2.5, 6.25)
b 16,02 dx=25
ex=46and 04

727
 16.2 Turning points on a quadratic 5 210,60) b ¥
graph 40
Exercise 168
1 ad­2x­8=k­17­9 b(1,­9) c x=40r­2
d y ­20 ­10 >

\| .
2 6 ­56.5
7 b==10andc=14
2 aXl+10x+21=(x+5°4 b(5­4 ¢x=­30r­7
d
16.3 Reciprocal graphs
214
Exercise 16C
1 a yvalues: 10,5,4,25,2, 1.33, 1,067,05
b 0.8 c 03 d ­16
2 a yvalues: 25,125, 10, 5, 2.5, 1,0.5, 0.33, 0.25
4 b student's graph ¢ ­0.5 and ­9.5
3 students own graph
4 a yvalues 20, 10,5,4,25,2,1
5 b student's graph ¢ studentsgraph d x=650r­15

3 aX­7v+10=(­357­225 b (3.5,­2.25) 16.4 More graphs

cx=20r5 d y
Exercise 16D
1 student's own graph.
2 a yvalues: ­7.81, 4,­1.69, ­0.5, ­0.06, 0, 0.06, 0.5, 1.69,
10 4, 7.81
b23
3 a yvalues:­12.63,­5,­0.38, 2, 2.89, 3,3.13,4,6.38, 11,
18.63
2505] 259575 x b­14
4 a yvalues:1,4.63,6,588,5,4.13,4,538,9
bx=­18 cx=18 d (0.8, 39) and (­0.8, 6.1)
4 a(0,12) b (3,3) 5 a
* |3|­2|<1]0]T1]2]3]4
­18{0|4|0|­6|­8|0]24

wH ­

d The graph does not cross the x­axis so there is no value of x

for which ­ 6x +12 =0

c x=­24080r26 d (­1.1,4.1)and (1.8, ­8.2)

728
 Answers to Chapter
I 16
6 a yvalues: 20,5,2.22,1.2508 b students graph 10 a y
¢ The asymptotes are the x­axis and the y­axis
fory=0andx=0) 400
7 a yvalues: 4.25, 1.5, ­0.22, 1.46, ­2.44
b y

[ [

—­— —t"1 |

CATT TTT b 4.6 cm, 4.6 cm and 9.6 cm

=. > | ¢ ] 4 x 11 a
HEEEEE 5 |4|­3|[­2[­1|of|1]|]2]3]4a]s
¢ About 5.85
y |­58|­5|433|­4|­5]| ­| 5] 4/433] 5 |58
8 a
y bandc¢ 4
8 = ml —
600
TTT
500 OO 0 OR. x =
5 ==

nn =i

400
5 | 4 | TERE
i­4.4.4 41 +444
­ FS

—
300 —H snr oan
woo FEEEEFEEH HPP d If xis large, the curve and the straight line are very close
REE OE 55 8

oo HAH
FEET HHH
HHH
together.
e The y­axis (or x = 0)

16.5 Exponential graphs

Exercise 16E
1 a The missing values are 48, 24, 12 and 6
b
g'% | | 11

@ 50+ INH
£
a)

2 a 25000 x 0.8 = 20 000

b The missing values are 16 000, 12 800, 10 240, 8192

729
 [4 5 a

30000 TTT 1500 4————— —

3
s 200004 ST i 1000 1

o 1000041 Bema 5S 4
3 500
E Ps SRE.

es : |
0 0 ==
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
Years

d 3.1 years b about 3.3 months

3 a The missing numbers, rounded to one decimal place, are 6 a 220% b
79.4,91.3 and 104.9
b 1000 +
120 70
| | $ 2 5004

100 Boas =
AT 0 : : :
5 80 0 1 2 3 4
=T Years

§ 60 ¢ About $630
3

fo
7 a The missing values are 4500, 3645 and 3280.5
b

5000
\ T (# run ow wns pwwTE swwwT
204 Sona: ef
4000 ~~ : | a
8 T 30004 de
Pali] EE |
2015 2025 2035 2045 2055 Ss ! [ Foam, 8
Year 2 000 dF HH EH | u|
€ 2051 or 2052 BERS Eases ORE Cota] REbey ReCed FRSEEfean
4 a the missing values, to the nearest whole number, are 1000 AHH ee rr a3
650, 845, 1099, 1428 2s nas as : i
b 0 ­ , —>
2500 l I ­i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
BESSNENSE BE RENE Years
2000 ­ L— nme in © About 6.6 years
mane 8 Itis not exponential growth because the gradient is decreasing.
The gradient increases as time passes in exponential growth.
g 9 a 200 b 50% ¢ about 2.7 hours
KJ 10 a The initial value is $1000. After two years it is $500. After
four years it is $250. After six years it is $125. The value
halves every two years.
b 29 or 30%

Ra 16.6 Estimating gradients

0 ­ :
Y 1 2 3 4 5 Exercise 16F
Years Gradients found in this exercise may vary from the answers given
due to variations in drawings of the tangents
¢ abou t 2.6.0r
or 2.7 ye years 1 067

730
2 A05 B:­2 5 a yvalues: 0.25,05,1,2,4
3 a student's drawing b student's drawing
b student's drawing © student's drawing
¢ about 1.8 d about 0.7
d (1,15) 6 a yvalues: 2.5, 1.67, 1.25, 1, 0.83
4 a yvalues:0,0.01,0.1,034, 08, 1.56,2.7 b student's drawing
b student's drawing ¢ about ­0.3
¢ student's drawing
d about 1.2

17.1 Patterns in number sequences 3 84,5628 02,581, 14

c 3,8,13,18,23 do0, 3,815, 24
Exercise 17A e 913,17, 21,25 f 42, 39, 36, 33, 30
1 29,1113: add 2 3 a294,888276 b the 17th term, ­2
b 10, 12, 14: add 2 4 a1,4,916 b3,611,18 «¢281832
¢ 80, 160, 320: double d 3,15, 35, 63 e 199, 196, 191, 184
d 81, 243, 729: multiply by 3 f0251,225,4
e 28, 34, 40: add 6 5 al827,64 b 2,9, 28, 65 ¢ ­1,6,25, 62
f 23, 28,33: add 5 d 2,23, 80, 191 e 05,4,135,32 f 108,101, 82,45
g 20000, 200000, 2000000: multiply by 10 6 a $305 b $600 c3
h 19, 22, 25: add 3 d 5 (the amount is $250)
i 114, 105, 96: subtract 9 7 4n­2=3n+7rearrangesasdn­3n=7+2,n=9
j 405, 1215, 3645: multiply by 3
k 25, 12.5, 6.25; halve h Exercise 17C
I 625, 3125, 15 625: multiply by 5 1 ai13,15 2n+1 b 25,29,4n +1
2 a6,22 b 26, 37 € 33,38, 5n +3 d 32,38,6n­4
c 31,43 d 46, 64 e 20,23, 3n+2 f 37,44, 7n­5
e 121,169 f 782, 3907 9 17,15, 29­2n h 22,18; 46 ­ 4n
g 22 223, 222 223 h 11,13 i 17,20,3n­1 j 42,52, 10n­8
i 33,65 Jj 78,108 k 24,28,4n +4 | 29,34, 51­1
3 a 48,96, 192 b 33,39, 45 2 adn+1,1% b 2n +5, 105
c421 d 38, 35, 32 ¢ S5n­2,248 d 4n­3,197
e 37, 50, 65 f 26,33, 4 e 8n­6,394 fn+d 54
g 14,16, 17 h 25, 22,19 g S5n+ 1,251 h 81­5, 395
i 28, 36,45 j 5.67 i 3n­2,148 j 3n+18,168
k 0.16, 0.032, 0.0064 k 7n +5, 355 | 81­7,393
1 0.0625, 0.031 25, 0.015 625 3 ai dan+1 ii 401
4 a 21, 34: add previous 2 terms bi 2n+1 ii 201
b 49, 64; next square number ci 3n+1 ii 301
¢ 47, 76: add previous 2 terms di 2n+6 ii 206
d 216, 343; cube numbers ei 4n+5S ii 405
5 15,21,628, 36 fiSn+1 ii 501
6 61,91,127 2 3n­3 : 297
7 29and41 Ki 59
8 No, they both increase by the same number
> (3)= BiRad sii rs
ji 2n+23 223
9 10. Bmd® 4 a8+2 bBi+1 cn d $8
17.2 The nth term of a sequenc 5 an’ bri+2 2 dn’­1
Ah of i 6 an’ bn’+10 c 05: d 104°
Exercise 178 7 an+s bn’+5 cn'+5
1 23,5791 b 1,4,7,10,13 dSn+l eS f sn’
c 7,12,17, 22, 27 d1,4,916,25 4
e4,7,12,19,28 f 18.16,14,12,10

731
 17.3 General rules from patterns b the numbers in column 4 (top to bottom) are: 4, 81, 40,
121. Student's explanation of method.
10 a Student's drawing ­ one complete recurring sequence
Exercise 17D should be added to each one.
1 a = b bottom row: 5, 9, 13, 17
Cc 4n+1
d3n+1
IC |
e2n+1
fon+3
2
b The missing number is 13 17.4 Further sequences
c 4n­3
d 97
Exercise 17E
e 50th diagram
1 ad32 b 1053 c 1250 d 41.472
2 PAYAYAY e 640000 f 15 g16 h 32
b The bottom line is 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
2 a6,12% b 16, 128 c 15,405
Cc 2n+1
d 20,25 e 54,16
d 121
e 49th set 3 a25x2" b1.5x2" c 2x3" d 240 x 0.5"
3 a8 e 50x09" f 64x1.25"
b the bottom line is 6, 10, 14, 18 a 13720,19 208 b 5000 x 1.4"
c4n+2 5S ani+1 bni+6 cni­n d 3»?
d 12 e3n’­2 ff 3nP+n
4 ai 24 ii Sn­1 iii 224 6 a 1521 ba*+n c 0.50 +n) or0.54% +0.5n
b 25 d 210 e It is the 50th triangular number because
5 ai 20cm ii Bn+2)cm iil 152 cm (502 + 50) + 2 = 1275
b 332 ~ an’­1 bn*+50 cn’+n dn*+3n edn’ f4n’­n
6 ai 10 ii 2n+2 iii 162 8 a20 b{@x5x6)+6=20 c 7 (using 84 oranges)
b 79.8 km d The layers of the tetrahedron are triangular numbers. 20
7 ai 14 ii 3n+2 iii 41 layers have (20 x 21 x 22) + 6 = 1540 oranges.
b 66 9 a When n=1 the first term is a + b and this is 6.
8 ai 5 ii n iii 18 b2a+4b=16 «¢ a=4, b=2; the nthtermis4n + 2n’
b Formula gives 3 and 6
c 55

ary 1217 3
3 9 27
1 4 13
4 13 40

Answers to Chapter 18

18.1 Using indices h25x25

i 0.7x0.7x0.7
j 1000 x 1000
Exercise 18A
3 al6 b 243
1 a2 b 3° c 7? ds’ e 107 c 49 d 125
f 6 g4 ht’ i 05 j 100° e 10000 000 f 1296
2 a3x3x3x3 g4 h1
b9x9x9 i 0.0625 j 1000000
c 6x6
4 asl b 729
d10x10x10x 10x10 c 36 d 100000
@2x2x2x2x2x2x2x%x2x%x2x2 e 1024 fs
fs : g 0.001 h 6.25
g 0.1x0.1x01
i 0343 j 1000000

732
 Answers to Chapter 18
5 125m’ d ­6a* e 84° f 10a”
6 b 10? c2 d 5? 7 aia b 44° ¢ 3a*
7 al b4 cl dil el d 6a’ e 4a’ f 5q*
8 Any power of 1 is equal to 1. 8 a 8a b 104° ¢ 30a7%b?

ail bit 8A
9 10° d 2abh’ e 8a°b :
10 10° 9 ¢
1 al b ­1 cl di e ­1 10 a Possible answer: 6x2 x 2)” and 3xy x 4x)"
12 a1 b ­1 c 1 d1 el b Possible answer: 24x%y7 + 2) and 12x5% + 1%)?
13 2%, 4" 8° 16° MM 12@=2.b=1¢=3)

12 a A bA' cA
1 1
VA daar VA
18.2 Negative indices 13 a = x= (WP xx=x? bi

Exercise 188 18.4 Fractional indices

1
1 a 9 bz 1 LE 1 d ¥1
Exercise 18D
1 1 1 1
e Ps) f 3 9 2 h 7 1 a5 b 10 c 8 d9 e 25
1 4 f3 ga h 10 is j8
k 12 I 20 mS n3 o 10
2 a3? bs! c 107? dm’ er" p3 q2 r 2 s 6 té6
3 ai 2¢ i 27 iii 2 iv ­21 ol3 viF] wil il 5 5&
3 10
bi 10° ii 107 ili 10? iv 10° 5 2 8 4
2 ag b 13 <3 dig es
5
ci §° ii 57" iii 57° iv 574
di 3 ii 37° ii 37 iv ­3° 3 A 1 4 1
35 b 6 7 Ft 93 hg yg I
4 3 [4 = d pr4
10 1 1 3 3 (3) =x" = x) = x, but (VE) = "VX x mVx ... n times = x,
e y¥ f bry 93m ° 4¢ sox* = mlx
4 J}
Sy’ a’ 4 64°! =1, others are both 1
a 7x? b 1p" £8 2
¢ 57 d 8m e 3"
5 Possible answer: The negative power gives the reciprocal, so
ai 25 1
ii 125 4
fii [3
27 Tel dl 50 you need
bi 64 ii 6
1 a 5
iii 356 gabe; LT 27 which is 3, i =1
ci 8 1 9 1
ii 7] iii F0r4; Possible answer: x=1andy=1,x=8and y=­L.
1 [7]
di 1000000 ii 7000 iii 1
i a3 b1! c0 d!
3 2
7 24(32­8) el fl hi) hl
8 r=8andy=4(orx=y=1) 2 a 9 3
il il kl (J 7
— — 3 2 3
2097152
Exercise 18E
10 a x° °° b 25, 4° x5 c 5x50
1 a6 b 25 c 216 d 81
nal b 3M c 27M 2 3
2 an b mi cid d a?
3 a4 b9 c 64 d 3125
18.3 Multiplying and dividing with
31 bz 1 1
4 c3 ds;1
indices
1 1 1 1
eq fs; 9; hs
Exercise 18C 5 as
1 bs:
1 1 1
cs ds
1 ast bs? cs? ds’ e 5” 1 1 1 1
2 af’ b 6° c 6° dé’ e 6’ © 75% fa 93 hs
3 ad b a’ ca dat ed fa 1 1 1 1
4 a Any two values such that x + y= 10 6 a 55000 bs C5 45
b Any two values such that x ­ y = 10 1 1 1 1
es fs 95 hs
5 a4 b 4° c 4° 2

das e 4° f 4° 7 83= 3 others are both}

6 aéa b 94° c 84°

733
 AnNnswe rs to

8 Possible answer: The negative power gives the reciprocal, so

the power one­third means cube root, so we need the cube root
i3 | 3% kg | 3G
1 ax* bx c 4?
of 27 which is 3 and the power 2 means square, so
2
d 104 e 20x" fy
3=9,5027=9andLy=1
273 12 ax bd’ c #
9 a¥ bx c 0243 8 ds eyi f a
d 343

