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Syllabus
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A1.1 Water
Unity and diversity—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 1 hour
Guiding questions
• What physical and chemical properties of water make it essential for life?
• What are the challenges and opportunities of water as a habitat?
SL and HL
A1.1.1—Water as the medium for life
Students should appreciate that the rst cells originated in water and that water remains the
medium in which most processes of life occur.
A1.1.2—Hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds within water molecules
Students should understand that polarity of covalent bonding within water molecules is due to
unequal sharing of electrons and that hydrogen bonding due to this polarity occurs between water
molecules. Students should be able to represent two or more water molecules and hydrogen bonds
between them with the notation shown below to indicate polarity.
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A1.1.3—Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding and consequences for organisms
Include transport of water under tension in xylem and the use of water surfaces as habitats due to
the effect known as surface tension.
A1.1.4—Adhesion of water to materials that are polar or charged and impacts for organisms
Include capillary action in soil and in plant cell walls.
A1.1.5—Solvent properties of water linked to its role as a medium for metabolism and for transport
in plants and animals
Emphasize that a wide variety of hydrophilic molecules dissolve in water and that most enzymes
catalyse reactions in aqueous solution. Students should also understand that the functions of some
molecules in cells depend on them being hydrophobic and insoluble.
A1.1.6—Physical properties of water and the consequences for animals in aquatic habitats
Include buoyancy, viscosity, thermal conductivity and specic heat capacity. Contrast the physical
properties of water with those of air and illustrate the consequences using examples of animals that
live in water and in air or on land, such as the black-throated loon (Gavia arctica) and the ringed seal
(Pusa hispida).
Note: When students are referring to an organism in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
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Additional higher level
A1.1.7—Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth and reasons for its retention
The abundance of water over billions of years of Earth’s history has allowed life to evolve. Limit
hypotheses for the origin of water on Earth to asteroids and reasons for retention to gravity and
temperatures low enough to condense water.
A1.1.8—Relationship between the search for extraterrestrial life and the presence of water
Include the idea of the “Goldilocks zone”.
Linking questions
• How do the various intermolecular forces of attraction affect biological systems?
• What biological processes only happen at or near surfaces?
A1.2 Nucleic acids
Unity and diversity—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• How does the structure of nucleic acids allow hereditary information to be stored?
• How does the structure of DNA facilitate accurate replication?
SL and HL
A1.2.1—DNA as the genetic material of all living organisms
Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material but viruses are not considered to be living.
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A1.2.2—Components of a nucleotide
In diagrams of nucleotides use circles, pentagons and rectangles to represent relative positions of
phosphates, pentose sugars and bases.
A1.2.3—Sugar–phosphate bonding and the sugar–phosphate “backbone” of DNA and RNA
Sugar–phosphate bonding makes a continuous chain of covalently bonded atoms in each strand of
DNA or RNA nucleotides, which forms a strong “backbone” in the molecule.
A1.2.4—Bases in each nucleic acid that form the basis of a code
Students should know the names of the nitrogenous bases.
A1.2.5—RNA as a polymer formed by condensation of nucleotide monomers
Students should be able to draw and recognize diagrams of the structure of single nucleotides and
RNA polymers.
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A1.2.6—DNA as a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides with two strands
linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs
In diagrams of DNA structure, students should draw the two strands antiparallel, but are not
required to draw the helical shape. Students should show adenine (A) paired with thymine (T), and
guanine (G) paired with cytosine (C). Students are not required to memorize the relative lengths of
the purine and pyrimidine bases, or the numbers of hydrogen bonds.
A1.2.7—Differences between DNA and RNA
Include the number of strands present, the types of nitrogenous bases and the type of pentose
sugar. Students should be able to sketch the difference between ribose and deoxyribose. Students
should be familiar with examples of nucleic acids.
A1.2.8—Role of complementary base pairing in allowing genetic information to be replicated and
expressed
Students should understand that complementarity is based on hydrogen bonding.
A1.2.9—Diversity of possible DNA base sequences and the limitless capacity of DNA for storing
information
Explain that diversity by any length of DNA molecule and any base sequence is possible. Emphasize
the enormous capacity of DNA for storing data with great economy.
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A1.2.10—Conservation of the genetic code across all life forms as evidence of universal common
ancestry
Students are not required to memorize any specic examples.
Additional higher level
A1.2.11—Directionality of RNA and DNA
Include 5' to 3' linkages in the sugar–phosphate backbone and their signicance for replication,
transcription and translation.
A1.2.12—Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding as a component of DNA helix stability
Adenine–thymine (A–T) and cytosine–guanine (C–G) pairs have equal length, so the DNA helix has
the same three-dimensional structure, regardless of the base sequence.
A1.2.13—Structure of a nucleosome
Limit to a DNA molecule wrapped around a core of eight histone proteins held together by an
additional histone protein attached to linker DNA.
Application of skills: Students are required to use molecular visualization software to study the
association between the proteins and DNA within a nucleosome.
A1.2.14—Evidence from the Hershey–Chase experiment for DNA as the genetic material
Students should understand how the results of the experiment support the conclusion that DNA is
the genetic material.
NOS: Students should appreciate that technological developments can open up new possibilities
for experiments. When radioisotopes were made available to scientists as research tools, the
Hershey–Chase experiment became possible.
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A1.2.15—Chargaff’s data on the relative amounts of pyrimidine and purine bases across diverse life
forms
NOS: Students should understand how the “problem of induction” is addressed by the “certainty
of falsication”. In this case, Chargaff’s data falsied the tetranucleotide hypothesis that there was a
repeating sequence of the four bases in DNA.
Linking questions
• What makes RNA more likely to have been the rst genetic material, rather than DNA?
• How can polymerization result in emergent properties?
A2.1 Origins of cells
Unity and diversity—Cells
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What plausible hypothesis could account for the origin of life?
• What intermediate stages could there have been between non-living matter and the rst living
cells?
Additional higher level
Note: There is no SL content in A2.1.
A2.1.1—Conditions on early Earth and the pre-biotic formation of carbon compounds
Include the lack of free oxygen and therefore ozone, higher concentrations of carbon dioxide and
methane, resulting in higher temperatures and ultraviolet light penetration. The conditions may
have caused a variety of carbon compounds to form spontaneously by chemical processes that do
not now occur.
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A2.1.2—Cells as the smallest units of self-sustaining life
Discuss the differences between something that is living and something that is non-living. Include
reasons that viruses are considered to be non-living.
A2.1.3—Challenge of explaining the spontaneous origin of cells
Cells are highly complex structures that can currently only be produced by division of pre-existing
cells. Students should be aware that catalysis, self-replication of molecules, self-assembly and the
emergence of compartmentalization were necessary requirements for the evolution of the rst cells.
NOS: Students should appreciate that claims in science, including hypotheses and theories, must be
testable. In some cases, scientists have to struggle with hypotheses that are difficult to test. In this
case the exact conditions on pre-biotic Earth cannot be replicated and the rst protocells did not
fossilize.
A2.1.4—Evidence for the origin of carbon compounds
Evaluate the Miller–Urey experiment.
A2.1.5—Spontaneous formation of vesicles by coalescence of fatty acids into spherical bilayers
Formation of a membrane-bound compartment is needed to allow internal chemistry to become
different from that outside the compartment.
A2.1.6—RNA as a presumed rst genetic material
RNA can be replicated and has some catalytic activity so it may have acted initially as both the
genetic material and the enzymes of the earliest cells. Ribozymes in the ribosome are still used to
catalyse peptide bond formation during protein synthesis.
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A2.1.7—Evidence for a last universal common ancestor
Include the universal genetic code and shared genes across all organisms. Include the likelihood of
other forms of life having evolved but becoming extinct due to competition from the last universal
common ancestor (LUCA) and descendants of LUCA.
A2.1.8—Approaches used to estimate dates of the rst living cells and the last universal common
ancestor
Students should develop an appreciation of the immense length of time over which life has been
evolving on Earth.
A2.1.9—Evidence for the evolution of the last universal common ancestor in the vicinity of
hydrothermal vents
Include fossilized evidence of life from ancient seaoor hydrothermal vent precipitates and
evidence of conserved sequences from genomic analysis.
Linking questions
• For what reasons is heredity an essential feature of living things?
• What is needed for structures to be able to evolve by natural selection?
A2.2 Cell structure
Unity and diversity—Cells
Standard level and higher level: 4 hours
Additional higher level: 1 hour
Guiding questions
• What are the features common to all cells and the features that differ?
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• How is microscopy used to investigate cell structure?
SL and HL
A2.2.1—Cells as the basic structural unit of all living organisms
NOS: Students should be aware that deductive reason can be used to generate predictions from
theories. Based on cell theory, a newly discovered organism can be predicted to consist of one or
more cells.
A2.2.2—Microscopy skills
Application of skills: Students should have experience of making temporary mounts of cells
and tissues, staining, measuring sizes using an eyepiece graticule, focusing with coarse and
ne adjustments, calculating actual size and magnication, producing a scale bar and taking
photographs.
NOS: Students should appreciate that measurement using instruments is a form of quantitative
observation.
A2.2.3—Developments in microscopy
Include the advantages of electron microscopy, freeze fracture, cryogenic electron microscopy, and
the use of uorescent stains and immunouorescence in light microscopy.
A2.2.4—Structures common to cells in all living organisms
Typical cells have DNA as genetic material and a cytoplasm composed mainly of water, which is
enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of lipids. Students should understand the reasons for
these structures.
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A2.2.5—Prokaryote cell structure
Include these cell components: cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, naked DNA in a loop and
70S ribosomes. The type of prokaryotic cell structure required is that of Gram-positive eubacteria
such as Bacillus and Staphylococcus. Students should appreciate that prokaryote cell structure varies.
However, students are not required to know details of the variations such as the lack of cell walls in
phytoplasmas and mycoplasmas.
A2.2.6—Eukaryote cell structure
Students should be familiar with features common to eukaryote cells: a plasma membrane
enclosing a compartmentalized cytoplasm with 80S ribosomes; a nucleus with chromosomes
made of DNA bound to histones, contained in a double membrane with pores; membrane-bound
cytoplasmic organelles including mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and
a variety of vesicles or vacuoles including lysosomes; and a cytoskeleton of microtubules and
microlaments.
A2.2.7—Processes of life in unicellular organisms
Include these functions: homeostasis, metabolism, nutrition, movement, excretion, growth,
response to stimuli and reproduction.
A2.2.8—Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between animals, fungi and plants
Include presence and composition of cell walls, differences in size and function of vacuoles,
presence of chloroplasts and other plastids, and presence of centrioles, cilia and agella.
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A2.2.9—Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes
Use numbers of nuclei to illustrate one type of atypical cell structure in aseptate fungal hyphae,
skeletal muscle, red blood cells and phloem sieve tube elements.
A2.2.10—Cell types and cell structures viewed in light and electron micrographs
Application of skills: Students should be able to identify cells in light and electron micrographs
as prokaryote, plant or animal. In electron micrographs, students should be able to identify these
structures: nucleoid region, prokaryotic cell wall, nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast, sap vacuole,
Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, chromosomes, ribosomes, cell wall,
plasma membrane and microvilli.
A2.2.11—Drawing and annotation based on electron micrographs
Application of skills: Students should be able to draw and annotate diagrams of organelles
(nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, sap vacuole, Golgi apparatus, rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum and chromosomes) as well as other cell structures (cell wall, plasma membrane, secretory
vesicles and microvilli) shown in electron micrographs. Students are required to include the
functions in their annotations.
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Additional higher level
A2.2.12—Origin of eukaryotic cells by endosymbiosis
Evidence suggests that all eukaryotes evolved from a common unicellular ancestor that had
a nucleus and reproduced sexually. Mitochondria then evolved by endosymbiosis. In some
eukaryotes, chloroplasts subsequently also had an endosymbiotic origin. Evidence should include
the presence in mitochondria and chloroplasts of 70S ribosomes, naked circular DNA and the ability
to replicate.
NOS: Students should recognize that the strength of a theory comes from the observations the
theory explains and the predictions it supports. A wide range of observations are accounted for by
the theory of endosymbiosis.
A2.2.13—Cell differentiation as the process for developing specialized tissues in multicellular
organisms
Students should be aware that the basis for differentiation is different patterns of gene expression
often triggered by changes in the environment.
A2.2.14—Evolution of multicellularity
Students should be aware that multicellularity has evolved repeatedly. Many fungi and eukaryotic
algae and all plants and animals are multicellular. Multicellularity has the advantages of allowing
larger body size and cell specialization.