EE TET 13 a x2
dr?
by!
e d?
c al
f1
10a% bZ «<2 d 22 14 k
TNT I
Answers to Chapter 19

19.1 Direct proportion 11 a 78 dollars b 400 miles

12 4000 cm?
Exercise 19A 13 $250
1 ais 14 a B bA c C
b2
15 a B b A
2 a’s b6
3 aso b6
4 a225 b 12 19.2 Inverse proportion
5 a 175 kilometres b 8 hours
6 a 66.50 dollars b 175kg Exercise 19C
7 ada b 84 m? 1 Tm=12 a3 b25
8 a 33 spaces 2 Wx=60 a20 b6
b 66 spaces since new car park has 366 spaces 3 Q5­n=16 a­32 b4
9 17 minutes 30 seconds 4 MP=36 aa bs
Ss WWT=24 ais b 100
Exercise 198 6 Yy=32 a 32 b4 :
1 a00 b 10 7 gp=1800 a $15 b 36
2 az bs 8 W=24 a 3°C b 12km
3 asé b 1.69
9 d’=432 a 1.92 km b 8m/s
4 a 192 b 2.25 10 pVh=7.2 a 24am b 100m
5 a256 b5 11 WF=05 a 5th b 0.58 th
6 aso b8 12 B ­ This is inverse proportion, as x increases y decreases.
7 a $50 b 225 13
8 a 32°C b 10 atm x 8 27 64
9 a3888¢g b 3mm 1 fne 1
has 2
10 a 2) b 40 mss

Answers to Chapter 20

20.1 Graphical inequalities 2 a&b

y

1
Exercise 20A
1 a&b =2 =| 0 1 2x
mw

­24

Cay
It

734
 +H TT

us he .
bo

~N
Q BE­

HH

10 ad i
1
.

r= ~2 3 4 =
iuERnS|
104

TH
PE Rene
NEE.

.
B
23 3

sce
rx
1

i
i
T

J
edges
"
“111

ei No “ 1

T™

20.2 More than one inequality

‘
PR S

+1

| ¥

: oO
1 af 4i a

Tr
Ll dededed dd

en
Il
»

TT EET
g
+d

io
g

SE
­­

bi Yes ii Yes iii No

EE]
6 a&b ERR
RE
ERE
TY

EEE
1 HH
9 No if No iii Yes
Lit 4
a AE I

7 a&b
v
:

b No
3 a&b

8 a&b

735
J
 “ 1]
WO
®

NN

BO

$5 Test a point such as the origin (0, 0), so 0 < 0 + 2, which is

true. So the side that includes the origin is the required side,
WA

NN

6 ax+y>3y<ir+3andy>5c­15 =

bo
0V 238 a4a8é678a 90H RY
©

c 3at(3,0 cat
c4 I)
20.3 Linear programming a Follows from 15x + 10y = 600
b x+y=50
[4
Exercise 20C
1 a He buys at least 3 cartons of milk
by=2
Cx+y=<8
d

0
KON® 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 *
front
water d 30

“NWA
ai x+y=15 Jix+y=>5 ily > 2x
012345678°F* b the number of small coaches is not more than 2 more than
milk the number of large coaches
c
2 ax+y=10

b 2x + 5y = 30 Y “eEEENEEREENE
[3] I
[4 b{
12
1
n
ALJ
Ld
[]
i
B, ?

2 1 G
4 —— — ol
0 2 4 6 810121416" 3 [
cans 5
d 6 because cars & vans (x, y) must both be integers 1

ed o 2 4 : B4 v LUN BU EA

3 ax>y x<2y x+y<12 d3.,4,5670r8

b 7 a3x+y b3x+y=18 x>y y=22
[4
é
5 , rg ND

i,
draws

901 23 485 672 2 10M 12° OC—=NWhLUO

0123456"
girls wins
c7
d 3 wins and 2 draws; 4 wins and 2 draws; 5 wins and 2
4 ax+y=6 x+ys12 y>x x=2 draws; 4 wins and 3 draws; 5 wins and 3 draws

736
21.1 Function
.
notation ­
2 a6and216 b10and 1000 ¢ (20 or&¢’
3

d 64and 128 e 2¢
Exercise 21A 3 a1,925 b 1.3.5 Cc V2x + 1

1 a2 b 26 c7 4 ab6and18 b 12 and 36 c 9x
d ­2 e3 5 a3x­6) b3x­6
d25s e 0.625 org

3 as Fe © 999801 21.4 More about composite

di eg functions
4 a4 b 32 ei
1 1
dj ez Exercise 21D
5 a3 b 2 c0 1 a3s b1
d ­1 e5
c8 d5sS
6 als b ­25 c ­5
2 a2 b9
7 ab b 97 c 3.25
c 875 d3
8 ab b at (6, 4)
1 3 a7 bs
9 a3 b ­3 cx=2 256 d2
dx=0 ¥ 1
a 6x b 6x­5
21.2 Inverse functions 5 a 9+ 24x + 160r 3x + 4 b6x­5
Cc 2x+3 d4­2x
Exercise 218 ax­10 bx+10 cx
1 ax­7 bi 8 c 5x dx+3
¥ ax! b *122 or 15
144
2 a8 ba c5 d ­2 232 dx
Z
3 a3x+2 bi+5 ¢ 5x­4 d 3xt6 8 aso
L_ ic
x b 2(2x ­ 1) ­ 1 simplified
wag Wn ¢ (@x­ 1) + 22x ­ 1) simplified
4 a2 bl 25 ell i=1
2 c 9 ag b=
5 al0­x b They are identical 10 a 61­14 biti
¢ =8 20 2
b=5 ¢ 3­1 1 a05(1+9=5 b7 c8
7 +4 b students 4.4 d 8.5, 8.75, 8.875, 8.9375, 8.96875, 8.984375
*72 an Te. e Getting closer and closer to 9, halving the difference from 9
8 5 each time.
9 x82 12 Student's own description of the convergence towards 9.
3

21.3 Composite functions

Exercise 21C
1 ab6and3 b 7and 3.5
c 10and5 dt
elandS f 1.5and 5.5
g­Sand­1 h3+4

737
 Answers to Ch apter 23

Answers to Chapter 22

22.1 The gradient of a curve 5 16 at (2, 0); ­16 at (2, 0); 0 at (0, 0)
6 a dw/dx = 4x ­6x% and if x = 0 then dy/dx = 0
Exercise 22A b ­10 c8

1 a The missing numbers are 0, ­1, 0 7 +? = 5= 4 has two solutions, x= 3 or ­3.

Points are (3, ­2) and (­3, 10)
b ¥
y=15x=­2
al b 24
J | TT

] b | = SR
22.3 Turning points
5 + ­
— 1
Exercise 22C
1 a x­4 b2x­4=0=x=2;(2,­1)
2 7 ­ ¢ Minimum
| i Th] 2 a (­3,­12) b Minimum
[= ­1 | 3a |* 3 as5­2x b (2.5, 7.25)
EE FaEDE ¢ Maximum
2and­3
c 2v­2 d4
eb f student's choice a 3 ­ 6x bry=0o0r2
g(1,­1) h student's check c (0,0) and (2, 4)
2 a2­6 b­6 cd d 4,7) alfx=­2o0r5y=0 b 2x­3
3 adx bs c 4 d (3,8) c (1.5, ­12.25); Minimum dx=15
4 ad­2x bd4and­4 «¢ (1,3) d (1.5, 3.75) a (­3, 81), (0, 0) and (3, 81)
5 a2x+1 b2x­7 c 8x­1 d 06x­1.5 b 81­
e­24+2x f 3­2x g2 h 0
6 2x+2
7 adx+2 b2v4+7 c 2x
8 a0 ­5 b 2

22.2 More complex curves

Exercise 228
1 aa’ b 6 and 24 abt­6 b (1, 0) minimum, (~1, 8) maximum
2 a3f­1x+8 a The two sides add up to half the perimeter
bifx=00r2ord,y=0 b 15­2x
c 8­48 c (7.5, 56.25)
3 ai15¢­6x+4 d Maximum
b 4 at (0, 0) and (4, 0); ­2 at (2,0) e The largest possible area is 56.25 cm?, when the rectangle
4 as’ b 6% + 10x is a square of side 7.5 cm

c15¢¥­2 d­1­2¢
e 9’ +5 f ­3¢
gar ­1 h 8¢ + 18¢

Answers to Chapter 23

23.1 Angle facts a 82° b 105° c 75°

45° + 125° = 170° and for a straight line it should be 180°.
Exercise 23A awnN a x=100° bx=110° c x=30°
1 aas° b 307° c 108° d 52° a x=55° b x =45° c x=125°
e 59° f 81° g 139° h 58° ax=34°y=98"
own bx=70°y=120° ¢ x=20° y=80°

738
 Answers to Chapter 23
7 6x 60° = 360° imagine six of the triangles meeting at a point. b x = 60°: 50°, 130°, 50°, 130° ­ parallelogram or isosceles
8 x=35°y=75% 2x = 70° (opposite angles), so x = 35° and trapezium
x+y =110° (angles on a line), so y = 75° c x= 30° 20°, 60°, 140°, 140° ­ possibly kite
9 a=88 b=132 d x= 20° 90° 90° 90°, 90° ­ square or rectangle
52°
Both 129°
23.2 Parallel lines y = 360° ­ 4x
Exercise 238 Nouns36°, 72°, 108° and 144°

1 a 40° bb=c=70°
cd=75e=f=105° dg=50° h=i=130° 23.5 Regular polygons
ej=k=1=70° f n=m=80°
Exercise 23E
2 aa=50°b=130° bc=d=65%e=f=115°
1 ai 45° ii 8 iii 1080°
Cc g=i=65 h=115° dj=k=72°1=108°
bi 20° ii 18 iii 2880°
em=n=0=p=105° f g=r=s5=125°
ci 15° ii 24 ili 3960°
3 aa=95° b b=66°c=114° di 36° ii 10 ili 1440°
4 a x=30°y=120° b x=25° y=105° 2 ai 172° ii 45 iii 7740°
c x=30° y=100° bi 174° ii 60 iii 10440°
5 ax=50°y=110° b x = 25°, y= 55° ci 156° ii 15 ili 2340°
¢ x=20, y= 140° di 177° ii 120 iii 21240°
6 290° xis double the angle allied to 35°, so is 2 x 145° 3 a Exterior angle is 7°, which does not divide exactly into 360°
7 a=66 b Exterior angle is 19°, which does not divide exactly into 360°
8 Angle PQD = 64° (alternate angles), so angle DQY = 116° ¢ Exterior angle is 11°, which does divide exactly into 360°
(angles on a line = 180°) d Exterior angle is 70°, which does not divide exactly into 360°
9 Use alternate angles to see b, a and c are all angles on a a 7° does not divide exactly into 360°
straight line, and so total 180°. b 26° does not divide exactly into 360°
10 Third angle in triangle equals q (alternate angle), angle sum of ¢ 44° does not divide exactly into 360°
triangle is 180°. d 13° does not divide exactly into 360°
11 A + D = 180° because they are allied angles. C + D = 180° x = 45°, they are the same, true for all polygons
because they are allied angles. Hence A = C. a 36° b 10
In the same way B + C = 180° = D + C because they are pairs a The exterior angle is 180­170 = 10°; 360 + 10=36s0 a
of allied angles. Hence B = D. regular polygon with 36 sides is possible.
b The exterior angle is 180­169 =11°,360 + 11 isnot a

23.3 Angles in a triangle whole number so a regular polygon is not possible.

Exercise 23C 23.6 Irregular polygons

1 a70° b 50° c 80° d 60°
e 75° f 109° g 38° h 63° Exercise 23F
1 a 1440° b 2340° c 17 640° d 7740°
2 a No, total is 190° b Yes, total is 180° ¢ No, total is 170°
2 a9 b 15 c 102 d 50
d Yes, total is 180° e Yes, total is 180° f No, total is 170°
3 a3 b 95° c 130°
3 ae60° b Equilateral triangle ¢ Same length
4 a 50° b 40° c¢ 59°
4 a 70° each b Isosceles triangle ¢ Same length 5 Hexagon
5 a 109° b 130° c 135° 6 a Octagon b 89°
6 Isosceles triangle; angle DFE £30° (opposite angles), angle 7 ai 71° ii 109° fii Equal
DEF £75° (angles on a line), angle FDE £75° (angles in a b If = sum of the two opposite interior angles, then S + / = 180°
triangle), so there are two equal angles in the triangle and (angles in a triangle), and we know E + I = 180° (angles on a
hence it is an isosceles triangle straight line), so § + I= E + I, therefore S = E
7 ais £80° (opposite angles), b is 65° (angles on a line), ¢ is 35° 144°, 360 ~ (2 x 108)°
(angles in a triangle) Three angles are 135° and two angles are 67.5°
8 Missingangle=y,x+y=180anda+b+y=180°sox=a+b
9 b=240­a 23.7 Tangents and diameters
23.4 Angles in a quadrilateral Exercise 23G
1 a38° b 110° c 15° d 45°
Exercise 230 2 ax=12°%y=156° b x=100°, y = 50°
1 aa=110°b=55 bc=e=105°d=75° c x=62° y=28° d x=30° y= 60°
¢ f=135° g=25° dh=i=94° 3 Angle OCD = 58° (triangle OCD is isosceles), angleOCB = 90°
e j=1=105°%k=75° fm=0=49°,n=131° (tangenv/radius theorem), so angle DCB = 32°, hence triangle
2 ax=25°y=15° bx=7°%y=31° cc x=60°%y=30° BCD is isosceles (2 equal angles)
3 a x=50%60° 70° 120° 110° ­ possibly trapezium
—

739
 vers to Chapter 24

23.8 Angles in a circle 6 a71° b 1255° c 545°

7 a x+ 2x­30°= 180° (opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral),
Exercise 23H so 3x ­ 30° = 180°
1 as6° b 62° c 105° d 55° b x =70° 50 2x ­ 30° = 110° angle DOB = 140° (angle at
e 45° f 30° centre equals twice angle at circumference), y = 80° (angles
g 60° h 145°
in a quadrilateral)
2 ass b 52° c 50° d 24°
e 39° f 80° g 34° h 30° 8 ax b 360° ­ 2x
¢ Angle ADC= Jrefiex angle AOC = 180° ­ x, so angle ADC +
3 ade b 49° c 41°
angle ABC = 180°
4 a72° b 37° c 72°
5 Angle AZY = 35° (angles in a triangle), a = 55° (angle in a 9 Letangle AED = x, then angle ABC = x (opposite angles are
semicircle = 90°) equal in a parallelogram), angle ADC = 180° — x (opposite angles
in a cyclic quadrilateral), so angle ADE = x (angles on a line)
6 ax=y=40° bx=131°y=111°
Cc x=134° y=23° dx=32° y=19° 10 Let angle ABC = x and angle EFG = y.
e x=59°% y=121° f x=155° y=125° Then angle ADC = 180 ­ x° (opposite angles in a cyclic
7 68° quadrilateral) and angle EDG = 180 ­ y°.
But angle ADC = angle EDG (opposite angles).
8 Angle ABC = 180° ­ x (angles on a line), angle AOC = 360° 180 — x° = 180 ~ y* and therefore x = y.
­ 2x (angle at centre is twice angle at circumference), reflex
angle AOC = 360° ­ (360° — 2x) = 2x (angles at a point)
9 ax 23.10 Alternate segment theorem
b 2x
Exercise 23)
¢ From part b, angle AOD = 2x
Similarly, angle COD = 2y 1 aa=65°b=75%c=40°
So angle AOC =A0D + COD =2x + 2y = 2(x + y) b d=79° e=58° f=43°
= 2 x angle ABC
Cc g=41°, h=76°i=76°
d k=80° m=52° n=_80°
23.9 Cyclic quadrilaterals 2 aa=75,b=75%c=75,d=30°
Exercise 231 b a'=47° b=86° c=86° d=47°
1 aa=50°b=95° b ¢=92° x=90° € a=53° b=53°
€ d=110%¢=110° f= 70° d g=105° h=99° d a=55°
e j=89° k=89°1=91° f m=120° n=40° 3 a36° b 70°
9 p=44° q=68° h x=40° y=34°
4 ax=25° b x=46° y=69° z=65"
2 ax=26°y=128° b x=48° y=78°
¢ x=133° y=47° d x=36° y=72° cx=38% y=70°z=20° dx=48° y=42°
e x=55° y= 125° f x=35° 5 Angle ACB = 64° (angle in alternate segment), angle ACX = 116°
g x=48° y=45° (angles on a line), angle CAX = 32° (angles in a triangle), so
h x=66° y=52°
triangle ACX is isosceles (two equal angles)
3 axr=49°y=49° b x=70° y=20°
6 Angle AXY = 69° (tangents equal and so triangle AXY is
c x=80° y=100° d x=100° y= 75° isosceles), angle XZY = 69° (alternate segment),
4 ax=50°y=62° b x=92° y=288° angle XYZ = 55° (angles in a triangle)
c x=93° y=42° d x=55°% y=75°
7 ax b 90° ­ x c angle OPT = 90°, so angle APT = x
5 ax=95°y=138° b x=14° y=62°
€ x=32° y=48° d 52°

Answers to Chapter 24

24.1 Measuring and drawing angles 5 Any angle between 90° and 100°.
6 a 80° b 50° c 25°
Exercise 24A
1 aaoe b 125° c 340° d 225° 24.2 Bearings
2 student's drawings of angles
3 ACand BE; AD and CE; AE and CF. Exercise 248
4 Yes, the angle is 75°. 1 a110° b250° ¢ 091° d 270° e 130° § 180°
2 student's sketches

740
3 A B [4

45°

4
C 5

4 a 090° 180°, 270° . b 000°, 270°, 180°

5 Leg Actual distance] Bearing

1 50 km 060°
2 70 km 355°
3 65 km 260°
4 46 km 204°
5 60 km 130°

6 a 045° b 286°
7 a 250° b 325° c 144°
8 af%0m b 280°
¢ angle NHS = 150° and HS = 3 cm

ad 6 aandb
10 255°

24.4 Congruent shapes

24.3 Nets
Exercise 24D
Exercise 24C 1 ayes b yes c no d yes e no f yes
1 a b < 2 a triangle ii b triangle iii c sector i
|i i588 FT [ESSERE] EE) IEERNANRY 3s a
1EEaiaieasanaRigaziiaacanii POR to QRS to RSP 10 SPQ;
H 3 Swed ta anaunass “A SXP to PXQ to QXR to RXS

S A 3

4 F
> EGF to FHE to GEH to HFG;
2 Yes. EFX to HGX, EXH 10 FXG
H G
|
5 8 c
| ABC to CDA; BDC 10 DBA;
ti X NC BXA 10 DXC; BXC to DXA

HH A D
3 6 A

AXB 10 AXC

8 2 Cc

4 a b
: 24.5 Congruent triangles
Exercise 24E
1 aSAS b SSS ¢ ASA dRHS e SSS f ASA
2 asSSS.AtoR.BtoRCtoQ
b SAS. AtoR, BtoQ,CtoP

41
 3 a60° b8° c40° db5cm 24.8 Areas and volumes of similar
4 a110° bsSs® c 85° d 110° edcm
5 SSSorRHS
shapes
6 SSS or SAS or RHS Exercise 24H
7 For example, use AADE and ACDG. AD = CD (sides of large 1 a4:25 b 8:125
square), DE = DG (sides of small square), 2 al16:49 b 64 :343
angle ADE = angle CDG (angles sum to 90° with angle ADG),
so angle ADE = angle CDG (SAS), so AE = CG 3 Linear scale| Linear Linear |Areascale| Volume
8 AB and PQ are the corresponding sides to the 42° angle, but factor ratio |

1­1
they are not equal in length. 2 V2 ST

w
24.6 Similar shapes NTA

—­
| FNS —jon
|pi=|

Exercise 24F vw ah wv hah

~N
wn
SITY

1 a2 b3
|8 &
[­
2 aves 4 3i=| 3l­

b No, corresponding sides have different ratios. 4 135cm?

3 a PQRis an enlargement of ABC 5 a 56cm’ b 126 cm?
b1:3 c¢ Angle R d BA 6 aa8m’ b 3m?
4 a Sides in same ratio 7 a 2400 cm’ b 8100 cm’
b Angle P c PR 8 4litres
5 a Same angles b Angle © Cc AR 9 138m’
6 a8wm bx=45cm, y=9cm 10 $6
¢cx=195cm, y=108cm d 4.2cm 11 44cm
7 a The angles are all 90 degrees. The sides of a square are all 12 8 x 0.60 = $4.80 which is greater than $4.00 so the large tub
equal so the ratio between sides of two different squares is better value
will be the same, whatever two sides are chosen.
13 a3:4 b9:16 c 27:64
b No. They will only be similar if they have the same ratio of
length to width. 14 720 +8 =90 cm’
8 52m
Exercise 241
24.7 Areas of similar triangles = 6.2 cm, 10.1 ¢cm
4.26 cm, 6.74 cm
Exercise 24G WN 9.56 cm
1 a2s b 125 cm? EE 338m
2 a All equilateral triangles are similar ~~ b 3.8 cm? (to 2 sf) 84cm
3 4032cm? 26.5 cm
4 75cm? NOUV 47.8 cm
5 al44cm’® b69.4cm? 00 a 433m, 7.81 cm b 143¢,839g
6 a All angles are the same b 247.7 cm? OW 53.8kg
7 a2 b 10cm c 7.1¢m 10 1.73 kg
8 354.9cm’ 11 88cm
9 It will double the area 12 79cmand 12.6 cm
10 283 cm? 3b

25.1 Constructing shapes ~N a Students can check one another's triangles.

b angle ABC = 44°, angle BCA = 79°, angle CAB = 57°
Exercise 25A 59cm
1 a BC=29cam, angle B = 53° angle C= 92° aw student drawing.
b EF =7.4 cm, ED = 6.8 cm, angle E = 50° wn student drawing.
¢ angle G = 105°, angle H = 29°, angle / = 46° 43cm
d angle J =148°, angle L = 32°, JK=4.3 cm
43cm
e angle N=55° ON=0OM =7 cm
No

f angle P=51°, angle R = 39°, QP =5.7 cm

742
8 a Right­angled triangle constructed with sides 3, 4, 5 and b pond: 400 m’, fruit: 500 m?, trees: 400 m?, lawn: 600 m’,
4.5, 6, 7.5, and scale marked 1 cm: 1m vegetables: 1000 m?
b Right­angled triangle constructed with 12 equally spaced dots. 2 a33wm b9cm
9 An equilateral tnangle of side 4 cm. 3 a30cmx30cm b40cmx 10cm ¢ 20cm x 15¢m
10 Even with all three angles, you need to know at least one length. d30cmx20cm e 30ecmx20cm f 10cm x 5cm
4 a student's scale drawing. b 39 plants
25.2 Scale drawings 5 as8dkm b 4.6 km ¢ 6.2km
d 6.4 km e 7.6 km f 24km
Exercise 258 6 a student's drawing b 12.9 metres
1 a pond: 40 m x 10 m, fruit; 50 m x 10 m, trees: 20 m x 20 m, 7 a 900km b 1100 km ¢ 860 km
lawn: 30 m x 20 m, vegetables: 50 m x 20 m 8 ­7 cm represents 210 m, so 1 cm represents 30 m

26.1 Pythagoras’ theorem 26.3 Calculating angles

Exercise 26A Exercise 26D
1 103cm 1 a 30° b 51.7° c 398°
2 59cm d 61.3° e 87.4° f 45.0°
3 85cm 2 a 60° b 50.2° c 26°
4 206cm d 45° e 78.5° f 45.6°
5 186wm 3 a3l0° b 20.8° c 418°
6 175cm d 464° e 69.5° f 77.1°
7 S5cm 4 Error message, largest value 1, smallest value —1
8 13cm 5 ai 175° ii 72.5° iii 90°
9 10cm b Yes
10 The smaller square in the first diagram and the two smaller
squares in the second have the same area. 26.4 Using sine, cosine and tangent
Exercise 268
functions
1 aiS5wm b 14.7 em ¢ 63cm d 183 cm
2 a208m b155cm ¢ 155m d 124m Exercise 26€
3 a5m b6m ¢3m d 50cm 1 a175° b 22.0° c 322°
4 There are infinite possibilities, e.g. any multiple of 3, 4, 5 such 2 as529m b575an ¢ 132m
as6,8,10; 9,12, 15; 12, 16, 20; multiples of 5, 12, 13 and of 3 ad457cm b 6.86 cm ¢ 100 cm
815,17. 4 a512cm b977cm ¢ 17cm d 155¢m
S$ 426cm
Exercise 26F
26.2 Trigonometric ratios 1 ase b 75.5° ¢ 51.3
2 as535cm b 148 cm ¢ 12.0cm d 8.62 cm
Exercise 26C 3 as559cm b 466° 99cm d40.1°
1 a 0682 b 0.829 c 0.922 d1
2 a073 b 0.559 ¢ 0.388 do Exercise 26G
3 ai 0574 ii 0574 1 a337° b 36.9° c 52.1°
b i 0208 ii 0.208 2 a9%02cm b 7.51 cm c 7.14 cm d 8.90 cm
c i 039 ii 0.391 3 ai137cm b 48 4° c¢ 7.03cm d 41.2°
d They are the same, 5 .
e i sin 15° is the same as cos 75° 26.5 Which ratio to use
ii cos 82° is the same as sin 8°
iili sin x is the same as cos (90° ­ x) Exercise 26H
4 a 0933 b 148 c 2.38 d Infinite 1 ai26 b 59.6 c 747 d 16.0
el f 0364 g 0.404 ho e 67.9 f 201
5 Tan has values > 1 2 ade b 39.8° c 44.4° d 495°
6 a356 b 8.96 c 284 d 8.91 e 58.7° f 38.7°
7 as61 b 7.08 ¢c 1.46 d 7.77 3 a674° b 113 c 134 d 28.1°
8 atid PEED x 2% e 39.7 f 263 g 50.2° h 51.3°
i 138 j 228

743
 4 a Sides of right­hand triangle are sine #and cosine @ 5 a The bottom row of the table is 0.966, 0.819, 0.5, 0.174, 0,
b Pythagoras’ theorem ­0.174, ­0.5, ­0.819, ­0.966.
¢ Students should check the formulae by

26.6 Application of trigonometric

ratios
Exercise 26!
14.0 cm
a 245cm b 20.6 cm c 194cm
WN 1.46 km

333
10.1 km
22°
429m ­14
NOVAS a 156m ¢ It has rotational symmetry of order 2 about the point (90, 0)
b No. the new angle of depression is tan”(5%) =33° 6 a318 b 148.2° c 120°
and half of 52° is 26°
d 90° e 82.8° f 97.2°
9 a22m b 42°
10 a 215m 7 as3 b 104° c 49°, 131° d 90°
b 178m
e 90° f 72°,108° g nosolution h 45°
11 134m
12 19°
13 The angle is 16° so Cara is not quite correct. 26.9 The sine rule and the cosine rule
Exercise 26L
26.7 Problems in three dimensions 1 a364m b 8.05 cm ¢ 194cm

Exercise 26) 2 a 46.6° b 68° c 36.2°

1 25.1° 3 ai 30° ii 40°
b 194m
2 a 25m b 58.6° c 205¢m
3 a346m 4 365m
b 75.5° c 73.2°
4 a2240° b 48.0° c 135¢cm d 16.6° § 222m
5 Itis 44.6°; use triangle XDM where M is the midpoint of BD; 6 347m
triangle DXB is isosceles, as X is over the point where the 7 646km
diagonals of the base cross; the length of DB is ,¥656. and the 8 134°
cosine of the required angle is 0.5V656 + 18
Exercise 26M
26.8 Sine and cosine of obtuse 1 a771m b 29.1 cm c 27.4cm
angles 2 a762° b 125.1° c 90°
d Right­angled triangle
Exercise 26K 3 5.16cm
1 a The bottom row of the table is 0.174, 0.5, 0.766, 0.996, 1, 4 655cm
0.996, 0.766, 0.5, 0.174.
S a107cm b 41.7° c 383° d 6.69 cm
by
6 58.4 km at 092.5°
7 218°
8 425km
9 111° the largest angle is opposite the longest side

Exercise 26N
TTTTTTIITTTTTTTT TTY 1 a860m b 90° c 27.2cm
d 26.9° e 275° f 624m
g 90.0° h 866 cm i 86.6cm
¢ It has reflection symmetry. The line of symmetry is x = 90. 2 77cm
d You could choose 10° and 170°, 30° and 150°, 50° and 3 11.1km
130° or 85° and 95° 4 a BAC = 90° this is Pythagoras’ theorem
2 30°and 150° b BAC is acute
w 46° and 134°, ¢ BAC is obtuse
4 1229° S 142m

744
 Ch IDTer Z /

26.10 Using sine to find the area of a 5 a 30°and 150° b 60° and 120°

traingle 6
¢ 225° and 315°
a 120° and 240°
d 270°
b 30° and 330°
Exercise 260 ¢ 45° and 315° d 90° and 270°
1 a240cm’ b 26.7 cm? c 243 cm? 7 a 87.1°and 272.9° b 54.3°and 124.7° °
d 21097 cm? e 1224 cm’ ¢ 130.5% and 229.5° d 323.1°and 216.9°
4.26 cm 8 a 41.8%°and 138.2° b 36.9° and 323.1°
WN a 423° b 49.6° ¢ 314.4° and 225.6°
E 2033 cm? 9 540°
21.0 cm? 10 30°, 150°, 210° and 330°
726 cm? 11 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°
149 km?
Exercise 26Q
ONTO a 664m b 118.9° c 1470 m? 1 a215° b 265° c 298°
VW 433 cm? d 20° e 63° f 157°
2 a 45° and 225° b 135° and 315°
26.11 Sine, cosine and tangent of ¢ 60° and 240° d 120° and 300°
any angle 3 a 11.3%and 191.3° b 78.7° and 258.7°
¢ 160.7° and 340.7° d 103.5° and 283.5°
Exercise 26P » ­15
1 a 100° b 34° ¢ 325° d 234° S$ a 20.6° and 200.6° b 69.4° and 249.4°
2 a 350° b 235° c 152° d 49° ¢ 144.2° and 324.2°
3 a 27°and 153° b 56° and 124° 6 a 45° 135° 225°and 315° b 60°, 120°, 240° and 300°
¢ 333°and 207° d 304° and 236° c 30° 150° 210° and 330°
7 71.6% 251.6° 104.0° and 284.0°
4 a 37°and 323° b 103° and 257°
¢ 157° and 203° 8 a They are the same. b and c They have the same magnitude
d 85° and 275° but different signs. They add up to 0.