Linking questions
• What explains the use of certain molecular building blocks in all living cells?
• What are the features of a compelling theory?
A2.3 Viruses
Unity and diversity—Cells
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Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• How can viruses exist with so few genes?
• In what ways do viruses vary?
Additional higher level
Note: There is no SL content in A2.3.
A2.3.1—Structural features common to viruses
Relatively few features are shared by all viruses: small, xed size; nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) as
genetic material; a capsid made of protein; no cytoplasm; and few or no enzymes.
A2.3.2—Diversity of structure in viruses
Students should understand that viruses are highly diverse in their shape and structure. Genetic
material may be RNA or DNA, which can be either single- or double-stranded. Some viruses
are enveloped in host cell membrane and others are not enveloped. Virus examples include
bacteriophage lambda, coronaviruses and HIV.
A2.3.3—Lytic cycle of a virus
Students should appreciate that viruses rely on a host cell for energy supply, nutrition, protein
synthesis and other life functions. Use bacteriophage lambda as an example of the phases in a lytic
cycle.
A.2.3.4—Lysogenic cycle of a virus
Use bacteriophage lambda as an example.
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A2.3.5—Evidence for several origins of viruses from other organisms
The diversity of viruses suggests several possible origins. Viruses share an extreme form of obligate
parasitism as a mode of existence, so the structural features that they have in common could
be regarded as convergent evolution. The genetic code is shared between viruses and living
organisms.
A2.3.6—Rapid evolution in viruses
Include reasons for very rapid rates of evolution in some viruses. Use two examples of rapid
evolution: evolution of inuenza viruses and of HIV. Consider the consequences for treating diseases
caused by rapidly evolving viruses.
Linking questions
• What mechanisms contribute to convergent evolution?
• To what extent is the natural history of life characterized by increasing complexity or simplicity?
A3.1 Diversity of organisms
Unity and diversity—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What is a species?
• What patterns are seen in the diversity of genomes within and between species?
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SL and HL
A3.1.1—Variation between organisms as a dening feature of life
Students should understand that no two individuals are identical in all their traits. The patterns of
variation are complex and are the basis for naming and classifying organisms.
A3.1.2—Species as groups of organisms with shared traits
This is the original morphological concept of the species as used by Linnaeus.
A3.1.3—Binomial system for naming organisms
Students should know that the rst part of the name identies the genus, with the second part of
the name distinguishing the species. Species in the same genus have similar traits. The genus name
is given an initial capital letter but the species name is lowercase.
A3.1.4—Biological species concept
According to the biological species concept, a species is a group of organisms that can breed and
produce fertile offspring. Include possible challenges associated with this denition of a species and
that competing species denitions exist.
A3.1.5—Difficulties distinguishing between populations and species due to divergence of non-
interbreeding populations during speciation
Students should understand that speciation is the splitting of one species into two or more. It
usually happens gradually rather than by a single act, with populations becoming more and more
different in their traits. It can therefore be an arbitrary decision whether two populations are
regarded as the same or different species.
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A3.1.6—Diversity in chromosome numbers of plant and animal species
Students should know in general that diversity exists. As an example, students should know that
humans have 46 chromosomes and chimpanzees have 48. Students are not required to know other
specic chromosome numbers but should appreciate that diploid cells have an even number of
chromosomes.
A3.1.7—Karyotyping and karyograms
Application of skills: Students should be able to classify chromosomes by banding patterns,
length and centromere position. Students should evaluate the evidence for the hypothesis that
chromosome 2 in humans arose from the fusion of chromosomes 12 and 13 with a shared primate
ancestor.
NOS: Students should be able to distinguish between testable hypotheses such as the origin of
chromosome 2 and non-testable statements.
A3.1.8—Unity and diversity of genomes within species
Students should understand that the genome is all the genetic information of an organism.
Organisms in the same species share most of their genome but variations such as single-nucleotide
polymorphisms give some diversity.
A3.1.9—Diversity of eukaryote genomes
Genomes vary in overall size, which is determined by the total amount of DNA. Genomes also vary
in base sequence. Variation between species is much larger than variation within a species.
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A3.1.10—Comparison of genome sizes
Application of skills: Students should extract information about genome size for different
taxonomic groups from a database to compare genome size to organism complexity.
A3.1.11—Current and potential future uses of whole genome sequencing
Include the increasing speed and decreasing costs. For current uses, include research into
evolutionary relationships and for potential future uses, include personalized medicine.
Additional higher level
A3.1.12—Difficulties applying the biological species concept to asexually reproducing species and
to bacteria that have horizontal gene transfer
The biological species concept does not work well with groups of organisms that do not breed
sexually or where genes can be transferred from one species to another.
A3.1.13—Chromosome number as a shared trait within a species
Cross-breeding between closely related species is unlikely to produce fertile offspring if parent
chromosome numbers are different.
A3.1.14—Engagement with local plant or animal species to develop a dichotomous key
Application of skills: Students should engage with local plant or animal species to develop a
dichotomous key.
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A3.1.15—Identication of species from environmental DNA in a habitat using barcodes
Using barcodes and environmental DNA allows the biodiversity of habitats to be investigated
rapidly.
Linking questions
• What might cause a species to persist or go extinct?
• How do species exemplify both continuous and discontinuous patterns of variation?
A3.2 Classication and cladistics
Unity and diversity—Organisms
Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• What tools are used to classify organisms into taxonomic groups?
• How do cladistic methods differ from traditional taxonomic methods?
Additional higher level
Note: There is no SL content in A3.2.
A3.2.1—Need for classication of organisms
Classication is needed because of the immense diversity of species. After classication is
completed, a broad range of further study is facilitated.
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A3.2.2—Difficulties classifying organisms into the traditional hierarchy of taxa
The traditional hierarchy of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species does not
always correspond to patterns of divergence generated by evolution.
NOS: A xed ranking of taxa (kingdom, phylum and so on) is arbitrary because it does not reect
the gradation of variation. Cladistics offers an alternative approach to classication using unranked
clades. This is an example of the paradigm shift that sometimes occurs in scientic theories.
A3.2.3—Advantages of classication corresponding to evolutionary relationships
The ideal classication follows evolutionary relationships, so all the members of a taxonomic group
have evolved from a common ancestor. Characteristics of organisms within such a group can be
predicted because they are shared within a clade.
A3.2.4—Clades as groups of organisms with common ancestry and shared characteristics
The most objective evidence for placing organisms in the same clade comes from base sequences
of genes or amino acid sequences of proteins. Morphological traits can be used to assign organisms
to clades.
A3.2.5—Gradual accumulation of sequence differences as the basis for estimates of when clades
diverged from a common ancestor
This method of estimating times is known as the “molecular clock”. The molecular clock can only
give estimates because mutation rates are affected by the length of the generation time, the size of
a population, the intensity of selective pressure and other factors.
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A3.2.6—Base sequences of genes or amino acid sequences of proteins as the basis for constructing
cladograms
Examples can be simple and based on sample data to illustrate the tool.
NOS: Students should recognize that different criteria for judgement can lead to different
hypotheses. Here, parsimony analysis is used to select the most probable cladogram, in which
observed sequence variation between clades is accounted for with the smallest number of
sequence changes.
A3.2.7—Analysing cladograms
Students should be able to deduce evolutionary relationships, common ancestors and clades from
a cladogram. They should understand the terms “root”, “node” and “terminal branch” and also that a
node represents a hypothetical common ancestor.
A3.2.8—Using cladistics to investigate whether the classication of groups corresponds to
evolutionary relationships
A case study of transfer of plant species between families could be used to develop understanding,
for example the reclassication of the gwort family (Scrophulariaceae). However, students are not
required to memorize the details of the case study.
NOS: Students should appreciate that theories and other scientic knowledge claims may
eventually be falsied. In this example, similarities in morphology due to convergent evolution
rather than common ancestry suggested a classication that by cladistics has been shown to be
false.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
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A3.2.9—Classication of all organisms into three domains using evidence from rRNA base
sequences
This is the revolutionary reclassication with an extra taxonomic level above kingdoms that was
proposed in 1977.
Linking questions
• How can similarities between distantly related organisms be explained?
• What are some examples of ideas over which biologists disagree?
A4.1 Evolution and speciation
Unity and diversity—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 4 hours
Additional higher level: 1 hour
Guiding questions
• What is the evidence for evolution?
• How do analogous and homologous structures exemplify commonality and diversity?
SL and HL
A4.1.1—Evolution as change in the heritable characteristics of a population
This denition helps to distinguish Darwinian evolution from Lamarckism. Acquired changes that
are not genetic in origin are not regarded as evolution.
NOS: The theory of evolution by natural selection predicts and explains a broad range of
observations and is unlikely ever to be falsied. However, the nature of science makes it impossible
to formally prove that it is true by correspondence. It is a pragmatic truth and is therefore referred to
as a theory, despite all the supporting evidence.
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A4.1.2—Evidence for evolution from base sequences in DNA or RNA and amino acid sequences in
proteins
Sequence data gives powerful evidence of common ancestry.
A4.1.3—Evidence for evolution from selective breeding of domesticated animals and crop plants
Variation between different domesticated animal breeds and varieties of crop plant, and between
them and the original wild species, shows how rapidly evolutionary changes can occur.
A4.1.4—Evidence for evolution from homologous structures
Include the example of pentadactyl limbs.
A4.1.5—Convergent evolution as the origin of analogous structures
Students should understand that analogous structures have the same function but different
evolutionary origins. Students should know at least one example of analogous features.
A4.1.6—Speciation by splitting of pre-existing species
Students should appreciate that this is the only way in which new species have appeared. Students
should also understand that speciation increases the total number of species on Earth, and
extinction decreases it. Students should also understand that gradual evolutionary change in a
species is not speciation.
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A4.1.7—Roles of reproductive isolation and differential selection in speciation
Include geographical isolation as a means of achieving reproductive isolation. Use the separation of
bonobos and common chimpanzees by the Congo River as a specic example of divergence due to
differential selection.
Additional higher level
A4.1.8—Differences and similarities between sympatric and allopatric speciation
Students should understand that reproductive isolation can be geographic, behavioural or
temporal.
A4.1.9—Adaptive radiation as a source of biodiversity
Adaptive radiation allows closely related species to coexist without competing, thereby increasing
biodiversity in ecosystems where there are vacant niches.
A4.1.10—Barriers to hybridization and sterility of interspecic hybrids as mechanisms for of
preventing the mixing of alleles between species
Courtship behaviour often prevents hybridization in animal species. A mule is an example of a
sterile hybrid.
A4.1.11—Abrupt speciation in plants by hybridization and polyploidy
Use knotweed or smartweed (genus Persicaria) as an example because it contains many species that
have been formed by these processes.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
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Linking questions
• How does the theory of evolution by natural selection predict and explain the unity and diversity of
life on Earth?
• What counts as strong evidence in biology?
A4.2 Conservation of biodiversity
Unity and diversity—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• What factors are causing the sixth mass extinction of species?
• How can conservationists minimize the loss of biodiversity?
SL and HL
A4.2.1—Biodiversity as the variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations
Include ecosystem diversity, species diversity and genetic diversity.
A4.2.2—Comparisons between current number of species on Earth and past levels of biodiversity
Millions of species have been discovered, named and described but there are many more species
to be discovered. Evidence from fossils suggests that there are currently more species alive on Earth
today than at any time in the past.
NOS: Classication is an example of pattern recognition but the same observations can be classied
in different ways. For example, “splitters” recognize more species than “lumpers” in a taxonomic
group.
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A4.2.3—Causes of anthropogenic species extinction
This should be a study of the causes of the current sixth mass extinction, rather than of non-
anthropogenic causes of previous mass extinctions.
To give a range of causes, carry out three or more brief case studies of species extinction: North
Island giant moas (Dinornis novaezealandiae) should be used as an example of the loss of terrestrial
megafauna, Caribbean monk seals (Neomonachus tropicalis) should be used as an example of the
loss of a marine species, and include one other species that has gone extinct from an area that is
familiar to students.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
A4.2.4—Causes of ecosystem loss
Students should study only causes that are directly or indirectly anthropogenic. Include two case
studies of ecosystem loss. One should be the loss of mixed dipterocarp forest in Southeast Asia, and
the other should, if possible, be of a lost ecosystem from an area that is familiar to students.
A4.2.5—Evidence for a biodiversity crisis
Evidence can be drawn from Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services reports and other sources. Results from reliable surveys of biodiversity in a wide
range of habitats around the world are required. Students should understand that surveys need to
be repeated to provide evidence of change in species richness and evenness. Note that there are
opportunities for contributions from both expert scientists and citizen scientists.