27.1 Perimeter and area of a 3 739cm’

rectangle 4 a a0’ b 65 m? c 80cm?
5 a 65cm? b 50 m?
Exercise 27A 6 For example: height 10 cm, base 10 cm; height 5 cm, base
20 cm; height 25 cm, base 4 cm; height 50 cm, base 2 cm
1 a35cm? 24cm b 33cm? 28cm
¢ 45cm? 36 cm d 70cm? 34 cm 7 Triangle ¢; a and b each have an area of 15 cm? but ¢ has an
area of 16 cm?
e 56 cm?, 30 cm f 10cm? 14cm
2 a533am? 294m b 84.96 cm?, 38 cm
3 39
27.3 Area of a parallelogram
4 a4 b 1h 52 min Exercise 27C
5 40cm
1 a9%%m? b 70 cm? c 20m?
6 Area B, 44 cm?; perimeter B, 30 cm
d 125 cm? e 10cm? f 112m?
7 Never (the area becomes four times greater).
8 a 28cm, 30cm? 2 No, itis 24 cm?, she used the slanting side instead of the
b 28 cm, 40 cm? perpendicular height.
¢ 40cm, 51 cm? d 30 cm, 35 cm?
3 16cm
e 32cm, 43 cm? f 34cm, 51 cm?
g cannot tell what the perimeter is; 48 cm? 4 a 500cm? b 15
h 34cm, 33cm?
9 72cm? 27.4 Area of a trapezium
10 48cm
Exercise 27D
27.2 Area of a triangle 1 a30m? b 77 cm? c 24cm? d 42 cm?
e 40 cm? f 6cm g 3cm
Exercise 278 2 a 27.5cm, 36.25 cm?
1 a2tem? b 12 cm? c 14cm? b 33.4 cm, 61.2 cm?
d 55 cm? e 90 cm? f 140 cm? c 386m, 882m?
2 am’ b 8m c4cm 3 Any pair of lengths that add up to 10 cm. For example: 1 cm,
d3cm e 7cm f 44 cm? 9¢em; 2 cm, 8 cm; 3 ¢m, 7 cm; 4 cm, 6 ¢m; 4.5 cm, 5.5 cm

745
 Shape c. Its area is 25.5 cm?
27.7 Volume and surface area of a
Shape a. Its area is 28 cm?
prism
a
2¢m 27G
Exercise
14m? 1 ai 21em? ii 63cm’
b i 48cm? ii 432 cm?
27.5 Circumference and area of a c idm ii 324m’
circle 2 adam b 225 m? c 132m?
3 a A cross­section parallel to the side of the pool always has
Exercise 27E
the same shape.
1 a 10x cm and 25x cm? b 6x cm and 9 cm?
b About 3 hours
¢ 3r cm and 2.25% cm? d 8r cm and 16x cm? 4 765m’
2 a 25.1 cm and 50.3 cm?
5 a2lcem? 210m’
b 15.7 cm and 19.6 cm?
b 54 cm?, 270 cm?
¢ 28,9 cm and 66.5 cm”
6 146 cm’
d 14.8¢mand 17.3 cm?
7 78m’ (783m?)
3 ai 565m ii 81m, 254.5 cm?
bi 8 327 litres
69.1cm il 12x, 380.1 cm?
¢ i 40.8cm 9 10.2 tonnes
ii 42.3r, 132.7 cm?
di 880cm ii 196m, 615.8 cm? 10 672 cm’
4 a191cm b 95cm
¢ 286.5 cm? (or 283.5 cm?)
27.8 Volume and surface area of a
5 962.9 cm’ (or 962.1 cm?) cylinder
6 a20cm b 400x cm? Exercise 27H
7 at6nm’ b 14x cm? ¢ 9x cm? 1 ai 72rem’ ii 66m cm?
8 45mm’ b i 475xcm® ii 19.5n cm?
9 a =n, 50 = therefore r= £ ci 1Morem® ii 87.5x cm?
d i 338rem® ii 203n cm?
10 21.5cm? 2 ai 72rnem’ ii 48n cm?
27.6 Surface area and volume of a bi 112rem® ii 56mm?
c i 18mem® ii 60x cm?
cuboid d i 600xm’ ii 120m m?
Exercise 27F 3 665m’ '
1 ai 198cm’ ii 23a cm? 4 Label should be less than 10.5 cm wide so that it fits the can
and does not overlap the rim and more than 23.3 ¢m long to
b i 90m’ ii 146 cm?
allow an overlap.
c i 1440cm® ii 792 em?
5 332 litres
d i 525m? ii 470 cm?
2 24litres 6 There is no right answer. Students could start with the
dimensions of a real can. Often drinks cans are not exactly
3 a 160m’ b 416 cm’ c 150 cm? cylindrical. One possible answer is height of 6.6 ¢m and
4 ai 64cm’ ii 96 cm? diameter of 8 cm.
b i 343m’ il 294 cm? 7 About 127 cm
c i 1000mm® ii 600 mm? 8 A diameter of 10 cm and a length of 5 cm give a volume close
di 2sm’ ii 150 m? to 400 cm’ (0.4 litres).
e i 1728m? ii 864 m?
5 86 27.9 Sectors and arcs: 1
6 a 180m’ b Scm c 6cm Exercise 27!
d 10cm e 81cm?
1 a 20rcm bi 10recm ii Sxem ili 2.5xr cm
7 16m
2 a 100% cn? bi SOmem? ji 25tem? iii 12.5n cm?
8 48m’
3 ay b 10.6 cm ¢ 443 cm?
9 a3wm b5m c 2mm d12m
4 a 965m? b 20.1 ¢m ¢€ 39.3cm
10 a 148cm’ b 468 cm’
5 a 2454cm? to 1d.p. b643cmto 1 dp.
11 the side length would be 5 cm, so total
If this was a cube,
surface area would be 5 x 5 x 6 = 150 cm?; no this particular 6 a The diameter is 80 and the fraction of a circle is =
cuboid is not a cube. The arc length is © x 80 + 10 = 8x cm.
b 160r cm?
12 a 6¢m b 216
7 ain b 75r cm?

746
 27.10 Sectors and arcs: 2
cone
Exercise 27)
1 ai 55cm ii 22.3 cm? Exercise 27L
b i 829m il 20.7 cm?
c i 163cm 1 ai 3560cm’ ii 1430 cm?
ii 98.0 cm?
di 159cm ii 55.6 cm? bi 314cm’ ii 283 cm?
ci 1020 cm’ ii 679 cm?
2 a9%wm b 54x cm’
2 24r cm?
3 a738cm b 20.3 cm
3 a816xem® b 720 mm?
4 a 107m’ b 173cm? 4 adcm b6cm
5 436cm ¢ Various answers, e.g. 60° gives 2 cm, 240° gives 8 cm
6 (36r­72) cm? 5 24ncm’
7 (32­64) 6 If radius of base is r, slant height is 27.
8 a139wn b 7.07 cm? Area of curved surface = ntr x 2r = 2x/?, area of base = nr
7 140g
27.11 Volume of a pyramid 8 281cm

Exercise 27K 27.13 Volume and surface of a sphere

1 asém’ b 168 cm’ c 1040 cm?
d 84 cm’ e 160 cm? Exercise 27M
2 270m’ 1 a 36rncm’ and 36 x cm?
3 a Put the apexes of the pyramids together. The 6 square bases b 288r cm? and 144 r cm?
will then form a cube.
¢ 1330r ¢m’ and 400 x cm?
b If the side of the base is a then the height will be 34
1

2 65400 cm’, 7850 cm?

Total volume of the 6 pyramids is a’,
Volume of one pyramid is 3 a 1960 cm?
b 8180 cm?
a =1x3xaxa’=1x height x base area
4 125¢m
6.9 m (height of cuboid) 5 6231
a733m’ b 45m? ¢ 3250 cm? 6 78cm
15¢ 7 48%.
NOV 5.95 cm
0 14.4 cm
© 260 cm?

Chapter 28

TE
28.1 Lines of symmetry 2 ai $ ii 6 iii 8
b 10
3 21,120

' SF DAD
Exercise 28A

5 al bs c1 dé
6

EA
747
28.2 Rotational symmetry 2 a Diagrams to show axes going through the centres of all
three pairs of opposite faces
b2
Exercise 288
3 Two are similar to the one shown, dividing the end triangles
1 a4 b2 c2 d3 eb in two. The other goes through the centre of each of the
2 a4 bs cb d4 eb long edges, parallel to the end triangles.
3 a2 b2 c?2 d2 e?2 4 a 3 about AB; 2 about CD
4 ab b they are similar to CD, each passing through the centre of a
b 9 (the small red circle surrounded by nine rectangular face.
‘petals’) and 12
(the centre pattern) wn ad b no
5 For example: 6 There are four. All pass through the vertex. Two pass through
opposite corners of the square. Two pass through the mid
points of opposite sides of the square
7 a Any plane dividing each circle in half or the circular plane
exactly half way up the cylinder
b any line at right angles to the one shown, passing through
the centre of the cylinder
28.3 Sym of special two­ 8 a one b infinite
9 a six through the centre of each hexagon; one parallel to the
hexagons passing through the centre of the prism
ba
Exercise 28C
1
28.5 Symmetry in circles
Exercise 28E
| |
1 a­d student's own drawing
2 a kite e because the perpendicular bisector of any chord passes
through the centre of the circle
b rectangle 2, square 4, equilateral triangle 3, rhombus 2
f Here is one method: draw two chords; construct the
3 a isosceles b no perpendicular bisectors; they meet at the centre
4 a parallelogram b square 2 a Isosceles because OA and OB are radii
5 a rectangle and rhombus b no b OA =0C; OB = OD; AB = CD so corresponding sides are
6 aBandD b AB and AD; CBand CD ¢ kite equal
7 a diameter b infinite ¢ infinite ¢ 50° .
8 aAandC,BandD 3 a EM = FM (given), OE = OF (radil); OM is common to both.
b AD and BC; AB and DC Corresponding sides are equal
¢ Parallelogram b EMO and FMO are equal and add up to 180° (because EMF
is a straight line) so they must both be 90°
9 It will have two pairs of equal angles
c 18°
4 a Angle between a radius and a tangent
28.4 Symmetry of three­dimensional b XP = YP (tangents from a point are equal); OX = OY (radii);
shapes OP is common. So corresponding sides are equal
c 146°
Exercise 28D

— = Sd

(«2 #0)
b Both are ( Hy! D is the midpoint of AC.
 — —
­ 7
~ L] @ aBl,CK
—_ —> —
b EB, GO, KH
8 F J B D
NWhaWnuo

­ m/K oP ­
C=

o ~N “ ~

H N E i
9 ai 3a+2b ii 3a+b
iii 2a­b iv 2b­2a
> >
b DG and BC
10 a 2a+b b2b­a ca+15b
Wo d 0.5a+0.5b e 1.5a+1.5b f 1.5a­0.5b
Mai ­a+b ii a+b)
Wh
iii M iv jas
Q
=

[=] 23456"
4 The diagrams should show the following vectors:

(5) (3) (3) ­1 4 7

i ­1
w

S— So S—
¢ Mis midpoint of parallelogram of which OA and OB are
two sides.
122ai­a+b ii X­a+b) iii Sa +b
| — 2 1
3 1
wv LJ ~n b ja+zb
b&b
­

ar NN S—’ —NOS— gg,

|

[­8 ev
13 a »
2
ii Ja+3b
1 1
iii 2b
2

= awn Sr
FIER
a=
SN

i
­ — —>
6 ad ¢ DE=DO+OE=3a­1b
—> —> —>
d DE parallel to CD = (multiple of CD) and D is a common point
aN Ean
NEL 29.3 The magnitude of a vector
0123456"
ekisd Exercise 29C
1 a y P

29.2 Using vectors

Exercise 298
— > >> — > —>
1 a Any three, of: AC, CF, BD, DG, GI, EH, HJ, JK oy |
Er I i
b Any three of: BE, AD, DH, CG, GJ, FI , IK
—S >> >>> —> —>
¢ Any three of: AO, CA, FC, IG, GD, DB, KJ, JH, HE
D> => >> —> —> —>

2 aa b 2b c 3a+2b da+2b b V34; V40; 4

ea+b f 2a+2b g3a+b c V58
— — —> d V40
Al, BJ), DK 2 a10and13 b (mn c 137
—— —>
4 OF, BI, EK
5 d No. 10 + 13 does not equal V137
e Va01 f Vao1
g Yes. They are vectors in opposite directions but the same
length.
3 a10,10,10
b Because they are all the same distance from A. The radius
6 da­b is 10.
ea+b f ­a­b g2a­b h­a­2b 4 aVi7 b V261 c 13 d 10

749
 Answers to Che piel

Answers t« Chapter 30

30.1 Translations 2 ae »y
5 c
4­

Co) e( w(2)
34

Ls I at

(4) 82) w(2)

Bd LJ LJ ‘0 AJ AJ v 4 5 x

2+
=3+

G3) wl) wo) —4

­54

ow (2) 63) w()

f Reflection in the y­axis

3 ab YA

Bo
cl 1.
2) J
A
B
SUAB3RH PY 2 3 4.5%
T=
= D
Cl =

0 ; ri A 5 ¢ y­value changes sign

N 4
d (a, ~b)
ab 4p
ML

Al [3 A
FEpE 3435
<T Ts c
D . b
A.