NOS: To be veriable, evidence usually has to come from a published source, which has been peer-
reviewed and allows methodology to be checked. Data recorded by citizens rather than scientists
brings not only benets but also unique methodological concerns.
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A4.2.6—Causes of the current biodiversity crisis
Include human population growth as an overarching cause, together with these specic causes:
hunting and other forms of over-exploitation; urbanization; deforestation and clearance of land
for agriculture with consequent loss of natural habitat; pollution and spread of pests, diseases and
invasive alien species due to global transport.
A4.2.7—Need for several approaches to conservation of biodiversity
No single approach by itself is sufficient, and different species require different measures. Include
in situ conservation of species in natural habitats, management of nature reserves, rewilding and
reclamation of degraded ecosystems, ex situ conservation in zoos and botanic gardens and storage
of germ plasm in seed or tissue banks.
A4.2.8—Selection of evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered species for conservation
prioritization in the EDGE of Existence programme
Students should understand the rationale behind focusing conservation efforts on evolutionarily
distinct and globally endangered species (EDGE).
NOS: Issues such as which species should be prioritized for conservation efforts have complex
ethical, environmental, political, social, cultural and economic implications and therefore need to be
debated.
Note: There is no additional higher level content in A4.2.
Linking questions
• In what ways is diversity a property of life at all levels of biological organization?
• How does variation contribute to the stability of ecological communities?
B1.1 Carbohydrates and lipids
Form and function—Molecules
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Syllabus
Standard level and higher level: 4 hours
Guiding questions
• In what ways do variations in form allow diversity of function in carbohydrates and lipids?
• How do carbohydrates and lipids compare as energy storage compounds?
SL and HL
B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds
upon which life is based
Students should understand the nature of a covalent bond. Students should also understand that
a carbon atom can form up to four single bonds or a combination of single and double bonds with
other carbon atoms or atoms of other non-metallic elements. Include among the diversity of carbon
compounds examples of molecules with branched or unbranched chains and single or multiple
rings.
NOS: Students should understand that scientic conventions are based on international agreement
(SI metric unit prexes “kilo”, “centi”, “milli”, “micro” and “nano”).
B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a
polymer
Students should be familiar with examples of polysaccharides, polypeptides and nucleic acids.
B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions
Water molecules are split to provide the -H and -OH groups that are incorporated to produce
monomers, hence the name of this type of reaction.
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B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides
Students should be able to recognize pentoses and hexoses as monosaccharides from molecular
diagrams showing them in the ring forms. Use glucose as an example of the link between the
properties of a monosaccharide and how it is used, emphasizing solubility, transportability,
chemical stability and the yield of energy from oxidation as properties.
B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds
Include the compact nature of starch in plants and glycogen in animals due to coiling and
branching during polymerization, the relative insolubility of these compounds due to large
molecular size and the relative ease of adding or removing alpha-glucose monomers by
condensation and hydrolysis to build or mobilize energy stores.
B1.1.6—Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide in plants
Include the alternating orientation of beta-glucose monomers, giving straight chains that can be
grouped in bundles and cross-linked with hydrogen bonds.
B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition
Include ABO antigens as an example.
B1.1.8—Hydrophobic properties of lipids
Lipids are substances in living organisms that dissolve in non-polar solvents but are only sparingly
soluble in aqueous solvents. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes and steroids.
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B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions
One glycerol molecule can link three fatty acid molecules or two fatty acid molecules and one
phosphate group.
B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids
Include the number of double carbon (C=C) bonds and how this affects melting point. Relate this to
the prevalence of different types of fatty acids in oils and fats used for energy storage in plants and
endotherms respectively.
B1.1.11—Triglycerides in adipose tissues for energy storage and thermal insulation
Students should understand that the properties of triglycerides make them suited to long-term
energy storage functions. Students should be able to relate the use of triglycerides as thermal
insulators to body temperature and habitat.
B1.1.12—Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic
regions
Students should use and understand the term “amphipathic”.
B1.1.13—Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer
Include oestradiol and testosterone as examples. Students should be able to identify compounds as
steroids from molecular diagrams.
Note: There is no additional higher level content in B1.1.
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Linking questions
• How can compounds synthesized by living organisms accumulate and become carbon sinks?
• What are the roles of oxidation and reduction in biological systems?
B1.2 Proteins
Form and function—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What is the relationship between amino acid sequence and the diversity in form and function of
proteins?
• How are protein molecules affected by their chemical and physical environments?
SL and HL
B1.2.1—Generalized structure of an amino acid
Students should be able to draw a diagram of a generalized amino acid showing the alpha carbon
atom with amine group, carboxyl group, R-group and hydrogen attached.
B1.2.2—Condensation reactions forming dipeptides and longer chains of amino acids
Students should be able to write the word equation for this reaction and draw a generalized
dipeptide after modelling the reaction with molecular models.
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B1.2.3—Dietary requirements for amino acids
Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized and must be obtained from food. Non-essential amino
acids can be made from other amino acids. Students are not required to give examples of essential
and non-essential amino acids. Vegan diets require attention to ensure essential amino acids are
consumed.
B1.2.4—Innite variety of possible peptide chains
Include the ideas that 20 amino acids are coded for in the genetic code, that peptide chains can
have any number of amino acids, from a few to thousands, and that amino acids can be in any order.
Students should be familiar with examples of polypeptides.
B1.2.5—Effect of pH and temperature on protein structure
Include the term “denaturation”.
Additional higher level
B1.2.6—Chemical diversity in the R-groups of amino acids as a basis for the immense diversity in
protein form and function
Students are not required to give specic examples of R-groups. However, students should
understand that R-groups determine the properties of assembled polypeptides. Students should
appreciate that R-groups are hydrophobic or hydrophilic and that hydrophilic R-groups are polar or
charged, acidic or basic.
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B1.2.7—Impact of primary structure on the conformation of proteins
Students should understand that the sequence of amino acids and the precise position of each
amino acid within a structure determines the three-dimensional shape of proteins. Proteins
therefore have precise, predictable and repeatable structures, despite their complexity.
B1.2.8—Pleating and coiling of secondary structure of proteins
Include hydrogen bonding in regular positions to stabilize alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets.
B1.2.9—Dependence of tertiary structure on hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulde covalent bonds
and hydrophobic interactions
Students are not required to name examples of amino acids that participate in these types of
bonding, apart from pairs of cysteines forming disulde bonds. Students should understand that
amine and carboxyl groups in R-groups can become positively or negatively charged by binding or
dissociation of hydrogen ions and that they can then participate in ionic bonding.
B1.2.10—Effect of polar and non-polar amino acids on tertiary structure of proteins
In proteins that are soluble in water, hydrophobic amino acids are clustered in the core of globular
proteins. Integral proteins have regions with hydrophobic amino acids, helping them to embed in
membranes.
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B1.2.11—Quaternary structure of non-conjugated and conjugated proteins
Include insulin and collagen as examples of non-conjugated proteins and haemoglobin as an
example of a conjugated protein.
NOS: Technology allows imaging of structures that would be impossible to observe with the
unaided senses. For example, cryogenic electron microscopy has allowed imaging of single-protein
molecules and their interactions with other molecules.
B1.2.12—Relationship of form and function in globular and brous proteins
Students should know the difference in shape between globular and brous proteins and
understand that their shapes make them suitable for specic functions. Use insulin and collagen to
exemplify how form and function are related.
Linking questions
• How do abiotic factors inuence the form of molecules?
• What is the relationship between the genome and the proteome of an organism?
B2.1 Membranes and membrane transport
Form and function—Cells
Standard level and higher level: 4 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• How do molecules of lipid and protein assemble into biological membranes?
• What determines whether a substance can pass through a biological membrane?
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Syllabus
SL and HL
B2.1.1—Lipid bilayers as the basis of cell membranes
Phospholipids and other amphipathic lipids naturally form continuous sheet-like bilayers in water.
B2.1.2—Lipid bilayers as barriers
Students should understand that the hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains that form the core of a
membrane have low permeability to large molecules and hydrophilic particles, including ions and
polar molecules, so membranes function as effective barriers between aqueous solutions.
B2.1.3—Simple diffusion across membranes
Use movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules between phospholipids as an example of
simple diffusion across membranes.
B2.1.4—Integral and peripheral proteins in membranes
Emphasize that membrane proteins have diverse structures, locations and functions. Integral
proteins are embedded in one or both of the lipid layers of a membrane. Peripheral proteins are
attached to one or other surface of the bilayer.
B2.1.5—Movement of water molecules across membranes by osmosis and the role of aquaporins
Include an explanation in terms of random movement of particles, impermeability of membranes to
solutes and differences in solute concentration.
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B2.1.6—Channel proteins for facilitated diffusion
Students should understand how the structure of channel proteins makes membranes selectively
permeable by allowing specic ions to diffuse through when channels are open but not when they
are closed.
B2.1.7—Pump proteins for active transport
Students should appreciate that pumps use energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to
transfer specic particles across membranes and therefore that they can move particles against a
concentration gradient.
B2.1.8—Selectivity in membrane permeability
Facilitated diffusion and active transport allow selective permeability in membranes. Permeability
by simple diffusion is not selective and depends only on the size and hydrophilic or hydrophobic
properties of particles.
B.2.1.9—Structure and function of glycoproteins and glycolipids
Limit to carbohydrate structures linked to proteins or lipids in membranes, location of
carbohydrates on the extracellular side of membranes, and roles in cell adhesion and cell
recognition.
B2.1.10—Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
Students should be able to draw a two-dimensional representation of the model and include
peripheral and integral proteins, glycoproteins, phospholipids and cholesterol. They should also be
able to indicate hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.
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Additional higher level
B2.1.11—Relationships between fatty acid composition of lipid bilayers and their uidity
Unsaturated fatty acids in lipid bilayers have lower melting points, so membranes are uid and
therefore exible at temperatures experienced by a cell. Saturated fatty acids have higher melting
points and make membranes stronger at higher temperatures. Students should be familiar with an
example of adaptations in membrane composition in relation to habitat.
B2.1.12—Cholesterol and membrane uidity in animal cells
Students should understand the position of cholesterol molecules in membranes and also that
cholesterol acts as a modulator (adjustor) of membrane uidity, stabilizing membranes at higher
temperatures and preventing stiffening at lower temperatures.
B2.1.13—Membrane uidity and the fusion and formation of vesicles
Include the terms “endocytosis” and “exocytosis”, and examples of each process.
B2.1.14—Gated ion channels in neurons
Include nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as an example of a neurotransmitter-gated ion channel
and sodium and potassium channels as examples of voltage-gated channels.
B2.1.15—Sodium–potassium pumps as an example of exchange transporters
Include the importance of these pumps in generating membrane potentials.
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B2.1.16—Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters as an example of indirect active transport
Include the importance of these cotransporters in glucose absorption by cells in the small intestine
and glucose reabsorption by cells in the nephron.
B2.1.17—Adhesion of cells to form tissues
Include the term “cell-adhesion molecules” (CAMs) and the understanding that different forms of
CAM are used for different types of cell–cell junction. Students are not required to have detailed
knowledge of the different CAMs or junctions.
Linking questions
• What processes depend on active transport in biological systems?
• What are the roles of cell membranes in the interaction of a cell with its environment?
B2.2 Organelles and compartmentalization
Form and function—Cells
Standard level and higher level: 1 hour
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• How are organelles in cells adapted to their functions?
• What are the advantages of compartmentalization in cells?
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Syllabus
SL and HL
B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specic functions
Students should understand that the cell wall, cytoskeleton and cytoplasm are not considered
organelles, and that nuclei, vesicles, ribosomes and the plasma membrane are.
NOS: Students should recognize that progress in science often follows development of new
techniques. For example, study of the function of individual organelles became possible when
ultracentrifuges had been invented and methods of using them for cell fractionation had been
developed.
B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments
Limit to separation of the activities of gene transcription and translation—post-transcriptional
modication of mRNA can happen before the mRNA meets ribosomes in the cytoplasm. In
prokaryotes this is not possible—mRNA may immediately meet ribosomes.
B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells
Include concentration of metabolites and enzymes and the separation of incompatible biochemical
processes. Include lysosomes and phagocytic vacuoles as examples.
Additional higher level
B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration
Include these adaptations: a double membrane with a small volume of intermembrane space, large
surface area of cristae and compartmentalization of enzymes and substrates of the Krebs cycle in
the matrix.