¢ value changes sign

d (­a, b)
5 Possible answer: Take the centre square as ABCD then reflect
this square each time in the line, AB, then BC, then CD and
finally AD.
6 x=­1

30.3 Reflections: 2
a/c Exercise 30C

1 Possible answer:
a’

) 7 re ) PRE|oH| =0 — N+ [RT oe

750
 siifatiiiiy
REN
b i Rotation 90° anticlockwise
J
5 ii Rotation 180°
4
3
g 21
IE

ERERRCR
1­2
AL Possible answer: If ABCD is the centre square, rotate about A
. bd 1s
Ia 90° anticlockwise, rotate about new B 180°, now rotate about
new C 180°, and finally rotate about new D 180°.
5 ac
hw y

a 54

er
44

nw

­—
24

=¥
ny Ie dd 4 = LO) ERE
ADR C
D nN

d Coordinates are reversed: x becomes y and y becomes x

e (b, a) a (4,5) 180°
6 ac b (5,5) 90° anticlockwise
0 c (3,3) 180°
A b (3,5) 90° clockwise
at bH
NW

i )
hw

= A

|
DL

WOR

nA
& of L+ Ei
d Coordinates are reversed and the sign changes:
x becomes —y and y becomes ­x DN

e (­b, ­a)
cl | ha

ii A(2,­1),8'(4,­2),C (1,­4)
iii Original coordinates (x, v) become (y, —x)
iv Yes

751
 b i Rotation 60° clockwise about O
0h
ii Rotation 120° clockwise about O
DH
iii Rotation 180° about O
iv Rotation 240° clockwise about O
+N
¢ | Rotation 60° clockwise about O
1 i J i
Ra i "Of > ­
ii Rotation 180° about O
7.
6 Rotation 90° anticlockwise about (3, 2).

b(1,1) «(66 d not possible

ii A'(­1,­2),8'(­2,­4),C'(4,­1)
ii Original coordinates (x, y) become (­x, ­y)
iv Yes
Show by drawing a shape or use the fact that (a, b) becomes
a SY YA |
(a, ­b) after reflection in the x­axis, and (a, ~b) becomes (­a, —b)
after reflection in the y­axis, which is equivalent to a single
rotation of 180°.

30.5 Rotations: 2

1 ac Y

@
/ [4]

nO

N
Na

NW

2 345 67 891011127
SC

o
_—

d Oo NA re (5. oO ~N oo­
Rotation of 180° about (9.5, 6.5). [AT

a (3,0) b (0,0) c (6,0)

a (0,­1.5)180° b (0.5, 1.5) 90° clockwise

¢ (~3,5,2.5) 90° anti clockwise

d (0.5, 2) 180° SE —

Show by drawing a shape or use the fact that (a, b) becomes

(b, a) after reflection in the line y = x, and (b, a) becomes
(­a, ­b) after reflection in the line y = ­x, which is equivalent
to a single rotation of 180°.
a 8 c

752
 4 Enlargement, scale factor ­2, about (1, 3)
5 a 96cm b25:1

30.8 Combined transformations

Exercise 30H

"1 (­4,­3)
a (­5,2) b Reflection in y­axis
A: translation ( oy

B: reflection in y­axis,
12345678910" C: rotation 90° clockwise about (0, 0),
D: reflection in x = 3,
b 3:1 c 3:1 d 9:1
E: reflection in y= 4,
F: enlargement by scale factor 2, centre (0, 1)
30.7 Enlargements: 2 a T, to T,: rotation 90° clockwise about (0, 0)
b T, to Tg: rotation 90° anticlockwise about (0, 0)
Exercise 30G
1 a Pe b 7) ¢ T; to Ty: translation ( 2)
3 © 6

am a­
at
pd ™ oO

3
2. vl .­
4
EEN
2
i

AR e 5 4 4 4 5% d Reflection in the line y = —x

1­2 Reflection in x­axis, translation 2) rotation 90° clockwise
ke
clockwise about 0, 0) =5
A

WAGON
3 ac J
1
I
­N

23 A| ES
} |
n 10 a xX

Es

2.

C 1 LEELA

LIT I Js
oS
b Enlargement, scale factor 3 centre (1, 2)
a Scale factor ~3, centre (1, 3)
Scale factor ­2, centre (1, 3)
0

Scale factor ­1, centre (­2.5, ­1.5)

Scale factor ­1, centre (2.5, ­1.5)
STO Same centres, and the scale factors are reciprocals of each
other

753
 Answers to Chapter 31

Answers to Chapter 31

31.1 Frequency tables 3 a May10h,Jun12h, Jul 12 h, Aug 12 h, Sep 10h

b Visual impact, easy to understand.
Exercise 31A 4 a Simon b $165
1 a ¢ Difficult to show fractions of a symbol.
Goss 9 : : 3 5 ai 12 ii 6 iii 13
Frequency | 6 | 8 | 4 | 2 b Check students’ pictograms.
b 1 goal c 63
c 22

2 a | Temperature (°C) 14­16] 17­19 | 20­22 | 23­25 | 26­28

31.3 Bar charts
Frequency 5 10 8 5 2 Exercise 31C
b 17­19°C . a SSwimming b 74

¢ Getting warmer in the first half and then getting cooler . od

towards the end. 224
3 ? [score (tf
1[2[3]as5]e tel —1
Frequency | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 4 1
b 30 al ­4
c Yes, frequencies are similar. pi
i |
4 a Height (cm)| 151­155 | 156­160 | 161­165 | 166­170 3 1
Frequency 2 5 57 Grade
Height (em) | 171­175 | 176­180 | 181­185 | 186­190 =?
Frequency 5
5 4 3 1
= ¢ Easier to read the exact frequency.
b 166­170 cm 3 a 10
¢ student's survey results 9
S Various answers such as 1­10, 11­20, etc. or 1­20, 21­40, 2
41­60 3 ¢ n
6 The ages 20 and 25 are in two different groups. £4
. a
2
31.2 Pictograms p.1
Exercise 318 Mast Round
15 po ie ie a Gi Ge Si Gi I Hoseul
3 pir de le Gl i Gi Gi Gi Gi Ge Gi Gi Gi Gi b Amir got more points overall, but Hasrul was mare
consistent.
1 pry de di Gi Si Gi Gi Si Gi Ga Gi Ge Ge Gh Gi A
a
11 om| die di di Gi Gi Gi Ge Gi Gi Gi Time (min)| 1­10 | 11­20|21­30|31­40|41­50|51­60
9 am| dh di di Si Gi Gi GG Frequency | 4 7 5 5 7 2
Koy # = 5 cars
b 7
2 aad ­
HETIL ¥34d 01188
7]
11 |
Flot 8 ] <= 24 11
Flot 7" ig | li
pi EW TEEN
fats | OBB NONTRST W oF
Flot 4 (1) Time (min)

Ford | c For example: Some live close

to the school. Some live a
faz B08 good distance away and probably travel to school by bus.
fort | BA Key) = 1pm

754
 li

w Pie chart with these angles: 60°, 165°, 45°, 15°, 75°
2010 ts Ch
a 36
Ch Eh 0h Eh 0 b Pie chart with these angles: 50°, 50°, 80°, 60°, 60°, 40°, 20°
£3 £5 Ch Eh Cs Cb C6 ¢ student's bar chart
Es Ch C5 65 Eb Bs d Bar chart, because easier to make comparisons,
6 5 C5 Ch Cb E606 a Pie charts with these angles: 124°, 132°, 76°, 28°
b Split of total data seen at a glance.
Eh (5 6 6 0
a 55° b 22
Key 6 = | accident a Pie charts with these angles: Strings: 36°, 118°, 126°, 72°, 8°
Brass: 82°, 118°, 98°, 39°, 23°
b 91
84 b Overall, the Strings candidates did better, as a smaller
7 proportion failed. A higher proportion of Brass candidates
scored very good or excellent.
LEH
i Ol—­
DB 4d a Accept any valid comment that compares the two schools,
such as:
i 24
|
School A had a greater percentage of students attaining the
top 10 marks than School B

pene 12.5% of School B obtained 30 or less marks: this was half

the percentage of School A's results etc.
Reject answers that refer to numbers of students, e.g. more
¢ Use the pictogram because an appropriate symbol makes students got marks in the range 61­90 at School B
more impact, b Answers could include:
6 Yes. If you double the minimum temperature each time, it is * the actual numbers of students are unknown
very close to the maximum temperature, o the size of the pie chart can be misleading.

31.4 Pie charts 31.5 Scatter diagrams

Exercise 31 Exercise 31E
1 a 1 a No correlation
b Positive correlation
2 a No relationship between temperature and speed of cars.
b As people get older, they have more money in the bank.
3 a and b student’ scatter diagram and line of best fit.
¢ about 20 cm/s
d about 35 cm
a student's scatter diagram.
b Yes, usually (good correlation).

Paugeot a and b Student's scatter diagram and line of best fit.

>
¢ Sitara
d about 90
e about 55
a student's scatter diagram.
b no, because there is no correlation,
a and b Student's scatter diagram and line of best fit.
Mail | Today ¢ about 2.4 km
d 8 minutes
23 kilometres/hour
Post Times Points showing a line of best fit sloping down from top left to
bottom right.

2 Pie charts with following angles:

a 36° 90°, 126°, 81°, 27°
b 168°, 52°, 100°, 40°

755
 0
0 4 8 12 16 20
Time(minutes)
Girls
301

25+
201
fe
2 a 10+
54

i i) 4 ­ — 16 20

b 72 boys and 72 girls

% 10 oh ~ a 40 50 60 ¢ Nobody took longer than 20 minutes
d student's own comments
wy
20 S aandb
15 20
Fo 15
i
£ 5 10
0 5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0
Time (minutes) ae

20
;

je15

Wey f
REEEX EE
b Monday
3 a The frequencies are 6, 4, 5, 3, 2 ¢ More PRRs:
b 6 a8
b 36
¢ The shortest time was at least 10 minutes. The longest time
was at most 70 minutes.
d
16

i
4

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Joumey time (minutes)

e Yes. Student's own explanation.

756
 Answerst

31.7 Histograms with bars of b [vemperature,r (°C) [10<r< 11 [11 <r<12[12<i= 14

unequal width Frequency 15 15 50
Temperature, t (°C) [ 14 << 16 | 16<r=19|19<r=21
Exercise 31G
Frequency 40 45 15
1 The respective frequency densities on which each histogram
should be based are:
c
a 25,65,6,2,1,15
Mass, m(kg) | SO<m=70 | 70<m=90 |90<m=100
b 4,27,15,3
Frequency 160 200 120
c 17,18,12,6.67
Mass, m (kg) [100 <m=120[120<m=170
d04,1228,1
Frequency 120 200
e9 21,1359
2 a
a

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (hours)

2 3 4 [] 8 10
Amount ($)

26
24
22
120

Mass kg)
b 33 plants
a

123 45678910 Speed, » (mph)| 0<v=<40 | 40<v<50 | S0<v=60

Amount ($) Frequency 80 10 40
3 Speed, » (mph)| 60<v=70 | 720<v=80 | 80<v= 100
12 Frequency | 110 60 60
b 360
ie a 80
b 31.25%
10 a rp
i
2

5
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
i:
31

Yeor
4 avs b 400
1

5a Age, y (years) | 9<y=10 [10<y=12|12<y=14

% 5 10 15 20 25 30
Frequency 4 12 8 Time (minutes)
Age, y (years) | 14<y<17 | 17<y=19 | 19<y=<20
Frequency 9 5 1

757
 b student's own description
o
—

[7

on
density
41 J

NW

Frequency )
1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (minutes)

Answers to Chapter 32

32.1 The mode 32.3 The mean

Exercise 32A Exercise 32C
1 a4 b 48 c ­1 1 a6 b 24 c 45 d 1.57 e?2
dg enomode f 3.21 2 asst b 3247 c¢585 d 449 e23
2 ared b Sun cB d* 3 a6! b 60 c 59 d Badu e2
3 a3 b6 ¢ no 4 42min
d no; boys generally take larger shoe sizes 5 a $200 b $260 c $278
4 as d Median, because the extreme value of $480 is not taken
b no; more than half the form got a higher mark "IR Secon
5 The mode will be the most popular item or brand sold 6 a3 b 36
in a shop. 7 a6
6 a28 b 16; all the numbers and the mean are 10 more than those
bi brown ii blue iii brown PRS
¢ Both students had blue eyes. ci 56 ii 106 Wz
7 a May lose count 8 Possible answers: Speed ~ Kath, James, John, Joseph; Roberts
; x , ~ Frank, James, Helen, Evie, Other answers are possible.,
b Put in a table, or arrange in order.
4 9 36
10 24

32.2 The median

32.4 The range
Exercise 32B
1 a5 b 33 c 73 d 24 ET . : 4s ,
esl f0 g 5.25 SE. ¢ 4 e
2 ab5%3%2°7,3
2 as$22 b $2.25 b Variable weather over England
¢ median, because it is the central value 3 a $31,$28, $33
3 a5 b $8,514, $4
bi 15 ii 215 iii 10 iv 10 © Not particularly consistent
4 a 13 Ela b 162 cm, Pat c 40 kg, Elisa 4 a 82and83
d Ella, because she is closest to the 3 medians b 20 and 12
ai2 b 14 © Fay, because her scores are more consistent
Answers will vary 5 a 5minand4 min *
NOW 12, 14,14, 16, 20, 22, 24 b 9 min and 13 min
0 a Possible answer: 11, 15, 21, 21 (one below or equal to 12 ¢ Number 50, because times are more consistent
and three above or equal) 6 a Isaac, Oliver, Evrim, Chloe, Lilla, Badru and Isambard
b Any four numbers higher than or equal to 12, and any two b 70 cm t0 92 cm
lower or equal 7 a Teachers because they have a high mean and students
c Eight, all 4 or under could not have a range of 20.
9 A median of $8 does not take into account the huge value of b Year 11 students as the mean is 15­16 and the range is 1.
the $3000 so is in no way representative.