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B2.2.5—Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis
Include these adaptations: the large surface area of thylakoid membranes with photosystems, small
volumes of uid inside thylakoids, and compartmentalization of enzymes and substrates of the
Calvin cycle in the stroma.
B2.2.6—Functional benets of the double membrane of the nucleus
Include the need for pores in the nuclear membrane and for the nucleus membrane to break into
vesicles during mitosis and meiosis.
B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Contrast the synthesis by free ribosomes of proteins for retention in the cell with synthesis by
membrane-bound ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum of proteins for transport within
the cell and secretion.
B2.2.8—Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus
Limit to the roles of the Golgi apparatus in processing and secretion of protein.
B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells
Include the role of clathrin in the formation of vesicles.
Linking questions
• What are examples of structure–function correlations at each level of biological organization?
• What separation techniques are used by biologists?
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Syllabus
B2.3 Cell specialization
Form and function—Cells
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 1 hours
Guiding questions
• What are the roles of stem cells in multicellular organisms?
• How are differentiated cells adapted to their specialized functions?
SL and HL
B2.3.1—Production of unspecialized cells following fertilization and their development into
specialized cells by differentiation
Students should understand the impact of gradients on gene expression within an early-stage
embryo.
B2.3.2—Properties of stem cells
Limit to the capacity of cells to divide endlessly and differentiate along different pathways.
B2.3.3—Location and function of stem cell niches in adult humans
Limit to two example locations and the understanding that the stem cell niche can maintain the
cells or promote their proliferation and differentiation. Bone marrow and hair follicles are suitable
examples.
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B2.3.4—Differences between totipotent, pluripotent and multipotent stem cells
Students should appreciate that cells in early-stage animal embryos are totipotent but soon
become pluripotent, whereas stem cells in adult tissue such as bone marrow are multipotent.
B2.3.5—Cell size as an aspect of specialization
Consider the range of cell size in humans including male and female gametes, red and white blood
cells, neurons and striated muscle bres.
B2.3.6—Surface area-to-volume ratios and constraints on cell size
Students should understand the mathematical ratio between volume and surface area and that
exchange of materials across a cell surface depends on its area whereas the need for exchange
depends on cell volume.
NOS: Students should recognize that models are simplied versions of complex systems. In this
case, surface-area-to-volume relationship can be modelled using cubes of different side lengths.
Although the cubes have a simpler shape than real organisms, scale factors operate in the same
way.
Additional higher level
B2.3.7—Adaptations to increase surface area-to-volume ratios of cells
Include attening of cells, microvilli and invagination. Use erythrocytes and proximal convoluted
tubule cells in the nephron as examples.
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B2.3.8—Adaptations of type I and type II pneumocytes in alveoli
Limit to extreme thinness to reduce distances for diffusion in type I pneumocytes and the presence
of many secretory vesicles (lamellar bodies) in the cytoplasm that discharge surfactant to the
alveolar lumen in type II pneumocytes. Alveolar epithelium is an example of a tissue where more
than one cell type is present, because different adaptations are required for the overall function of
the tissue.
B2.3.9—Adaptations of cardiac muscle cells and striated muscle bres
Include the presence of contractile myobrils in both muscle types and hypotheses for these
differences: branching (branched or unbranched), and length and numbers of nuclei. Also include a
discussion of whether a striated muscle bre is a cell.
B2.3.10—Adaptations of sperm and egg cells
Limit to gametes in humans.
Linking questions
• What are the advantages of small size and large size in biological systems?
• How do cells become differentiated?
B3.1 Gas exchange
Form and function—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 1 hour
Guiding questions
• How are multicellular organisms adapted to carry out gas exchange?
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Syllabus
• What are the similarities and differences in gas exchange between a owering plant and a
mammal?
SL and HL
B3.1.1—Gas exchange as a vital function in all organisms
Students should appreciate that the challenges become greater as organisms increase in size
because surface area-to-volume ratio decreases with increasing size, and the distance from the
centre of an organism to its exterior increases.
B3.1.2—Properties of gas-exchange surfaces
Include permeability, thin tissue layer, moisture and large surface area.
B3.1.3—Maintenance of concentration gradients at exchange surfaces in animals
Include dense networks of blood vessels, continuous blood ow, and ventilation with air for lungs
and with water for gills.
B3.1.4—Adaptations of mammalian lungs for gas exchange
Limit to the alveolar lungs of a mammal. Adaptations should include the presence of surfactant, a
branched network of bronchioles, extensive capillary beds and a high surface area.
B3.1.5—Ventilation of the lungs
Students should understand the role of the diaphragm, intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles and
ribs.
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B3.1.6—Measurement of lung volumes
Application of skills: Students should make measurements to determine tidal volume, vital
capacity, and inspiratory and expiratory reserves.
B3.1.7—Adaptations for gas exchange in leaves
Leaf structure adaptations should include the waxy cuticle, epidermis, air spaces, spongy mesophyll,
stomatal guard cells and veins.
B3.1.8—Distribution of tissues in a leaf
Students should be able to draw and label a plan diagram to show the distribution of tissues in a
transverse section of a dicotyledonous leaf.
B3.1.9—Transpiration as a consequence of gas exchange in a leaf
Students should be aware of the factors affecting the rate of transpiration.
B3.1.10—Stomatal density
Application of skills: Students should use micrographs or perform leaf casts to determine stomatal
density.
NOS: Reliability of quantitative data is increased by repeating measurements. In this case, repeated
counts of the number of stomata visible in the eld of view at high power illustrate the variability of
biological material and the need for replicate trials.
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Additional higher level
B3.1.11—Adaptations of foetal and adult haemoglobin for the transport of oxygen
Include cooperative binding of oxygen to haem groups and allosteric binding of carbon dioxide.
B3.1.12—Bohr shift
Students should understand how an increase in carbon dioxide causes increased dissociation of
oxygen and the benets of this for actively respiring tissues.
B3.1.13—Oxygen dissociation curves as a means of representing the affinity of haemoglobin for
oxygen at different oxygen concentrations
Explain the S-shaped form of the curve in terms of cooperative binding.
Linking questions
• How do multicellular organisms solve the problem of access to materials for all their cells?
• What is the relationship between gas exchange and metabolic processes in cells?
B3.2 Transport
Form and function—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What adaptations facilitate transport of uids in animals and plants?
• What are the differences and similarities between transport in animals and plants?
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SL and HL
B3.2.1—Adaptations of capillaries for exchange of materials between blood and the internal or
external environment
Adaptations should include a large surface area due to branching and narrow diameters, thin walls,
and fenestrations in some capillaries where exchange needs to be particularly rapid.
B3.2.2—Structure of arteries and veins
Application of skills: Students should be able to distinguish arteries and veins in micrographs from
the structure of a vessel wall and its thickness relative to the diameter of the lumen.
B3.2.3—Adaptations of arteries for the transport of blood away from the heart
Students should understand how the layers of muscle and elastic tissue in the walls of arteries help
them to withstand and maintain high blood pressures.
B3.2.4—Measurement of pulse rates
Application of skills: Students should be able to determine heart rate by feeling the carotid or
radial pulse with ngertips. Traditional methods could be compared with digital ones.
B3.2.5—Adaptations of veins for the return of blood to the heart
Include valves to prevent backow and the exibility of the wall to allow it to be compressed by
muscle action.
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B3.2.6—Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries
Application of skills: Students should be able to evaluate epidemiological data relating to the
incidence of coronary heart disease.
NOS: Students should understand that correlation coefficients quantify correlations between
variables and allow the strength of the relationship to be assessed. Low correlation coefficients or
lack of any correlation could provide evidence against a hypothesis, but even strong correlations
such as that between saturated fat intake and coronary heart disease do not prove a causal link.
B3.2.7—Transport of water from roots to leaves during transpiration
Students should understand that loss of water by transpiration from cell walls in leaf cells causes
water to be drawn out of xylem vessels and through cell walls by capillary action, generating
tension (negative pressure potentials). It is this tension that draws water up in the xylem. Cohesion
ensures a continuous column of water.
B3.2.8—Adaptations of xylem vessels for transport of water
Include the lack of cell contents and incomplete or absent end walls for unimpeded ow, lignied
walls to withstand tensions, and pits for entry and exit of water.
B3.2.9—Distribution of tissues in a transverse section of the stem of a dicotyledonous plant
Application of skills: Students should be able to draw plan diagrams from micrographs to identify
the relative positions of vascular bundles, xylem, phloem, cortex and epidermis. Students should
annotate the diagram with the main functions of these structures.
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B3.2.10—Distribution of tissues in a transverse section of the root of a dicotyledonous plant
Application of skills: Students should be able to draw diagrams from micrographs to identify
vascular bundles, xylem and phloem, cortex and epidermis.
Additional higher level
B3.2.11—Release and reuptake of tissue uid in capillaries
Tissue uid is formed by pressure ltration of plasma in capillaries. This is promoted by the higher
pressure of blood from arterioles. Lower pressure in venules allows tissue uid to drain back into
capillaries.
B3.2.12—Exchange of substances between tissue uid and cells in tissues
Discuss the composition of plasma and tissue uid.
B3.2.13—Drainage of excess tissue uid into lymph ducts
Limit to the presence of valves and thin walls with gaps in lymph ducts and return of lymph to the
blood circulation.
B3.2.14—Differences between the single circulation of bony sh and the double circulation of
mammals
Simple circuit diagrams are sufficient to show the sequence of organs through which blood passes.
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B3.2.15—Adaptations of the mammalian heart for delivering pressurized blood to the arteries
Include form–function adaptations of these structures: cardiac muscle, pacemaker, atria, ventricles,
atrioventricular and semilunar valves, septum and coronary vessels. Students should be able to
identify these features on a diagram of the heart in the frontal plane and trace the unidirectional
ow of blood from named veins to arteries.
B3.2.16—Stages in the cardiac cycle
Application of skills: Students should understand the sequence of events in the left side of the
heart that follow the initiation of the heartbeat by the sinoatrial node (the “pacemaker”). Students
should be able to interpret systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements from data and
graphs.
B3.2.17—Generation of root pressure in xylem vessels by active transport of mineral ions
Root pressure is positive pressure potential, generated to cause water movement in roots and
stems when transport in xylem due to transpiration is insufficient, for example when high humidity
prevents transpiration or in spring, before leaves on deciduous plants have opened.
B3.2.18—Adaptations of phloem sieve tubes and companion cells for translocation of sap
Include sieve plates, reduced cytoplasm and organelles, no nucleus for sieve tube elements and
presence of many mitochondria for companion cells and plasmodesmata between them. Students
should appreciate how these adaptations ease the ow of sap and enhance loading of carbon
compounds into phloem sieve tubes at sources and unloading of them at sinks.
Linking questions
• How do pressure differences contribute to the movement of materials in an organism?
• What processes happen in cycles at each level of biological organization?
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B3.3 Muscle and motility
Form and function—Organisms
Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• How do muscles contract and cause movement?
• What are the benets to animals of having muscle tissue?
Additional higher level
Note: There is no SL content in B3.3.
B3.3.1—Adaptations for movement as a universal feature of living organisms
Students should explore the concept of movement by considering a range of organisms including
one motile and one sessile species.
B3.3.2—Sliding lament model of muscle contraction
Students should understand how a sarcomere contracts by the sliding of actin and myosin
laments.
B3.3.3—Role of the protein titin and antagonistic muscles in muscle relaxation
The immense protein titin helps sarcomeres to recoil after stretching and also prevents
overstretching. Antagonistic muscles are needed because muscle tissue can only exert force when it
contracts.
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B3.3.4—Structure and function of motor units in skeletal muscle
Include the motor neuron, muscle bres and the neuromuscular junctions that connect them.
B3.3.5—Roles of skeletons as anchorage for muscles and as levers
Students should appreciate that arthropods have exoskeletons and vertebrates have
endoskeletons.
B3.3.6—Movement at a synovial joint
Include the roles of bones, cartilage, synovial uid, ligaments, muscles and tendons. Use the human
hip joint as an example. Students are not required to name muscles and ligaments, but they should
be able to name the femur and pelvis.
B3.3.7—Range of motion of a joint
Application of skills: Students should compare the range of motion of a joint in a number
of dimensions. Students should measure joint angles using computer analysis of images or a
goniometer.
B3.3.8—Internal and external intercostal muscles as an example of antagonistic muscle action to
facilitate internal body movements
Students should appreciate that the different orientations of muscle bres in the internal and
external layers of intercostal muscles mean that they move the ribcage in opposite directions and
that, when one of these layers contracts, it stretches the other, storing potential energy in the
sarcomere protein titin.