758
 Ans wersi

32.5 Which average to use a 8 children

Exercise 32E h Girls | Boys

1 ai 29 ii 28 iii 271 Number of children 25 49
b 14
Median height 148cm | 146 cm
2 ai Mode 3, median 4, mean 5
Range of heights 40 cm 45 cm
ii 67,73
iii 4,6,8 ¢ i 2 cm more ii 19.28 cm less
b i Mean: balanced data
ii Mode: 6 appears five.times
iii Median: 28 is an extreme value 32.7 Using frequency tables
3 a Mode 73, median 76, mean 80
b The mean, because it is the highest average Exercise 32G
4 a i150 b 20 1 ai 7 ii 6 iii 6.4
S a Mean b Median bi 4 ii 4 iii 3.7
¢ Mode d Median ci 8 ii 85 iii 8.2
e Mode f Mean dio iio iii 0.3
6 No. Mode is 31, median is 31, and mean is 31%. 2 a 668 b19 cO d 328
7 a Median b Mode ¢ Mean 3 a2217,13 b Better dental care
8 Tom mean, David median, Mohamed mode 4 ao b 0.96
9 Possible answers: a 1,6,6,6,6 b 2,55,6,7 5 a7 b 6.5 c 65
10 Boss chose the mean while worker chose the mode. 6 ai b1 c 0.98
1 116 7 a Roger 5, Brian 4
12 52.7kg b Roger 3, Brian 8
¢ Roger 5, Brian 4
d Roger 5.4, Brian 4.5
32.6.Stem­and­leaf diagrams e Roger, because he has the smaller range
f Brian, because he has the better mean
Exercise 32F Possible answers: 3, 4, 15,3 0r 3, 4,3,15 ...
1 ad b 75 marks € 43 marks d 71 marks Add up the weeks to see she travelled in 52 weeks of the
e You know that half the students got more marks than the year, the median is in the 26th and 27th week. Looking at the
median and half got fewer. The mode does not have such a weeks in order, the 23rd entry is the end of 2 days in a week
clear use. so the median must be in the 3 days in a week.
2 a 18 runners b 26.75 c 49s
3 a 6 people b 35 minutes ¢ 70 minutes 32.8 Grouped data
4 a 2(8 9
Exercise 32H
3/1456 8 8 9
4/1 1 3 3 3 8 8 1 ai30<x=40 ii 29.5
bi O<y=100 ii 158.3
b 43cm ¢ 39cm d 20cm ci 5<z=10 ii 9.43
S ao0|28 99 9 di 7­9 ii 8.4 weeks
112 3 7 7 8 2 al00<ms120g b10860¢g c 1086¢g
210 1 2 3 3 a207 b 19­22 cm ¢ 203 cm
b 9 messages ¢ 15 messages 4 a 160 b 52.6 min ¢ modal group
d 65%
6 apgl7 8909 5 al175<h=200 b 31% c 193.25
110 2 3 458 8 9 9 key 2|3 = 23
d No: mode, mean and median are all less than 200 hours
2/10 3 4 4 6 8
Average price increases: Soundbuy 17.6p, Springfields 18.7p,
311
Setco 18.2p
b 18 c 24 Yes: average distance is 11.7 miles per day.
oN The first 5 and the 10 are the wrong way round.
7 Men Women oo $740
Number of people 4 34 As we do not know what numbers are in each group, we
Range of ages 42 33 cannot say what the median is.

Median age 43 years | 32

759
 32.9 Cumulative frequency diagrams 5 a y
80
Exercise 32| 70
1 a Cumulative frequency 1, 4, 10, 22, 25, 28, 30 60
of 90
b
40
8.
30
20
10
O+——r———————»
0 20 40 60 80 100120140 *
Score
cnwoxa3R

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 * b 56, 43
Time ¢ about 17.5%
¢ 54 secs, 16 secs 6 a Cumulative frequency 6, 16, 36, 64, 82, 93, 98, 100
2 a Cumulative frequency 1, 3, 5, 14, 31, 44, 47, 49, 50 b y
b y 100
50 80
40 ck ®
30
cf 20 20
10
0 +>
0 100 200 300 400 500°
0 Pocket money (c)
20 40 60 8 100°
Time € 225¢, 90c
¢ 56 secs, 17 secs d about 120 cents and about 340 cents
d Pensioners, median closer to 60 secs 7 a Paper A 68, Paper B 57
3 a Cumulative frequency 12, 30, 63, 113, 176, 250, 314, b Paper A 28, Paper B 18
349, 360 ¢ Paper B is the harder paper, it has a lower median and a
b yA lower upper quartile.
d i Paper A 43, Paper B45 ii Paper A 78, Paper B 67
a about 40% b about 6 minutes

58853 9 Find the top 10% on the cumulative frequency scale, read
along to the graph and read down to the marks. The mark
seen will be the minimum mark needed for this top grade.

32.10 Box­and­whisker plots

0888
0 200 400 600 800 1000 =v
100 300 500 700 900 Exercise 32)
students
Number of 1 a
¢ 605 students, 280 students
d 46­47 schools
e about 830
f about 550
4 a Cumulative frequency 2, 5, 10, 16, 22, 31, 39, 45, 50 wn ad (7.1 oO ~­ =
© ~O of
b vA Time [minutes]
50 4

40 +
b Students are much slower than the pensioners. Both
of 301 distributions have the same interquartile range, but
20 4 students’ median and upper quartiles are 1 minute,
104 35 seconds higher. The fastest person to complete the
0+ calculations was a student, but so was the slowest.
0 4 8 1216202428 32°
Temperature *C 2a y

€ 205°C, 10°C d 10.5°C a EI Hl

200 400 600 800 100012001400 1600 18002000*
Size [number of people]

760
 b Schools are much larger in Rotherham than Dorset, The b £1605, £85
Dorset distribution is symmetrical, but the Rotherham
distribution is negatively skewed ­ so most Rotherham ci
schools are large.
The resorts have similar median temperatures, but Resort B
as EW
has a much wider temperature range, where the greatest 1400 1500 1600 1700 _ 1800%
extremes of temperature are recorded. Monthly salary (£)
b Resort A is probably a better choice as the weather seems ii Negatively
more consistent.
a i 24min ii 12min iii 42 min
4 ay
Men . b i 6min ii 17 min iii 9 min
.
¢ Either doctor with a plausible reason, e.g. Dr Excel because
— ­ : + Women his waiting times are always shorter than Dr Collins’, or
Dr Collins because he takes more time with each patient
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 * The girls have a mean 2.6 higher than the boys. (Create
Salary [£1000s)
grouped frequencies using the four quartiles.)
b Both distributions have a similar interquartile range,
and there is little difference between the upper quartile Many possible answers but not including numerical values:
values. Men have a wider range of salaries, but the higher Bude (Torquay) had a higher median amount of sunshine than
men’s median and the fact that the men’s distribution Torquay (Bude), Bude had a smaller interquartile range than
is negatively skewed and the women's distribution is Torquay, Bude had more sunshine on any one day.
positively skewed indicates that men are better paid than
a Symmetric b Negatively skewed
women.
¢ Negatively skewed d Symmetric
y e Negatively skewed f Positively skewed
100 4 g Negatively skewed h Positively skewed
i Positively skewed j Symmetric
80 4
60 ­ 10 AandX,BandY, Cand W, Dand Z
+ 40 ­
20 4
0
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 *
Monthly salary (£)

Answers to Chapter 33

33.1 Probability scale as 1 bg 5s [4 1

Exercise 33A WN ao b1
1 a unlikely b unlikely ¢ impossible 1 1 1 2
a ag by ci dz es
d very likely e even chance
ay6 6
2 4p a [
un

LE CE
i! ! ‘ O00

ag
1
b3
iE
€7
1
d gr54
Impossible vB
certain NSN
25
e student's own estimate
® a AB, AC, AD, AE, BC, BD, BE, CD, CE, DE
3 student's own estimate
b1 <5 dé el f 5
» Student to provide own answers,
6
5 No. What happens today does not depend on what happened aig ii 5 iil 25
yesterday. b They add up to 1.
¢ All possible outcomes are mentioned.
33.2 Calculating probabilities 10 35%
Exercise 33B n 0.5
1 av b |=
© ors
2 2
ET 12 Class U
d+ e0 13 There might not be the same number of boys as girls in the class.

761
 33.3 Probability that an event will 3 a
not happen F 8
Exercise 33C
1 a ow b 0.55 n o ~N

2 o
Hlw b3%
7
[a]
bi
3 o > i 3 10
o iH ho

pe
il
4 Because it might be possible for the game to end in a draw. big=10r02 ii §5=750r0.7 c®=1

33.4 Probability in practice >

Exercise 33D
1 a 020.08 0.1,0.105, 0.148, 0.163, 0.1645
b6 cl dg e 1000
2 a 0.095, 0.135, 0.16, 0.265, 0.345
b 40 ¢ No; all numbers should be close to 40.
3 a 0.20.25, 0.38, 0.42, 0.385, 0.3974
bsg
4 a6 b and ¢ Student to provide own answers.
5 a Caryl, threw the greatest number of times. pi Sud 3
b 0.39,0.31,0.17,0.14 003 ed
¢ Yes; all answers should be close to 0.25.
6 The missing top numbers are 4 and 5, the bottom two A B
numbers are both likely to be close to 20.
7 Thursday
Although he might expect the probability to be close to
giving 500 heads, the actual number of heads is unlikely to be
exactly 500, but should be close to it.
(1,2) (4,1)
(1,4
33.5 Using Venn diagrams 2,1) (2.3 (24) (3,2) 3, 4), 2)(4, 3)
Exercise 33E
bi &=l TREN Wo 6
1 a 6 4 16
6 alo
b
T F

b
70

2 aalos j=l FB
100 50r0. €170=70 "1067 mS
Mw" 7_7
Vi0=10

762
33.6 Possibility diagrams 33.7 Tree diagrams
Exercise 33F Exercise 33G
1 a7 b 2and 12 1 al 4
gl tla los)
9' 1
al 36
36° 78’ 12° 9* 367 6* 36* 12' 1g" by
3 7
diss ii 3 il 4 iv 3

viz
5 ik 18 2 a
3 Firs Second outcome probability
: = : . ball ball
2a; bw xz dj i 8 BB 3x3a4
1
3 ag b3 11
cx S
2 2
* * = > T~w aw Pxj=}
4 6f 54 3 210 2 EE
51—4—3—2—1—­0—1 ] we" Ww. B 3%3=%
Scoreon 41 3 2 | 0 1 2 fo di
second dice 31 2 1 0 1 2 3 } ow WW 3x3=3
21 101] 234 bi 1 ii 4 8
iii =
1H 01 2345 9 ’ ’
123456 2 1
Score on first dice : wg B13

agg5 bg1 (5 1 c 1
3 G GG3z
1 1
a oF 3 <_
. " bi R GRz|
5 aj by > J _~GRGY
1 FR
6 7 SRRRY
HEEB
4] 5 6789 dil 3 ii 21 2
iii 5
Scoreon 3{ 4 5 6 7 8 e 15 days
second spinner 31—9—4—5—4— 4 a First Second outcome probability
11+—234—54 sweet sweet
4.2
123435 red red, red $%5 =_8
Score on first spinnes
© rod notred $e =f
a6
big ip 1
iit 5
1
iv 3 me re noted, red,
red Ix3=2
1x2 =?

red not 2 L233

7 a 8{ 8 1624 32 40 48­56 64 rod "ed. noteed xg eg
7{ 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 3 2 b
61 6 12 18­24 30 36 42 48 biz is 5
Score on 5{ $10 15­20 25­30­35 40 5 a a
inner 24) 48.1216 20 24 26 32 Fl Sasein outcome probability
31 36 91215182124 pass pass,; pass 0.9x0.6 =0.54
21 2 4 6 810121416 w_
"Hr2345678 fail pass, fail 0.9x0.4 =0.36
12345678 poss fail, pass 0.1 x 0.6 = 0.06
Score on spinner 1 <<

0 64~ 8: fail fail, foil 0.1x0.4 =0.04

bi 054 ii 0.42
8 = a diagram will help him to see all possible outcomes

763
 probability bxp=3
101 (1
¢%~1. 2­1
95­3
el f2=1
win win, win 0.6 x0.7 = 0.42 3 10S
win
3 5 8s _ 12 30 _ 1 55 _ 1
a. pass, foil 0.6x03=0.18 | 4 a 55=3; b5=7 c2=1
win fail, pass 0.4 x 0.7 = 0.28 50 _ 20_4
not d3=1 ex=7
win not o a
2 foil, foil 0.4x0.3=0.12
wes 5a 578 910112
b 0.88 . 5 6 7 8 9 10M
7 a009 0.49 c 042
4
8 ao b 03 c 055 £4567 8900
9 053 | FR hay
ais ii & 2 3 4 § 6 7 8
» ­ EE RE W
biz 15 ii =a VW & § 4 8 '8
First dice
1 aL20 b­L c2 dL2a
FT) a0 2 1 2
b 3% CN 1 d3 eI
12al b29 cl 3 di 9
9 6 8 gE=F3 23
be=3 ­
C5"
13 a 0.54 b 0.38 c 0.08 d1
7 a First set Second set
0.8 red
33.8 Conditional probability 03"
0.2 green
Exercise 33H
0.4 red
1 a==Loross bZ=%0r04 0. wn
0.
c Z=Jor0as ase
b 0.24 c 0.42 d 034
2 a
4 2
Ss T 8 aqjgorg bord 1
25 [4 First Second
note note
ul 23 gory ss
4 or 2
9 22 ­ w__y=
10 21 8
1" 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 §_—8$5
Hors $10
bs
4 cg=7
4.1 ds
g4 16.4
¢5=3 3H $10
8
3 a di & ii iii 51

1
7
11

764
9 a Written Practical 11 The tree diagram looks like this
test test

Oil pos First bl Second ball Third ball ~~ Aaron wins |

09 pan 03 fail Aaron wins 5.1.1
5573
md red Agron wins Ixximy

0.1
i foil _ 9% pos whe < white Barak wins 5.4.3 ,
3X5%3"3

0.4 fail Aaron wins if the first ball or the second or the third is red.

van + ea The probabity of thisis J+ (x6 £)

5
+ (x4
6 5
x)4
10 a 3 b is: od § 1 6
28 14 % 28 56
sete
€ 6 tbemd=
1 1
6 6 2
1 3 1

Or: Barak wins if there are 3 white balls and the probability of
isis Sxdxd=L
thisis gx gx $=

Hence the probability that Aaron wins is 1­ + = +

765
 Index

2D shapes 523­4 circles 400­11

3D shapes 466­7, 525­6 cyclic quadrilaterals 405­11
12­hour clock 145 diameters 400­1
24­hour clock 145 drawing 414­17
facts 384­6
acceleration 247 irregular polygons 398­400
accuracy 120­31 measuring 414­17
acute angles 414­15 notation 415
addition parallel lines 386­9
algebraic fractions 197­8 pie charts 587­8
directed numbers 70­3 properties 382­411
fractions 57­60, 197­8 quadrilaterals 392­5, 398­9, 400, 405­11
multiplying indices 324 regular polygons 383, 395­7
number rules 50­63 sectors 508, 510­11
vectors 533 subtended by arcs 402­3
adjacent side of triangle 452, 456­7, 460, 468, 483 tangents 400­2
algebra triangles 383, 390­3, 403, 454
differentiation 362­71 trigonometric ratios 452­67
examination questions 372­81 annual rates 43
formulae 160­71 anticlockwise turns 481, 484, 551, 561
fractions 197­200 approximations 122­31
functions 352­61 arcs 402­3, 508­12
graphs 236­98 areas
important rules 162 area ratio 433, 435
indices 318­31 area sine rule 477­9
inequalities 202, 232­5 circles 498­501
linear programming 342­51 histograms 596, 599, 600
manipulation 172­201 mensuration 487­503, 506­12, 514­17
proportion 332­41 parallelograms 494­5
representation 160­71 pressure 113­14
sequences 300­17 rectangles 488­91, 492
solving equations 202­31 scale factors 431, 433
allied angles 387 sectors 508­12
alternate angles 387, 390 similar shapes 430­7
alternate segment theorem 408­11 trapeziums 165, 495­7 *
angle of depression 463 triangles 477­9, 491­3
angle of elevation 463, 466 see also surface areas
angle of rotation 551, 561 arithmetic mean 612
angles astronomy 413
arcs 402­3, 508, 510­11 asymptotes 289
bearings 417­20 atmospheric pressure 292­3

766
averages 607, 608, 612 Carroll, Lewis 87
advantages/disadvantages 618 Cartesian coordinates 257, 258
speed 110, 117, 242 Cartesian plane 257, 258
uses for 618 centre of circle 526
which to use 618­20 centre of enlargement 554­7, 559­60, 561
see also mean; median; mode ­ centre of rotation 550, 561
axes 525, 583­4 certainty 644
chance 643, 644
bank statements 67 see also probability
bar charts 577, 583­6 charts
bearings 417­20 bar 577, 583­6
Bernoulli's principle 203 pie 577, 587­91
best fit lines 593 tally 578­9
BIDMAS rule 52 chords 526
bisectors 526 circles
BODMAS rule 52 angles 400­11
boundary lines 344­5, 347 arcs 402­3, 508­12
bounds areas 498­501
class intervals 599­600 circumferences 498­501, 506, 508, 510
rounding 126­31 pie charts 577, 587­91
box method 185, 187, 190 sectors 508­12, 587
box­and­whisker plots 638­41 symmetry 526­8
lower/upper quartiles 638­9 circumferences 498­501, 506, 508, 510
lowest/highest values 638­9 class frequencies 596, 599­600
median 638­9 class intervals 578­9, 584
brackets grouped data 632, 634
expanding 178­81, 184­92 histograms 596, 598­600
factorisation 182­4 clinometers 413
multiplying together 184­92 clockwise turns 481, 484, 551, 561
order of operations 52 coefficients
quadratic factorisation 192­7 expressions 174­5, 179
simplifying expressions 179­80 factorisation 182, 196
solving equations 207, 209 multiplying brackets 187
squared brackets 189 nth terms 305­6
three sets of brackets 190­2 quadratic formula 217
simultaneous equations 227­9
calculators straight­line graphs 262
negative numbers 71­2 coin tossing 644, 646, 651
powers 78, 79, 81, 320 column vectors 532
roots 78, 79, 81 common factors
standard form 134­7 algebraic fractions 199
trigonometric ratios 452­3 factorisation 182
using efficiently 140­1, 149 highest common factors 15, 18­20
cancelling fractions 60, 646 multiplying fractions 62
capacity 142­3 quadratic equations 215­16

767
 common multiples 14, 18­20, 59 cube roots 77, 79­80, 327, 337­9
compass bearings 417 cubes 420­1
complement of set 94, 96 cubic graphs 288­9
completing the square 219­22 cubic sequences 307
composite functions 357­61 cuboids
compound interest 43­6 nets 420
conditional probability 666­71 planes of symmetry 525
cones 279, 514­16 prisms 504
congruent shapes 423­4, 544 surface area 501­3
congruent triangles 424­7 volume 501­3
consecutive terms 302, 306 cumulative frequency diagrams 631­7
consistency of data sets 615 class intervals 632, 634
constant of proportionality 334­5, 337, 339 inter­quartile range 631, 633­4
constant speed 246 median 632­4
constant terms 217, 262 currency conversions 147­9
constructions 438­45 curves
scale drawings 439, 442­5 complex 366­71
shapes 440­2 curved graphs 251­4
continuous data 628, 632 differentiation 364­71
conversion graphs 238­41 drawing 281­2
conversions in everyday life 279
currency 147­50 gradients 251­2, 296­7, 364­6
decimals 30­2 cyclic quadrilaterals 405­11
fractions 30­2, 40 cylinders
graphs 238­41 prisms 503, 506
metric units 143­4 surface area 506­8
percentages 30­2, 40 volume 506­8
coordinate enlargement method 556­7
coordinates 257, 258, 556­7 Dantzig, George 343
correlation 591­2 data
corresponding angles 386, 427 consistency 615
corresponding sides 427­8 continuous 628, 632
cosine (cos) discrete 628, 632
of any angle 479­83 dispersion 631 ;
cosine rule 470, 473­5, 477 grouped 578­9, 583, 596, 599, 628­3
function 455, 456­7 decagons 395, 398
graph 480­2 decay, exponential 82­5, 293
ratio 452, 454, 455­67 deceleration 248
‘counting squares’ enlargement method 556 decimals 26­33
cross­sections 504 common decimals 31
cube numbers 7, 11­12, 79­80, 319 decimal places 123­4, 127, 218
direct proportion 336­9 equivalents 31
notation 11 fractions 26­7, 30­3
sequences 307 percentages 30­3

768
 recurring 27­30 fractions 60­3, 198
rounding 123­4 indices 324­6
time 111 number rules 50­63
decreasing ratio 104
by percentage 38 dodecagons 396
using ratios 108­9 ~ dollars 147
denominators dot patterns 8, 11
adding fractions 57­9 drawing
algebraic fractions 198­9 angles 414­17
equivalent fractions 24 curves 281­2
multiplying fractions 60 scale 439, 442­5
ratios 103 straight­line graphs 258­61
density 113 dual bar charts 584
depression angles 463
derivatives 367 electricity units 238
Descartes, René 257, 258 elements of sets 90­1, 94­6
diameters 400­1, 498, 499 elevation angles 463, 466
dice throwing 644, 649, 658­9, 661 elimination method 224­5
differences between terms 302, 305­6, 309 empty sets 95­6
difference of two squares 194, 199, 216 enlargements 554­61
differentiation 362­71 centre of enlargement 554­7, 559­60, 561
curves 364­71 combined transformations 561
gradients 363, 364­6 coordinate method 556­7
notation 364 fractional 559­60
directed numbers 64­75 negative 557
addition 70­3 ray method 555, 557
division 73­5 scale factors 554­7, 559­60, 561
everyday use 67­8 similar shapes 427
multiplication 73­5 equally likely outcomes 646
subtraction 70­3 equals 88, 204
direction 531, 532, 544 equal to or greater (more) than 88, 232
direction vectors 544 equal to or less than 88, 232
direct proportion 116­17, 334­9 equal vectors 535
discrete data 628, 632 equations
dispersion of data 631 definition 162
distance doing same to both sides 204­5
between two points 273 graphical solutions 267­70
distance­time graphs 242­6, 252 real­life problems 210­12
speed 110, 113, 117, 137 roots of equations 282
distributions 638­9 simultaneous 222­31
division solving 202­31, 267­70
algebraic fractions 198 straight lines 258, 261­72
by negative number 233 variables on both sides 208­9
directed numbers 73­5 see also quadratic equations

769
 equilateral triangles 390 square numbers 8
equivalent fractions 24­5, 57, 59 Venn diagrams 90
equivalents, decimal 31 whole numbers 13­15
estimation 120­31 see also common factors
conversion graphs 238 Fibonacci series 301
mean 628 fifty­fifty chance 644
median 632 final amounts 47
rounding 122­31 FOIL expansion method 185, 190
euros 147 forces 113­14
even chance 644 formulae 160­71
examination questions circle area 498
algebra 372­81 circle circumference 498
geometry 564­75 complicated formulae 169­71
numbers 151­9 cone surface area 515
statistics 672­84 cone volume 514
exchange rates 147 cuboid surface area 501
expanding brackets 178­81, 184­92 cuboid volume 501
experimental probability 651 cylinder surface area 506
exponential decay 82­5, 293 cylinder volume 506
exponential graphs 292­6 definition 162
exponential growth 82­5, 292 parallelogram area 494
exponential sequences 314­15 prism volume 503­4
expressions pyramid volume 512
collecting like terms 175­6 rearranging 167­9
definition 162 rectangle area 488
multiplication 174 rectangle perimeter 488
quadratic 184­90 sphere surface area 516
simplifying 174­80 sphere volume 516
exterior angles 395­6, 398­9 subjects of 167­9
extreme values 618 substitution 165­7
trapezium area 165, 495
factorisation 182­4 triangle area 477, 491
algebraic fractions 199 Fourier, Jean 447
prime factorisation 16­18 four number rules 50­63
quadratic equations 212­17 fractions 55­63
quadratic factorisation 192­7 operations 52­5
simple rules 192 fractals 301
factors fractions 22­49
cube numbers 11 addition 57­60, 197­8 *
factor pairs 13 algebraic 197­200
facts about 13 common fractions 31
large numbers 14 decimals 26­7, 30­3
prime numbers 15­16 division 60­3, 198
probability 654, 665­6 enlargement 559­60
quadratic equations 215 equivalent 24­5, 57, 59

770
 indices 327­31 curved 251­4
lowest terms 24 distance­time 242­6, 251
multiplication 60­3, 197­8 exponential 292­6
percentages 30­3 functions 278­98
probability 646 inequalities 344­51
of quantities 55­7 g practical situations 236­54
ratios 103 quadratic 279, 280­6
recurring decimals 27­8 reciprocal 286­7
sectors 508, 510­11 sin/cos/tan 480­2, 483­4
subtraction 57­60 solving equations 267­70
frequencies 578­9 speed­time graphs 246­51
bar charts 583­4 straight­line 256­77
cumulative frequency 631­7 travel 242­6
frequency densities 599­600 trends 577
frequency tables 578­81, 624­7 gravity 113, 203
grouped data 578­9, 628­35 greater (more) than 69, 88, 232­3
histograms 596, 599­600 greater (more) than or equal to 88, 232
mode 608 grouped data 578­9, 584, 596, 599, 628­35
pictograms 581­2 grouped frequency tables 578­9, 584
pie charts 587­8 growth, exponential 82­5, 292
relative 651
functions 352­61 HCF (highest common factor) 15, 18­20
composite 357­61 height 512, 515
graphs 278­98 heptagons 398
inverse 355­6 hexagonal prisms 421, 503
notation 353, 354­5, 357­8 hexagons 383, 395­6, 398, 421, 503
trigonometric 455­9 highest common factor (HCF) 15, 18­20
histograms 596­604
gallons 238 area of bar 596, 599, 600
geometry class frequencies 596, 599­600
constructions 438­45 unequal width bars 599­604
examination questions 564­75 hypotenuse
relationships 412­37 Pythagoras’ theorem 448­9, 540
terms 412­37 Trigonometry 448­9, 452, 455­7, 459­60, 468
glides 544
gradients images 546, 548
curved graphs 251­2 impossible outcomes 644
curves 251, 296­8, 364­6 improper fractions 24, 57, 60, 62
differentiation 363, 364­6 included boundaries 344­5, 347
negative 262, 296 increasing
positive 296 by percentage 36
straight­line graphs 261­3, 265­6, 270, 272, 274 using ratio 108­9
graphs 236­98 indices (index) 77, 318­31
conversion 238­41 BIDMAS 52
cubic 288­9 division 324­6

mm
 form a/b 328­9 less than or equal to 88, 232
fractional 327­31 likelihood of events 644
multiplication 320, 324­6 like terms 175­6, 179­80
negative 135, 322­4, 328­9 limits of accuracy 120, 126
nth root 327­8 linear equations 204­12, 229­31
product of prime factors 16 linear inequalities 232­3
simplifying expressions 174 linear programming 342­51
standard form 134­5 linear scale factors 427, 431, 433
using indices 320­2 linear sequences 306
see also exponential...; powers linear simultaneous equations 229­31
inequalities 88­9, 202, 232­5 lines
graphical 344­51 angles on 384
more than one 347­8 of best fit 593
number lines 69 joining two points 272
integers 20 midpoint of 273
intercepts 262, 266 lines of symmetry 520­1
interest 43­6 2D shapes 523
compound 43­6 quadratic graphs 282
simple 43­4 reciprocal graphs 287
interior angles 395­6, 398 reflections 546, 548, 561
inter­quartile range 631, 633­4 litres 238
intersections of sets 90­1, 94­6, 654 loss 41, 67
inverse, definition 353 lower bounds 126­31, 599, 600
inverse functions 355­6 lower quartiles 633­4, 638­9
inverse proportion 117­19, 339­41 lowest common multiple (LCM) 14, 18­20, 59
inverses of sin/cos/tan 454, 455­6 lowest term of fraction 57 ’
irrational numbers 20
irregular polygons magnitude 531, 532, 540­1
angles 398­400 map scales 105
exterior angles 398­9 mass 113, 142­3
interior angles 398 mathematics, usages 161
isosceles triangles 390, 402, 523 mean 607, 612­15
advantages/disadvantages 618
keys estimated 628
bar charts 584 frequency tables 624­5
pictograms 581­2 grouped data 628
stem­and­leaf diagrams 620­1 range 615
kites 393 uses for 618
Koch snowflake 301 measurement
angles 414­17
labelling pie charts 587­8 statistics 606­41
language of algebra 162­5 units 142­3
LCM (lowest common multiple) 14, 18­20, 59 see also mensuration
length 142­3, 433, 435 median 610­12
less than 69, 88, 232, 233 advantages/disadvantages 618