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B3.3.9—Reasons for locomotion
Include foraging for food, escaping from danger, searching for a mate and migration, with at least
one example of each.
B3.3.10—Adaptations for swimming in marine mammals
Include streamlining, adaptation of limbs to form ippers and of the tail to form a uke with up-
and-down movement, and changes to the airways to allow periodic breathing between dives.
Linking questions
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of dispersal of offspring from their parents?
• In what ways does locomotion contribute to evolution within living organisms?
B4.1 Adaptation to environment
Form and function—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• How are the adaptations and habitats of species related?
• What causes the similarities between ecosystems within a terrestrial biome?
SL and HL
B4.1.1—Habitat as the place in which a community, species, population or organism lives
A description of the habitat of a species can include both geographical and physical locations, and
the type of ecosystem.
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B4.1.2—Adaptations of organisms to the abiotic environment of their habitat
Include a grass species adapted to sand dunes and a tree species adapted to mangrove swamps.
B4.1.3—Abiotic variables affecting species distribution
Include examples of abiotic variables for both plants and animals. Students should understand that
the adaptations of a species give it a range of tolerance.
B4.1.4—Range of tolerance of a limiting factor
Application of skills: Students should use transect data to correlate the distribution of plant or
animal species with an abiotic variable. Students should collect this data themselves from a natural
or semi-natural habitat. Semi-natural habitats have been inuenced by humans but are dominated
by wild rather than cultivated species. Sensors could be used to measure abiotic variables such as
temperature, light intensity and soil pH.
B4.1.5—Conditions required for coral reef formation
Coral reefs are used here as an example of a marine ecosystem. Factors should include water depth,
pH, salinity, clarity and temperature.
B4.1.6—Abiotic factors as the determinants of terrestrial biome distribution
Students should understand that, for any given temperature and rainfall pattern, one natural
ecosystem type is likely to develop. Illustrate this using a graph showing the distribution of biomes
with these two climatic variables on the horizontal and vertical axes.
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B4.1.7—Biomes as groups of ecosystems with similar communities due to similar abiotic conditions
and convergent evolution
Students should be familiar with the climate conditions that characterize the tropical forest,
temperate forest, taiga, grassland, tundra and hot desert biomes.
B4.1.8—Adaptations to life in hot deserts and tropical rainforest
Include examples of adaptations in named species of plants and animals.
Note: There is no additional higher level content in B4.1.
Linking questions
• What are the properties of the components of biological systems?
• Is light essential for life?
B4.2 Ecological niches
Form and function—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 4 hours
Guiding questions
• What are the advantages of specialized modes of nutrition to living organisms?
• How are the adaptations of a species related to its niche in an ecosystem?
SL and HL
B4.2.1—Ecological niche as the role of a species in an ecosystem
Include the biotic and abiotic interactions that inuence growth, survival and reproduction,
including how a species obtains food.
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B4.2.2—Differences between organisms that are obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes and
obligate aerobes
Limit to the tolerance of these groups of organisms to the presence or absence of oxygen gas in
their environment.
B4.2.3—Photosynthesis as the mode of nutrition in plants, algae and several groups of
photosynthetic prokaryotes
Details of different types of photosynthesis in prokaryotes are not required.
B4.2.4—Holozoic nutrition in animals
Students should understand that all animals are heterotrophic. In holozoic nutrition food is
ingested, digested internally, absorbed and assimilated.
B4.2.5—Mixotrophic nutrition in some protists
Euglena is a well-known freshwater example of a protist that is both autotrophic and heterotrophic,
but many other mixotrophic species are part of oceanic plankton. Students should understand that
some mixotrophs are obligate and others are facultative.
B4.2.6—Saprotrophic nutrition in some fungi and bacteria
Fungi and bacteria with this mode of heterotrophic nutrition can be referred to as decomposers.
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B4.2.7—Diversity of nutrition in archaea
Students should understand that archaea are one of the three domains of life and appreciate that
they are very varied in how they obtain energy for ATP production. Students are not required to
name examples.
B4.2.8—Relationship between dentition and the diet of omnivorous and herbivorous representative
members of the family Hominidae
Application of skills: Students should examine models or digital collections of skulls to infer diet
from the anatomical features. Examples may include Homo sapiens (humans), Homo oresiensis and
Paranthropus robustus.
NOS: Deductions can be made from theories. In this example, observation of living mammals led
to theories relating dentition to herbivorous or carnivorous diets. These theories allowed the diet of
extinct organisms to be deduced.
B4.2.9—Adaptations of herbivores for feeding on plants and of plants for resisting herbivory
For herbivore adaptations, include piercing and chewing mouthparts of leaf-eating insects. Plants
resist herbivory using thorns and other physical structures. Plants also produce toxic secondary
compounds in seeds and leaves. Some animals have metabolic adaptations for detoxifying these
toxins.
B4.2.10—Adaptations of predators for nding, catching and killing prey and of prey animals for
resisting predation
Students should be aware of chemical, physical and behavioural adaptations in predators and prey.
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B4.2.11—Adaptations of plant form for harvesting light
Include examples from forest ecosystems to illustrate how plants in forests use different strategies
to reach light sources, including trees that reach the canopy, lianas, epiphytes growing on branches
of trees, strangler epiphytes, shade-tolerant shrubs and herbs growing on the forest oor.
B4.2.12—Fundamental and realized niches
Students should appreciate that fundamental niche is the potential of a species based on
adaptations and tolerance limits and that realized niche is the actual extent of a species niche when
in competition with other species.
B4.2.13—Competitive exclusion and the uniqueness of ecological niches
Include elimination of one of the competing species or the restriction of both to a part of their
fundamental niche as possible outcomes of competition between two species.
Note: There is no additional higher level content in B4.2.
Linking questions
• What are the relative advantages of specicity and versatility?
• For each form of nutrition, what are the unique inputs, processes and outputs?
C1.1 Enzymes and metabolism
Interaction and interdependence—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
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Guiding questions
• In what ways do enzymes interact with other molecules?
• What are the interdependent components of metabolism?
SL and HL
C1.1.1—Enzymes as catalysts
Students should understand the benet of increasing rates of reaction in cells.
C1.1.2—Role of enzymes in metabolism
Students should understand that metabolism is the complex network of interdependent and
interacting chemical reactions occurring in living organisms. Because of enzyme specicity, many
different enzymes are required by living organisms, and control over metabolism can be exerted
through these enzymes.
C1.1.3—Anabolic and catabolic reactions
Examples of anabolism should include the formation of macromolecules from monomers by
condensation reactions including protein synthesis, glycogen formation and photosynthesis.
Examples of catabolism should include hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers in digestion
and oxidation of substrates in respiration.
C1.1.4—Enzymes as globular proteins with an active site for catalysis
Include that the active site is composed of a few amino acids only, but interactions between amino
acids within the overall three-dimensional structure of the enzyme ensure that the active site has
the necessary properties for catalysis.
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C1.1.5—Interactions between substrate and active site to allow induced-t binding
Students should recognize that both substrate and enzymes change shape when binding occurs.
C1.1.6—Role of molecular motion and substrate-active site collisions in enzyme catalysis
Movement is needed for a substrate molecule and an active site to come together. Sometimes
large substrate molecules are immobilized while sometimes enzymes can be immobilized by being
embedded in membranes.
C1.1.7—Relationships between the structure of the active site, enzyme–substrate specicity and
denaturation
Students should be able to explain these relationships.
C1.1.8—Effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme activity
The effects should be explained with reference to collision theory and denaturation.
Application of skills: Students should be able to interpret graphs showing the effects.
NOS: Students should be able to describe the relationship between variables as shown in graphs.
They should recognize that generalized sketches of relationships are examples of models in biology.
Models in the form of sketch graphs can be evaluated using results from enzyme experiments.
C1.1.9—Measurements in enzyme-catalysed reactions
Application of skills: Students should determine reaction rates through experimentation and
using secondary data.
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C1.1.10—Effect of enzymes on activation energy
Application of skills: Students should appreciate that energy is required to break bonds within
the substrate and that there is an energy yield when bonds are made to form the products of an
enzyme-catalysed reaction. Students should be able to interpret graphs showing this effect.
Additional higher level
C1.1.11—Intracellular and extracellular enzyme-catalysed reactions
Include glycolysis and the Krebs cycle as intracellular examples and chemical digestion in the gut as
an extracellular example.
C1.1.12—Generation of heat energy by the reactions of metabolism
Include the idea that heat generation is inevitable because metabolic reactions are not 100%
efficient in energy transfer. Mammals, birds and some other animals depend on this heat
production for maintenance of constant body temperature.
C1.1.13—Cyclical and linear pathways in metabolism
Use glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the Calvin cycle as examples.
C1.1.14—Allosteric sites and non-competitive inhibition
Students should appreciate that only specic substances can bind to an allosteric site. Binding
causes interactions within an enzyme that lead to conformational changes, which alter the active
site enough to prevent catalysis. Binding is reversible.
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C1.1.15—Competitive inhibition as a consequence of an inhibitor binding reversibly to an active
site
Use statins as an example of competitive inhibitors. Include the difference between competitive
and non-competitive inhibition in the interactions between substrate and inhibitor and therefore in
the effect of substrate concentration.
C1.1.16—Regulation of metabolic pathways by feedback inhibition
Use the pathway that produces isoleucine as an example of an end product acting as an inhibitor.
C1.1.17—Mechanism-based inhibition as a consequence of chemical changes to the active site
caused by the irreversible binding of an inhibitor
Use penicillin as an example. Include the change to transpeptidases that confers resistance to
penicillin.
Linking questions
• What are examples of structure–function relationships in biological macromolecules?
• What biological processes depend on differences or changes in concentration?
C1.2 Cell respiration
Interaction and interdependence—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• What are the roles of hydrogen and oxygen in the release of energy in cells?
• How is energy distributed and used inside cells?
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SL and HL
C1.2.1—ATP as the molecule that distributes energy within cells
Include the full name of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and that it is a nucleotide. Students should
appreciate the properties of ATP that make it suitable for use as the energy currency within cells.
C1.2.2—Life processes within cells that ATP supplies with energy
Include active transport across membranes, synthesis of macromolecules (anabolism), movement of
the whole cell or cell components such as chromosomes.
C1.2.3—Energy transfers during interconversions between ATP and ADP
Students should know that energy is released by hydrolysis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate, but energy is required to synthesize ATP from ADP and
phosphate. Students are not required to know the quantity of energy in kilojoules, but students
should appreciate that it is sufficient for many tasks in the cell.
C1.2.4—Cell respiration as a system for producing ATP within the cell using energy released from
carbon compounds
Students should appreciate that glucose and fatty acids are the principal substrates for cell
respiration but that a wide range of carbon/organic compounds can be used. Students should be
able to distinguish between the processes of cell respiration and gas exchange.
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C1.2.5—Differences between anaerobic and aerobic cell respiration in humans
Include which respiratory substrates can be used, whether oxygen is required, relative yields of ATP,
types of waste product and where the reactions occur in a cell. Students should be able to write
simple word equations for both types of respiration, with glucose as the substrate. Students should
appreciate that mitochondria are required for aerobic, but not anaerobic, respiration.
C1.2.6—Variables affecting the rate of cell respiration
Application of skills: Students should make measurements allowing for the determination of the
rate of cell respiration. Students should also be able to calculate the rate of cellular respiration from
raw data that they have generated experimentally or from secondary data.
Additional higher level
C1.2.7—Role of NAD as a carrier of hydrogen and oxidation by removal of hydrogen during cell
respiration
Students should understand that oxidation is a process of electron loss, so when hydrogen with
an electron is removed from a substrate (dehydrogenation) the substrate has been oxidized. They
should appreciate that redox reactions involve both oxidation and reduction, and that NAD is
reduced when it accepts hydrogen.
C1.2.8—Conversion of glucose to pyruvate by stepwise reactions in glycolysis with a net yield of ATP
and reduced NAD
Include phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation. Students are not required to know the
names of the intermediates, but students should know that each step in the pathway is catalysed by
a different enzyme.
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C1.2.9—Conversion of pyruvate to lactate as a means of regenerating NAD in anaerobic cell
respiration
Regeneration of NAD allows glycolysis to continue, with a net yield of two ATP molecules per
molecule of glucose.
C1.2.10—Anaerobic cell respiration in yeast and its use in brewing and baking
Students should understand that the pathways of anaerobic respiration are the same in humans
and yeasts apart from the regeneration of NAD using pyruvate and therefore the nal products.
C1.2.11—Oxidation and decarboxylation of pyruvate as a link reaction in aerobic cell respiration
Students should understand that lipids and carbohydrates are metabolized to form acetyl groups
(2C), which are transferred by coenzyme A to the Krebs cycle.
C1.2.12—Oxidation and decarboxylation of acetyl groups in the Krebs cycle with a yield of ATP and
reduced NAD
Students are required to name only the intermediates citrate (6C) and oxaloacetate (4C). Students
should appreciate that citrate is produced by transfer of an acetyl group to oxaloacetate and that
oxaloacetate is regenerated by the reactions of the Krebs cycle, including four oxidations and two
decarboxylations. They should also appreciate that the oxidations are dehydrogenation reactions.
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C1.2.13—Transfer of energy by reduced NAD to the electron transport chain in the mitochondrion
Energy is transferred when a pair of electrons is passed to the rst carrier in the chain, converting
reduced NAD back to NAD. Students should understand that reduced NAD comes from glycolysis,
the link reaction and the Krebs cycle.
C1.2.14—Generation of a proton gradient by ow of electrons along the electron transport chain
Students are not required to know the names of protein complexes.
C1.2.15—Chemiosmosis and the synthesis of ATP in the mitochondrion
Students should understand how ATP synthase couples release of energy from the proton gradient
with phosphorylation of ADP.
C1.2.16—Role of oxygen as terminal electron acceptor in aerobic cell respiration
Oxygen accepts electrons from the electron transport chain and protons from the matrix of the
mitochondrion, producing metabolic water and allowing continued ow of electrons along the
chain.
C.1.2.17—Differences between lipids and carbohydrates as respiratory substrates
Include the higher yield of energy per gram of lipids, due to less oxygen and more oxidizable
hydrogen and carbon. Also include glycolysis and anaerobic respiration occurring only if
carbohydrate is the substrate, with 2C acetyl groups from the breakdown of fatty acids entering the
pathway via acetyl-CoA (acetyl coenzyme A).
Linking questions
• In what forms is energy stored in living organisms?
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• What are the consequences of respiration for ecosystems?
C1.3 Photosynthesis
Interaction and interdependence—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• How is energy from sunlight absorbed and used in photosynthesis?
• How do abiotic factors interact with photosynthesis?
SL and HL
C1.3.1—Transformation of light energy to chemical energy when carbon compounds are produced
in photosynthesis
This energy transformation supplies most of the chemical energy needed for life processes in
ecosystems.
C1.3.2—Conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose in photosynthesis using hydrogen obtained by
splitting water
Students should be able to write a simple word equation for photosynthesis, with glucose as the
product.
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C1.3.3—Oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis in plants, algae and cyanobacteria
Students should know the simple word equation for photosynthesis. They should know that the
oxygen produced by photosynthesis comes from the splitting of water.
C1.3.4—Separation and identication of photosynthetic pigments by chromatography
Application of skills: Students should be able to calculate values from the results of
chromatographic separation of photosynthetic pigments and identify them by colour and by
values. Thin-layer chromatography or paper chromatography can be used.
C1.3.5—Absorption of specic wavelengths of light by photosynthetic pigments
Include excitation of electrons within a pigment molecule, transformation of light energy to
chemical energy and the reason that only some wavelengths are absorbed. Students should be
familiar with absorption spectra. Include both wavelengths and colours of light in the horizontal
axis of absorption spectra.
C1.3.6—Similarities and differences of absorption and action spectra
Application of skills: Students should be able to determine rates of photosynthesis from data for
oxygen production and carbon dioxide consumption for varying wavelengths. They should also be
able to plot this data to make an action spectrum.
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C1.3.7—Techniques for varying concentrations of carbon dioxide, light intensity or temperature
experimentally to investigate the effects of limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis
Application of skills: Students should be able to suggest hypotheses for the effects of these
limiting factors and to test these through experimentation.
NOS: Hypotheses are provisional explanations that require repeated testing. During scientic
research, hypotheses can either be based on theories and then tested in an experiment or be based
on evidence from an experiment already carried out. Students can decide in this case whether to
suggest hypotheses for the effects of limiting factors on photosynthesis before or after performing
their experiments. Students should be able to identify the dependent and independent variable in
an experiment.
C1.3.8—Carbon dioxide enrichment experiments as a means of predicting future rates of
photosynthesis and plant growth
Include enclosed greenhouse experiments and free-air carbon dioxide enrichment experiments
(FACE).
NOS: Finding methods for careful control of variables is part of experimental design. This may be
easier in the laboratory but some experiments can only be done in the eld. Field experiments
include those performed in natural ecosystems. Students should be able to identify a controlled
variable in an experiment.
Additional higher level
C1.3.9—Photosystems as arrays of pigment molecules that can generate and emit excited electrons
Students should know that photosystems are always located in membranes and that they occur
in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic eukaryotes. Photosystems should be
described as molecular arrays of chlorophyll and accessory pigments with a special chlorophyll as
the reaction centre from which an excited electron is emitted.
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C1.3.10—Advantages of the structured array of different types of pigment molecules in a
photosystem
Students should appreciate that a single molecule of chlorophyll or any other pigment would not
be able to perform any part of photosynthesis.
C1.3.11—Generation of oxygen by the photolysis of water in photosystem II
Emphasize that the protons and electrons generated by photolysis are used in photosynthesis
but oxygen is a waste product. The advent of oxygen generation by photolysis had immense
consequences for living organisms and geological processes on Earth.
C1.3.12—ATP production by chemiosmosis in thylakoids
Include the proton gradient, ATP synthase, and proton pumping by the chain of electron
carriers. Students should know that electrons are sourced, either from photosystem I in cyclic
photophosphorylation or from photosystem II in non-cyclic photophosphorylation, and then used
in ATP production.
C1.3.13—Reduction of NADP by photosystem I
Students should appreciate that NADP is reduced by accepting two electrons that have come from
photosystem I. It also accepts a hydrogen ion that has come from the stroma. The paired terms
“NADP and reduced NADP” or “NADP+ and NADPH” should be paired consistently.
C1.3.14—Thylakoids as systems for performing the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis
Students should appreciate where photolysis of water, synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis and
reduction of NADP occur in a thylakoid.
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C1.3.15—Carbon xation by Rubisco
Students should know the names of the substrates RuBP and CO2 and the product glycerate 3-
phosphate. They should also know that Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and that
high concentrations of it are needed in the stroma of chloroplasts because it works relatively slowly
and is not effective in low carbon dioxide concentrations.
C1.3.16—Synthesis of triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP
Students should know that glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) is converted into triose phosphate (TP)
using NADPH and ATP.
C1.3.17—Regeneration of RuBP in the Calvin cycle using ATP
Students are not required to know details of the individual reactions, but students should
understand that ve molecules of triose phosphate are converted to three molecules of RuBP,
allowing the Calvin cycle to continue. If glucose is the product of photosynthesis, ve-sixths of all
the triose phosphate produced must be converted back to RuBP.
C1.3.18—Synthesis of carbohydrates, amino acids and other carbon compounds using the products
of the Calvin cycle and mineral nutrients
Students are not required to know details of metabolic pathways, but students should understand
that all of the carbon in compounds in photosynthesizing organisms is xed in the Calvin cycle and
that carbon compounds other than glucose are made by metabolic pathways that can be traced
back to an intermediate in the cycle.
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C1.3.19—Interdependence of the light-dependent and light-independent reactions
Students should understand how a lack of light stops light-dependent reactions and how a lack of
CO2 prevents photosystem II from functioning.
Linking questions
• What are the consequences of photosynthesis for ecosystems?
• What are the functions of pigments in living organisms?
C2.1 Chemical signalling
Interaction and interdependence—Cells
Additional higher level: 4 hours
Guiding questions
• How do cells distinguish between the many different signals that they receive?
• What interactions occur inside animal cells in response to chemical signals?
Additional higher level
Note: There is no SL content in C2.1.
C2.1.1—Receptors as proteins with binding sites for specic signalling chemicals
Students should use the term “ligand” for the signalling chemical.
C.2.1.2—Cell signalling by bacteria in quorum sensing
Include the example of bioluminescence in the marine bacterium Vibrio scheri.
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C2.1.3—Hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines and calcium ions as examples of functional
categories of signalling chemicals in animals
Students should appreciate the differences between these categories.
C2.1.4—Chemical diversity of hormones and neurotransmitters
Consider reasons for a wide range of chemical substances being used as signalling chemicals.
Include amines, proteins and steroids as chemical groups of hormones. A range of substances can
serve as neurotransmitters including amino acids, peptides, amines and nitrous oxide.
C2.1.5—Localized and distant effects of signalling molecules
Contrasts can be drawn between hormones transported by the blood system and
neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic gap.
C2.1.6—Differences between transmembrane receptors in a plasma membrane and intracellular
receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus
Include distribution of hydrophilic or hydrophobic amino acids in the receptor and whether the
signalling chemical penetrates the cell or remains outside.
C2.1.7—Initiation of signal transduction pathways by receptors
Students should understand that the binding of a signalling chemical to a receptor sets off a
sequence of responses within the cell.
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C2.1.8—Transmembrane receptors for neurotransmitters and changes to membrane potential
Use the acetylcholine receptor as an example. Binding to a receptor causes the opening of an ion
channel in the receptor that allows positively charged ions to diffuse into the cell. This changes the
voltage across the plasma membrane, which may cause other changes.
C2.1.9—Transmembrane receptors that activate G proteins
Students should understand how G protein-coupled receptors convey a signal into cells. They
should appreciate that there are many such receptors in humans.
C2.1.10—Mechanism of action of epinephrine (adrenaline) receptors
Include the roles of a G protein and cyclic AMP (cAMP) as the second messenger.
NOS: Students should be aware that naming conventions are an example of international
cooperation in science for mutual benet. Both “adrenaline” and “epinephrine” were coined by
researchers and are based on production of the hormone by the adrenal gland; “adrenaline” comes
from Latin ad = at and ren = kidney and “epinephrine” comes from old Greek epi = above and
nephros = kidney, respectively. Unusually, these two terms persist in common use in different parts
of the world.
C2.1.11—Transmembrane receptors with tyrosine kinase activity
Use the protein hormone insulin as an example. Limit this to binding of insulin to a receptor in
the plasma membrane, causing phosphorylation of tyrosine inside a cell. This leads to a sequence
of reactions ending with movement of vesicles containing glucose transporters to the plasma
membrane.
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C2.1.12—Intracellular receptors that affect gene expression
Use the steroid hormones oestradiol, progesterone and testosterone as examples. Students should
understand that the signalling chemical binds to a site on a receptor, activating it. The activated
receptor binds to specic DNA sequences to promote gene transcription.
C2.1.13—Effects of the hormones oestradiol and progesterone on target cells
For oestradiol, limit to cells in the hypothalamus that secrete gonadotropin-releasing hormone. For
progesterone, limit to cells in the endometrium.
C2.1.14—Regulation of cell signalling pathways by positive and negative feedback
Limit to an understanding of the difference between these two forms of regulation and a brief
outline of one example of each.
Linking questions
• What patterns exist in communication in biological systems?
• In what ways is negative feedback evident at all levels of biological organization?
C2.2 Neural signalling
Interaction and interdependence—Cells
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• How are electrical signals generated and moved within neurons?
• How can neurons interact with other cells?
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SL and HL
C2.2.1—Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry electrical impulses
Students should understand that cytoplasm and a nucleus form the cell body of a neuron, with
elongated nerve bres of varying length projecting from it. An axon is a long single bre. Dendrites
are multiple shorter bres. Electrical impulses are conducted along these bres.
C2.2.2—Generation of the resting potential by pumping to establish and maintain concentration
gradients of sodium and potassium ions
Students should understand how energy from ATP drives the pumping of sodium and potassium
ions in opposite directions across the plasma membrane of neurons. They should understand the
concept of a membrane polarization and a membrane potential and also reasons that the resting
potential is negative.
C2.2.3—Nerve impulses as action potentials that are propagated along nerve bres
Students should appreciate that a nerve impulse is electrical because it involves movement of
positively charged ions.
C2.2.4—Variation in the speed of nerve impulses
Compare the speed of transmission in giant axons of squid and smaller non-myelinated nerve bres.
Also compare the speed in myelinated and non-myelinated bres.
Application of skills: Students should be able to describe negative and positive correlations
and apply correlation coefficients as a mathematical tool to determine the strength of these
correlations. Students should also be able to apply the coefficient of determination ( ) to evaluate
the degree to which variation in the independent variable explains the variation in the dependent
variable. For example, conduction speed of nerve impulses is negatively correlated with animal size,
but positively correlated with axon diameter.