772
 box­and­whisker plots 638­9 number rules 50­63
cumulative frequency diagrams 631­4 vectors 533
estimated 632 multipliers 34, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45, 47
frequency tables 624
inter­quartile range 633­4 natural numbers 20
rule for finding 610 * negative coordinates 258
stem­and­leaf diagrams 620 negative correlation 592
uses for 618 negative enlargement 557
members of sets 94­5 negative gradients 262, 296
mensuration 486­517 negative indices 135, 322­4, 328­9
arcs 508­12 negatively skewed distributions 638
areas 487­503, 506­12, 514­17 negative numbers 66­75
circumference 498­501, 506, 508, 510 dividing by 233
perimeter 488­91 expanding brackets 178
volume 501­8, 512­17 inequalities 232­3
see also measurement multiplying by 232­3
metric system 142­4 square roots 78
middle values 610 nets 420­2
midpoint of line segment 273 Newtons (N) 113
mirror lines see lines of symmetry nonagons 398
mixed numbers 24, 57, 60 non­linear simultaneous equations 229­32
Mébius strip 543 notation
mode 607, 608­9 angles 415
advantages/disadvantages 618 cube numbers 11
frequency tables 624 differentiation 364
modal classes 628 functions 353, 354­5, 357­8
stem­and­leaf diagrams 620 probability 646
uses for 618 recurring decimals 28
more (greater) than 69, 88, 232­3 sets 86­99
more (greater) than or equal to 88, 232 square numbers 8
multiples vectors 532, 540
like terms 175 nth terms 304­8, 309, 315
lowest common multiples 14, 18­20, 59 number lines 66, 68­70
probability 654, 666 numbers 6­21
whole numbers 7, 12­13 applications 140­50
multiplication examination questions 151­9
algebraic fractions 197­8 four rules 50­63
balancing coefficients 227­9 numerators
brackets 178, 184­92 algebraic fractions 199
directed numbers 73­5 equivalent fractions 24
expressions 174 multiplying fractions 60
fractions 60­3, 197­8
indices 320, 324­6 object of reflection 546
negative number 233 obtuse angles 414­15, 468­9, 479

773
 octagons 395­6, 398 points
operations angles at 384, 403
choosing correct one 54­5 of contact 400
order of 52­3 distance between two points 273
opposite angles 384 equations of lines 272­3
opposite segment of circle 405 polygons
opposite side of triangle 452, 455, 457­60, 468, 483 decagons 395, 398
ordering 86­99 dodecagons 396
order of rotational symmetry 522, 523, 525 heptagons 398
outcomes 644, 646 hexagons 383, 395­6, 398, 421, 504
irregular 398­400
Pa (Pascals) 113 nonagons 398
parabolas 279, 280 octagons 395­6, 398
parallel lines 270­2, 386­9 pentagons 383, 395­6, 398­9, 421
parallelograms 393, 494­5, 523 regular 383, 395­6
parallel vectors 535 see also quadrilaterals
Pascals (Pa) 113 population graphs 292
patterns 7, 302­4, 309­14 position vectors 535
pentagon­based pyramids 421 positive correlation 591­2
pentagons 383, 395­6, 398­9, 421 positive gradients 296
percentages 22, 30­49 positively skewed distributions 638
calculating 34­5 positive numbers 66­75
common percentages 31 possibility diagrams 657­8
compound interest 43­6 powers 76­85
decimals 30­3 BODMAS 52
decreasing by 38 calculators 78, 79, 81, 320
fractions 30­3 expressions using powers 325
increasing by 36 higher powers 81­2
multipliers 34, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45, 47 to the power one 320
percentage change 41 to the power zero 321
profit and loss 41 raising powers to powers 325
quantities 34­42 standard form 132­9, 319
reverse 47­9 see also cube numbers; indices (index); square
simple interest 43­4 numbers
percentiles 633 pressure 113­14, 292­3
perfect squares 194 prime factorisation 16­18
perimeters 163, 210, 488­91 prime numbers 7, 15­18
perpendicular bisectors 526 principle amounts 43
perpendicular lines 274­7, 414 prisms 421, 503­6
pi (TT) 498­501, 506, 508, 510­11, 514, 516 probability 642­71
pictograms 581­3 calculating 646­9
pie charts 577, 587­91 coin tossing 644, 646, 651
place value tables 26 conditional 665­71
planes of symmetry 525 dice throwing 644, 649, 658­9, 661
planets 133 event not happening 649­50

774
 notation 646 rhombuses 393
possibility diagrams 657­60 special 393
in practice 651­3 squares 383, 395
probability fraction 646 trapeziums 165, 393, 495­7
probability scale 644­5 quantities
tree diagrams 661­5, 666­7 fractions of 55­7
Venn diagrams 654­7, 666 percentages 34­42
product of prime factors 16­17 quartiles 633­4, 638­9
profit 41, 67
proper fractions 24, 57 radius 400, 498­9, 506, 508
proper subsets 95­6 random outcomes 646
proportion 100­1, 116­19, 332­41 range 615­17
direct 116­17, 334­9 inter­quartile 631, 633­4
inverse 117­19, 339­41 stem­and­leaf diagrams 620
symbol 334­5, 336, 339 rates 100, 113­15
protractors 414­15 acceleration 247
Ptolemy 447 exchange rates 147
pyramids 421, 512­14 rational numbers 20
Pythagoras’ theorem 448­51 ratios 100­9, 113
cosine rule 473 area 433, 435­6
distance between two points 273 common units 102
vectors 540 decreases 108­9
dividing amounts 104
quadrants 258 as a fraction 103
quadratic equations 279, 280, 282 increases 108­9
completing the square 219­22 length 433, 435­6
factorisation 212­17 map scales 105
general equation 215, 221 trigonometric 452­67
quadratic formula 217­19 use in calculations 107
rational form of solution 215 volume 433, 435­6
special cases 216 ray enlargement method 555, 557
quadratic expansions 184­90 real life
quadratic expressions 184­90 curves 279
quadratic factorisation 192­7 directed numbers 67­8
ax? + bx + ¢ 196­7 equations 210­12
difference of two squares 194­5 linear programming 349­51
quadratic formula 217­19 real numbers 20­1
quadratic graphs 279, 280­4, 285­6 reciprocals
quadratic sequences 307 fractions 62
quadrilaterals gradients 274
angles 393­5, 398­9, 401, 406­11 graphs 286­8
cyclic 406­11 inverse proportion 339
kites 393 negative indices 322, 329
parallelograms 393, 494­5 rectangles 383, 488­91, 492
rectangles 383, 488­91, 492 recurring decimals 27­30

775
 dot notation 28 significant figures 125­6
into fractions 28 up/down 122
repeated digits 28­9 upper/lower bounds 126­31
reflections 546­51 whole numbers 122­3, 125
combined transformations 561 rules of number 50­63
lines of symmetry 546, 548, 561 fractions 55­63
object/image 546 operations 52­5
planes of symmetry 525
reflex angles 403, 414­15, 480 scalars 533
regions 344­5, 347, 349 scale drawings 439, 442­5
regular polygons 383 scale factors
angles 383, 395­7 enlargement 554­7, 559­60, 561
exterior angles 395­6 similar shapes 427, 430­1, 433
interior angles 395­6 scales on axes 238
relationships, geometrical 412­37 scales of maps 105
relative frequency 651 scatter diagrams 591­6
relativity theory 203 correlation 591­2
representation lines of best fit 593
algebra 160­71 restrictions on use 593­4
statistics 576­604 sea level 67
reverse percentages 47­9 sectors 508­12, 587
rhombuses 393 angles 508, 510­11
right­angled triangles 390 areas 508­12
adjacent side 452, 456­7, 460, 468, 483 fractions 508, 510­11
hypotenuse 448­9, 452, 455­7, 459­60, 468, pie charts 587
540 segments 402­3, 405
opposite side 452, 455, 457­60, 468, 483 semi­circles 401
Pythagoras’ theorem 273, 448­51, 473, 540 sequences 300­17
trigonometric ratios 452­67 combinations of 315
right angles 414 cube numbers 11
roots 8­10, 76­85 exponential 314­15
cube roots 79­80, 327, 336­9 nth terms 304­8, 309, 315
equations 282 patterns 302­4, 309­14
fractional indices 327 square numbers 8, 307
higher roots 81­2 sets
nth roots 327 definition 87
see also square roots notation 86­99
rotations 550­4 probability 654­7, 666
angle of 551, 561 Venn diagrams 90­9, 654­7, 666
centre of 550, 561 sf (significant figures) 125­6
combined transformations 561 ­ sides of triangles
symmetry 520, 522­3, 525 adjacent 452, 456­7, 460, 468, 483
turns 551 hypotenuse 448­9, 452, 455­7, 459­60, 468, 540
rounding 122­31 opposite 452, 455, 458­60, 468, 483
decimal places 123­4, 127 see also trigonometric ratios

776
 Index

sign changes direct proportion 336­9

brackets 178, 192­3, 196 irrational numbers 20
directed numbers 73 notation 8
inequalities 232 sequences 8, 307
significant figures (sf) 125­6 square roots 8, 77, 78­9
similar shapes 427­37 direct proportion 336­9
areas 430­7 fractional indices 327
scale factors 427, 431, 433 irrational numbers 20
triangles 413, 430­2 notation 8
volumes 433­7 quadratic equations 216
simple interest 434 squares 383, 396
simplest forms standard form 132­9, 319
fractions 57 calculations 136­9
ratios 103 calculators 134­7
simplifying expressions 174­80 numbers less than one 135
simultaneous equations 222­31 statistics
balancing coefficients 227­9 bar charts 577, 583­6
elimination method 224­5 box­and­whisker plots 638­41
linear/non­linear 229­31 cumulative frequency diagrams 631­7
substitution method 225, 228 examination questions 672­84
sine (sin) frequency tables 578­81, 624­7
of any angle 479­83 grouped data 578­9, 584, 596, 599, 628­35
area sine rule 477­9 histograms 596­604
function 455­6 measures 606­41
ratio 452­67 pictograms 581­3
sine graph 480­2 pie charts 577, 587­91
sine rule 470­2, 475, 477­9 probability 642­71
single unit value 116 range 615­17
slant height 515 representation 576­604
slope see gradient scatter diagrams 591­6
solid shapes 433 stem­and­leaf diagrams 620­4
speed 101, 110­12, 113 see also averages
average 110, 117, 242 stem­and­leaf diagrams 620­4
inverse proportion 117, 339 stopping distances 173
speed­time graphs 246­51 straight­line angles 384, 390, 403
standard form 137 straight­line graphs 256­77
triangle mnemonic 110 distance between two points 273
spheres 516­17 drawing 258­61
spread 615 forms of equations 265
see also range line through two points 272
square­based pyramids 421 midpoint of line 273
squared brackets 189 parallel lines 270­2
square numbers 7, 8­10, 77, 78­9, 319 perpendicular lines 274­7
difference of two squares 194, 199, 216 solving equations 267­70
directed numbers 73­4 y= mx + ¢ format 259, 261­5
 subject of formula 167­9 estimating gradients 297
subsets 95­6 symmetry 527
substitution temperature 66, 70
formulae 165­7 terminating decimals 27­8
simultaneous equations 226, 229 terms
subtraction constant 217, 262
algebraic fractions 197­8 definition 162
directed numbers 70­3 differences 302, 305­6, 309
dividing indices 324 geometrical 412­37
fractions 57­60 like terms 175­6, 179­80
number rules 50­63 nth terms 304­8, 309, 315
vectors 533 sequences 302
supplementary angles 405 term to term rules 302
surface areas Thales of Miletus 413
cones 514­16 thermometers 66, 70
cuboids 501­3 three­dimensional (3D) shapes 466­7, 525­6
cylinders 506­8 three­figure bearings 417­18
spheres 516­17 time 145­7
see also areas in decimal form 111
Symbolic Logic (Carroll) 87 distance­time graphs 242­6, 251
symbols inverse proportion 117, 339
algebra 162 speed 110­11, 113, 117, 137, 246­51, 252, 339
pictograms 581­2 speed­time graphs 246­51, 252
proportion 334­5, 336, 339 timetables 145
symmetry 518­28 top­heavy fractions 24
2D shapes 523­4 total probability 646
3D shapes 525­6 transformations 542­63
circles 526­8 combined 561­3
distributions 638 enlargements 554­61
quadratic graphs 282, 285 reflections 546­51
reciprocal graphs 286­7 rotations 550­4
rotational 520, 522­3, 525 translations 544­6, 561
sin/cos/tan graphs 481­2, 484 translations 544­6
uses of 519 combined transformations 561
see also lines of symmetry vectors 544, 561
trapeziums 165, 393, 495­7
tally charts 578­9 travel graphs 242­6
tangent (tan) tree diagrams 661­5, 666­7
of any angle 483­5 trend graphs 577
function 455, 458­9 trials 651
ratio 452, 454, 455­67 ­ triangles
tangent graph 484 angles 383, 390­3, 403, 454
tangent to curve area 477­9, 491­3
angles 400­2 area sine rule 477­9
curved graphs 251­2, 297 constructions 440

778
 Index

density formula mnemonic 113 variables

similar 413, 430­2 on both sides of equation 208­9
special 390 collecting like terms 175
speed formula mnemonic 110 definition 162
sum of angles 390, 402 rearranging formulae 167
see also right­angled triangles; trigonometry scatter diagrams 591
triangular prisms 421, 504 substitution 165
trigonometric ratios 452~67 vectors 530­41
3D problems 466­7 addition 533
applications 462­5 direction 531, 532, 544
calculating angles 454 magnitude 531, 532, 540­1
choosing correct ratio 459­62 multiplication 533
sin/cos/tan functions 455­9 notation 532, 540
trigonometry 446­85 subtraction 533
area of triangle 477­9 translations 544, 561
choosing correct rule 475 using 535­9
cosine of any angle 479­83 Venn diagrams 87, 90­9, 654­7, 666
cosine rule 470, 473­5, 477 vertex (vertices) 421, 512
obtuse angles 468­9, 479 vertical height 512, 514
Pythagoras’ theorem 448­51, 473 vertically opposite angles 384
sine of any angle 479­83 vertices (vertex) 421, 512
sine rule 470­2, 475, 477­9 volumes 487, 501­8, 512­17
tangent of any angle 483­5 cones 514­16
trigonometric ratios 452­67 cuboids 501­3
turning points 285­6, 369­71 cylinders 506­8
maximum 369 prisms 503­5
minimum 369­70 pyramids 512­14
turns 481­2, 484, 551, 561 rates 113
twelve­hour clock 145 scale factors 433
twenty­four hour clock 145 similar shapes 433­7
two­dimensional (2D) shapes 523­4 spheres 516­17
units 142­3
unions of sets 90­1, 94 volume ratio 433, 435
unitary method 47, 116
units weight 113­14
common units 142, 506 whole numbers
electricity 238 factors 13­15
metric units 142­4 multiples 12­13
percentages 40 rounding 122­3, 125
ratio 102
speed 110 y=mx +c 259, 261­5
universal sets 91
upper bounds 126­31, 599, 600 zero correlation 592
upper quartiles 633­4, 638­9

779
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