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C2.2.5—Synapses as junctions between neurons and between neurons and effector cells
Limit to chemical synapses, not electrical, and these can simply be referred to as synapses. Students
should understand that a signal can only pass in one direction across a typical synapse.
C2.2.6—Release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic membrane
Include uptake of calcium in response to depolarization of a presynaptic membrane and its action
as a signalling chemical inside a neuron.
C2.2.7—Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential
Include diffusion of neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft and binding to transmembrane
receptors. Use acetylcholine as an example. Students should appreciate that this neurotransmitter
exists in many types of synapse including neuromuscular junctions.
Additional higher level
C2.2.8—Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials
Include the action of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels and the need for a threshold
potential to be reached for sodium channels to open.
C2.2.9—Propagation of an action potential along a nerve bre/axon as a result of local currents
Students should understand how diffusion of sodium ions both inside and outside an axon can
cause the threshold potential to be reached.
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C2.2.10—Oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials
Application of skills: Students should interpret the oscilloscope trace in relation to cellular events.
The number of impulses per second can be measured.
C2.2.11—Saltatory conduction in myelinated bres to achieve faster impulses
Students should understand that ion pumps and channels are clustered at nodes of Ranvier and
that an action potential is propagated from node to node.
C2.2.12—Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission
Use neonicotinoids as an example of a pesticide that blocks synaptic transmission, and cocaine as
an example of a drug that blocks reuptake of the neurotransmitter.
C2.2.13—Inhibitory neurotransmitters and generation of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Students should know that the postsynaptic membrane becomes hyperpolarized.
C2.2.14—Summation of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in a postsynaptic
neuron
Multiple presynaptic neurons interact with all-or-nothing consequences in terms of postsynaptic
depolarization.
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C2.2.15—Perception of pain by neurons with free nerve endings in the skin
Students should know that these nerve endings have channels for positively charged ions, which
open in response to a stimulus such as high temperature, acid, or certain chemicals such as
capsaicin in chilli peppers. Entry of positively charged ions causes the threshold potential to be
reached and nerve impulses then pass through the neurons to the brain, where pain is perceived.
C2.2.16—Consciousness as a property that emerges from the interaction of individual neurons in
the brain
Emergent properties such as consciousness are another example of the consequences of
interaction.
Linking questions
• In what ways are biological systems regulated?
• How is the structure of specialized cells related to function?
C3.1 Integration of body systems
Interaction and interdependence—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What are the roles of nerves and hormones in integration of body systems?
• What are the roles of feedback mechanisms in regulation of body systems?
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SL and HL
C3.1.1—System integration
This is a necessary process in living systems. Coordination is needed for component parts of a
system to collectively perform an overall function.
C3.1.2—Cells, tissues, organs and body systems as a hierarchy of subsystems that are integrated in a
multicellular living organism
Students should appreciate that this integration is responsible for emergent properties. For
example, a cheetah becomes an effective predator by integration of its body systems.
C3.1.3—Integration of organs in animal bodies by hormonal and nervous signalling and by
transport of materials and energy
Distinguish between the roles of the nervous system and endocrine system in sending messages.
Using examples, emphasize the role of the blood system in transporting materials between organs.
C3.1.4—The brain as a central information integration organ
Limit to the role of the brain in processing information combined from several inputs and in
learning and memory. Students are not required to know details such as the role of slow-acting
neurotransmitters.
C3.1.5—The spinal cord as an integrating centre for unconscious processes
Students should understand the difference between conscious and unconscious processes.
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C3.1.6—Input to the spinal cord and cerebral hemispheres through sensory neurons
Students should understand that sensory neurons convey messages from receptor cells to the
central nervous system.
C3.1.7—Output from the cerebral hemispheres to muscles through motor neurons
Students should understand that muscles are stimulated to contract.
C3.1.8—Nerves as bundles of nerve bres of both sensory and motor neurons
Use a transverse section of a nerve to show the protective sheath, and myelinated and
unmyelinated nerve bres.
C3.1.9—Pain reex arcs as an example of involuntary responses with skeletal muscle as the effector
Use the example of a reex arc with a single interneuron in the grey matter of the spinal cord and a
free sensory nerve ending in a sensory neuron as a pain receptor in the hand.
C3.1.10—Role of the cerebellum in coordinating skeletal muscle contraction and balance
Limit to a general understanding of the role of the cerebellum in the overall control of movements
of the body.
C3.1.11—Modulation of sleep patterns by melatonin secretion as a part of circadian rhythms
Students should understand the diurnal pattern of melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and
how it helps to establish a cycle of sleeping and waking.
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C3.1.12—Epinephrine (adrenaline) secretion by the adrenal glands to prepare the body for vigorous
activity
Consider the widespread effects of epinephrine in the body and how these effects facilitate intense
muscle contraction.
C3.1.13—Control of the endocrine system by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Students should have a general understanding, but are not required to know differences between
mechanisms used in the anterior and posterior pituitary.
C3.1.14—Feedback control of heart rate following sensory input from baroreceptors and
chemoreceptors
Include the location of baroreceptors and chemoreceptors.
Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure. Chemoreceptors monitor blood pH and concentrations of
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Students should understand the role of the medulla in coordinating
responses and sending nerve impulses to the heart to change the heart’s stroke volume and heart
rate.
C3.1.15—Feedback control of ventilation rate following sensory input from chemoreceptors
Students should understand the causes of pH changes in the blood. These changes are monitored
by chemoreceptors in the brainstem and lead to the control of ventilation rate using signals to the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
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C3.1.16—Control of peristalsis in the digestive system by the central nervous system and enteric
nervous system
Limit to initiation of swallowing of food and egestion of faeces being under voluntary control by
the central nervous system (CNS) but peristalsis between these points in the digestive system
being under involuntary control by the enteric nervous system (ENS). The action of the ENS ensures
passage of material through the gut is coordinated.
Additional higher level
C3.1.17—Observations of tropic responses in seedlings
Application of skills: Students should gather qualitative data, using diagrams to record their
observations of seedlings illustrating tropic responses. They could also collect quantitative data by
measuring the angle of curvature of seedlings.
NOS: Students should be able to distinguish between qualitative and quantitative observations
and understand factors that limit the precision of measurements and their accuracy. Strategies for
increasing the precision, accuracy and reliability of measurements in tropism experiments could be
considered.
C3.1.18—Positive phototropism as a directional growth response to lateral light in plant shoots
Students are not required to know specic examples of other tropisms.
C3.1.19—Phytohormones as signalling chemicals controlling growth, development and response to
stimuli in plants
Students should appreciate that a variety of chemicals are used as phytohormones in plants.
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C3.1.20—Auxin efflux carriers as an example of maintaining concentration gradients of
phytohormones
Auxin can diffuse freely into plant cells but not out of them. Auxin efflux carriers can be positioned
in a cell membrane on one side of the cell. If all cells coordinate to concentrate these carriers on
the same side, auxin is actively transported from cell to cell through the plant tissue and becomes
concentrated in part of the plant.
C3.1.21—Promotion of cell growth by auxin
Include auxin’s promotion of hydrogen ion secretion into the apoplast, acidifying the cell wall
and thus loosening cross links between cellulose molecules and facilitating cell elongation.
Concentration gradients of auxin cause the differences in growth rate needed for phototropism.
C3.1.22—Interactions between auxin and cytokinin as a means of regulating root and shoot growth
Students should understand that root tips produce cytokinin, which is transported to shoots, and
shoot tips produce auxin, which is transported to roots. Interactions between these phytohormones
help to ensure that root and shoot growth are integrated.
C3.1.23—Positive feedback in fruit ripening and ethylene production
Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) stimulates the changes in fruits that occur during ripening, and
ripening also stimulates increased production of ethylene. Students should understand the benet
of this positive feedback mechanism in ensuring that fruit ripening is rapid and synchronized.
Linking questions
• What are examples of branching (dendritic) and net-like (reticulate) patterns of organization?
• What are the consequences of positive feedback in biological systems?
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C3.2 Defence against disease
Interaction and interdependence—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
Guiding questions
• How do body systems recognize pathogens and ght infections?
• What factors inuence the incidence of disease in populations?
SL and HL
C3.2.1—Pathogens as the cause of infectious diseases
Students should understand that a broad range of disease-causing organisms can infect humans.
A disease-causing organism is known as a pathogen, although typically the term is reserved for
viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists. Archaea are not known to cause any diseases in humans.
NOS: Students should be aware that careful observation can lead to important progress. For
example, careful observations during 19th-century epidemics of childbed fever (due to an infection
after childbirth) in Vienna and cholera in London led to breakthroughs in the control of infectious
disease.
C3.2.2—Skin and mucous membranes as a primary defence
The skin acts as both a physical and chemical barrier to pathogens. Students are not required to
draw or label diagrams of skin.
C3.2.3—Sealing of cuts in skin by blood clotting
Include release of clotting factors from platelets and the subsequent cascade pathway that results
in rapid conversion of brinogen to brin by thrombin and trapping of erythrocytes to form a clot.
No further details are required.
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C3.2.4—Differences between the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system
Include the idea that the innate system responds to broad categories of pathogen and does
not change during an organism’s life whereas the adaptive system responds in a specic way to
particular pathogens and builds up a memory of pathogens encountered, so the immune response
becomes more effective. Students are not required to know any components of the innate immune
system other than phagocytes.
C3.2.5—Infection control by phagocytes
Include amoeboid movement from blood to sites of infection, where phagocytes recognize
pathogens, engulf them by endocytosis and digest them using enzymes from lysosomes.
C3.2.6—Lymphocytes as cells in the adaptive immune system that cooperate to produce antibodies
Students should understand that lymphocytes both circulate in the blood and are contained in
lymph nodes. They should appreciate that an individual has a very large number of B-lymphocytes
that each make a specic type of antibody.
C3.2.7—Antigens as recognition molecules that trigger antibody production
Students should appreciate that most antigens are glycoproteins or other proteins and that they
are usually located on the outer surfaces of pathogens. Antigens on the surface of erythrocytes may
stimulate antibody production if transfused into a person with a different blood group.
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C3.2.8—Activation of B-lymphocytes by helper T-lymphocytes
Students should understand that there are antigen-specic B-cells and helper T-cells. B-cells
produce antibodies and become memory cells only when they have been activated. Activation
requires both direct interaction with the specic antigen and contact with a helper T-cell that has
also become activated by the same type of antigen.
C3.2.9—Multiplication of activated B-lymphocytes to form clones of antibody-secreting plasma cells
There are relatively small numbers of B-cells that respond to a specic antigen. To produce sufficient
quantities of antibody, activated B-cells rst divide by mitosis to produce large numbers of plasma
B-cells that are capable of producing the same type of antibody.
C3.2.10—Immunity as a consequence of retaining memory cells
Students should understand that immunity is the ability to eliminate an infectious disease from
the body. It is due to the long-term survival of lymphocytes that are capable of making the specic
antibodies needed to ght the infection. These are memory cells.
C3.2.11—Transmission of HIV in body uids
Include examples of the mechanisms of HIV (human immunodeciency virus) transmission.
C3.2.12—Infection of lymphocytes by HIV with AIDS as a consequence
Students should understand that only certain types of lymphocyte are infected and killed, but that
a reduction in these lymphocytes limits the ability to produce antibodies and ght opportunistic
infections.
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C3.2.13—Antibiotics as chemicals that block processes occurring in bacteria but not in eukaryotic
cells
Include reasons that antibiotics fail to control infection with viruses.
C3.2.14—Evolution of resistance to several antibiotics in strains of pathogenic bacteria
Students should understand that careful use of antibiotics is necessary to slow the emergence of
multiresistant bacteria.
NOS: Students should recognize that the development of new techniques can lead to new avenues
of research; for example, the recent technique of searching chemical libraries is yielding new
antibiotics.
C3.2.15—Zoonoses as infectious diseases that can transfer from other species to humans
Illustrate the prevalence of zoonoses as infectious diseases in humans and their varied modes of
infection with several examples including tuberculosis, rabies and Japanese encephalitis. Include
COVID-19 as an infectious disease that has recently transferred from another species, with profound
consequences for humans.
C3.2.16—Vaccines and immunization
Students should understand that vaccines contain antigens, or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) with
sequences that code for antigens, and that they stimulate the development of immunity to a
specic pathogen without causing the disease.
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C3.2.17—Herd immunity and the prevention of epidemics
Students should understand how members of a population are interdependent in building herd
immunity. If a sufficient percentage of a population is immune to a disease, transmission is greatly
impeded.
NOS: Scientists publish their research so that other scientists can evaluate it. The media often
report on the research while evaluation is still happening, and consumers need to be aware of this.
Vaccines are tested rigorously and the risks of side effects are minimal but not nil. The distinction
between pragmatic truths and certainty is poorly understood.
C3.2.18—Evaluation of data related to the COVID-19 pandemic
Application of skills: Students should have the opportunity to calculate both percentage
difference and percentage change.
Note: There is no additional higher level content in C3.2.
Linking questions
• How do animals protect themselves from threats?
• How can false-positive and false-negative results be avoided in diagnostic tests?
C4.1 Populations and communities
Interaction and interdependence—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
Guiding questions
• How do interactions between organisms regulate sizes of populations in a community?
• What interactions within a community make its populations interdependent?
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SL and HL
C4.1.1—Populations as interacting groups of organisms of the same species living in an area
Students should understand that members of a population normally breed and that reproductive
isolation is used to distinguish one population of a species from another.
C4.1.2—Estimation of population size by random sampling
Students should understand reasons for estimating population size, rather than counting every
individual, and the need for randomness in sampling procedures.
NOS: Students should be aware that random sampling, instead of measuring an entire population,
inevitably results in sampling error. In this case the difference between the estimate of population
size and the true size of the whole population is the sampling error.
C4.1.3—Random quadrat sampling to estimate population size for sessile organisms
Both sessile animals and plants, where the numbers of individuals can be counted, are suitable.
Application of skills: Students should understand what is indicated by the standard deviation of
a mean. Students do not need to memorize the formula used to calculate this. In this example, the
standard deviation of the mean number of individuals per quadrat could be determined using a
calculator to give a measure of the variation and how evenly the population is spread.
C4.1.4—Capture–mark–release–recapture and the Lincoln index to estimate population size for
motile organisms
Application of skills: Students should use the Lincoln index to estimate population size.
, where is the number of individuals caught and
marked initially, is the total number of individuals recaptured and is the number of marked
individuals recaptured. Students should understand the assumptions made when using this
method.
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C4.1.5—Carrying capacity and competition for limited resources
A simple denition of carrying capacity is sufficient, with some examples of resources that may limit
carrying capacity.
C4.1.6—Negative feedback control of population size by density-dependent factors
Numbers of individuals in a population may uctuate due to density-independent factors, but
density-dependent factors tend to push the population back towards the carrying capacity. In
addition to competition for limited resources, include the increased risk of predation and the
transfer of pathogens or pests in dense populations.
C4.1.7—Population growth curves
Students should study at least one case study in an ecosystem. Students should understand reasons
for exponential growth in the initial phases. A lag phase is not expected as a part of sigmoid
population growth.
NOS: The curve represents an idealized graphical model. Students should recognize that models are
often simplications of complex systems.
Application of skills: Students should test the growth of a population against the model of
exponential growth using a graph with a logarithmic scale for size of population on the vertical axis
and a non-logarithmic scale for time on the horizontal axis.
C4.1.8—Modelling of the sigmoid population growth curve
Application of skills: Students should collect data regarding population growth. Yeast and
duckweed are recommended but other organisms that proliferate under experimental conditions
could be used.
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C4.1.9—Competition versus cooperation in intraspecic relationships
Include reasons for intraspecic competition within a population. Also include a range of real
examples of competition and cooperation.
C4.1.10—A community as all of the interacting organisms in an ecosystem
Communities comprise all the populations in an area including plants, animals, fungi and bacteria.
C4.1.11—Herbivory, predation, interspecic competition, mutualism, parasitism and pathogenicity
as categories of interspecic relationship within communities
Include each type of ecological interaction using at least one example.
C4.1.12—Mutualism as an interspecic relationship that benets both species
Include these examples: root nodules in Fabaceae (legume family), mycorrhizae in Orchidaceae
(orchid family) and zooxanthellae in hard corals. In each case include the benets to both
organisms.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
C4.1.13—Resource competition between endemic and invasive species
Choose one local example to illustrate competitive advantage over endemic species in resource
acquisition as the basis for an introduced species becoming invasive.
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C4.1.14—Tests for interspecic competition
Interspecic competition is indicated but not proven if one species is more successful in the
absence of another. Students should appreciate the range of possible approaches to research:
laboratory experiments, eld observations by random sampling and eld manipulation by removal
of one species.
NOS: Students should recognize that hypotheses can be tested by both experiments and
observations and should understand the difference between them.
C4.1.15—Use of the chi-squared test for association between two species
Application of skills: Students should be able to apply chi-squared tests on the presence/absence
of two species in several sampling sites, exploring the differences or similarities in distribution. This
may provide evidence for interspecic competition.
C4.1.16—Predator–prey relationships as an example of density-dependent control of animal
populations
Include a real case study.
C4.1.17—Top-down and bottom-up control of populations in communities
Students should understand that both of these types of control are possible, but one or the other is
likely to be dominant in a community.
C4.1.18—Allelopathy and secretion of antibiotics
These two processes are similar in that a chemical substance is released into the environment to
deter potential competitors. Include one specic example of each—where possible, choose a local
example.
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Note: There is no additional higher level content in C4.1.
Linking questions
• What are the benets of models in studying biology?
• What factors can limit capacity in biological systems?
C4.2 Transfers of energy and matter
Interaction and interdependence—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
Guiding questions
• What is the reason matter can be recycled in ecosystems but energy cannot?
• How is the energy that is lost by each group of organisms in an ecosystem replaced?
SL and HL
C4.2.1—Ecosystems as open systems in which both energy and matter can enter and exit
Students should know that in closed systems only energy is able to pass in and out.
C4.2.2—Sunlight as the principal source of energy that sustains most ecosystems
Include exceptions such as ecosystems in caves and below the levels of light penetration in oceans.
NOS: Laws in science are generalized principles, or rules of thumb, formulated to describe patterns
observed in nature. Unlike theories, they do not offer explanations, but describe phenomena. Like
theories, they can be used to make predictions. Students should be able to outline the features of
useful generalizations.
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C4.2.3—Flow of chemical energy through food chains
Students should appreciate that chemical energy passes to a consumer as it feeds on an organism
that is the previous stage in a food chain.
C4.2.4—Construction of food chains and food webs to represent feeding relationships in a
community
Represent relationships in a local community if possible. Arrows indicate the direction of transfer of
energy and biomass.
C4.2.5—Supply of energy to decomposers as carbon compounds in organic matter coming from
dead organisms
Include faeces, dead parts of organisms and dead whole organisms.
C4.2.6—Autotrophs as organisms that use external energy sources to synthesize carbon
compounds from simple inorganic substances
Students should understand that energy is required for carbon xation and for the anabolic
reactions that build macromolecules.
C4.2.7—Use of light as the external energy source in photoautotrophs and oxidation reactions as
the energy source in chemoautotrophs
Students should understand that oxidation reactions release energy, so they are useful in living
organisms. Include iron-oxidizing bacteria as an example of a chemoautotroph.
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C4.2.8—Heterotrophs as organisms that use carbon compounds obtained from other organisms to
synthesize the carbon compounds that they require
Students should appreciate that complex carbon compounds such as proteins and nucleic acids
are digested either externally or internally and are then assimilated by constructing the carbon
compounds that are required.
C4.2.9—Release of energy in both autotrophs and heterotrophs by oxidation of carbon compounds
in cell respiration
Students are not required to be familiar with photoheterotrophs.
C4.2.10—Classication of organisms into trophic levels
Use the terms “producer”, “primary consumer”, “secondary consumer” and “tertiary consumer”.
Students should appreciate that many organisms have a varied diet and occupy different trophic
levels in different food chains.
C4.2.11—Construction of energy pyramids
Application of skills: Students should use research data from specic ecosystems to represent
energy transfer and energy losses between trophic levels in food chains.
C4.2.12—Reductions in energy availability at each successive stage in food chains due to large
energy losses between trophic levels
Decomposers and detritus feeders are not usually considered to be part of food chains. However,
students should understand the role of these organisms in energy transformations in food chains.
Consider the causes of energy loss.
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C4.2.13—Heat loss to the environment in both autotrophs and heterotrophs due to conversion of
chemical energy to heat in cell respiration
Include the idea that energy transfers are not 100% efficient so heat is produced both when ATP is
produced in cell respiration and when it is used in cells.
C4.2.14—Restrictions on the number of trophic levels in ecosystems due to energy losses
At each successive stage in food chains there are fewer organisms or smaller organisms. There is
therefore less biomass, but the energy content per unit mass is not reduced.
C4.2.15—Primary production as accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by autotrophs
The units should be mass (of carbon) per unit area per unit time and are usually g m−2 yr−1. Students
should understand that biomes vary in their capacity to accumulate biomass. Biomass accumulates
when autotrophs and heterotrophs grow or reproduce.
C4.2.16—Secondary production as accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by heterotrophs
Students should understand that, due to loss of biomass when carbon compounds are converted to
carbon dioxide and water in cell respiration, secondary production is lower than primary production
in an ecosystem.
C4.2.17—Constructing carbon cycle diagrams
Students should illustrate with a diagram how carbon is recycled in ecosystems by photosynthesis,
feeding and respiration.
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C4.2.18—Ecosystems as carbon sinks and carbon sources
If photosynthesis exceeds respiration there is a net uptake of carbon dioxide and if respiration
exceeds photosynthesis there is a net release of carbon dioxide.
C4.2.19—Release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during combustion of biomass, peat, coal,
oil and natural gas
Students should appreciate that these carbon sinks vary in date of formation and that combustion
following lightning strikes sometimes happens naturally but that human activities have greatly
increased combustion rates.
C4.2.20—Analysis of the Keeling Curve in terms of photosynthesis, respiration and combustion
Include analysis of both the annual uctuations and the long-term trend.
C4.2.21—Dependence of aerobic respiration on atmospheric oxygen produced by photosynthesis,
and of photosynthesis on atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by respiration
The uxes involved per year are huge, so this is a major interaction between autotrophs and
heterotrophs.
C4.2.22—Recycling of all chemical elements required by living organisms in ecosystems
Students should appreciate that all elements used by living organisms, not just carbon, are recycled
and that decomposers play a key role. Students are not required to know details of the nitrogen
cycle and other nutrient cycles.
Note: There is no additional higher level content in C4.2.
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Linking questions
• What are the direct and indirect consequences of rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere?
• How does the transformation of energy from one form to another make biological processes
possible?
D1.1 DNA replication
Continuity and change—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• How is new DNA produced?
• How has knowledge of DNA replication enabled applications in biotechnology?
SL and HL
D1.1.1—DNA replication as production of exact copies of DNA with identical base sequences
Students should appreciate that DNA replication is required for reproduction and for growth and
tissue replacement in multicellular organisms.
D1.1.2—Semi-conservative nature of DNA replication and role of complementary base pairing
Students should understand how these processes allow a high degree of accuracy in copying base
sequences.
D1.1.3—Role of helicase and DNA polymerase in DNA replication
Limit to the role of helicase in unwinding and breaking hydrogen bonds between DNA strands and
the general role of DNA polymerase.
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D1.1.4—Polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis as tools for amplifying and separating
DNA
Students should understand the use of primers, temperature changes and Taq polymerase
in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the basis of separation of DNA fragments in gel
electrophoresis.
D1.1.5—Applications of polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis
Students should appreciate the broad range of applications, including DNA proling for paternity
and forensic investigations.
NOS: Reliability is enhanced by increasing the number of measurements in an experiment or test. In
DNA proling, increasing the number of markers used reduces the probability of a false match.
Additional higher level
D1.1.6—Directionality of DNA polymerases
Students should understand the difference between the 5' and 3' terminals of strands of
nucleotides and that DNA polymerases add the 5' of a DNA nucleotide to the 3' end of a strand of
nucleotides.
D1.1.7—Differences between replication on the leading strand and the lagging strand
Include the terms “continuous”, “discontinuous” and “Okazaki fragments”. Students should know
that replication has to be initiated with RNA primer only once on the leading strand but repeatedly
on the lagging strand.
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D1.1.8—Functions of DNA primase, DNA polymerase I, DNA polymerase III and DNA ligase in
replication
Limit to the prokaryotic system.
D1.1.9—DNA proofreading
Limit to the action of DNA polymerase III in removing any nucleotide from the 3' terminal with a
mismatched base, followed by replacement with a correctly matched nucleotide.
Linking questions
• How is genetic continuity ensured between generations?
• What biological mechanisms rely on directionality?
D1.2 Protein synthesis
Continuity and change—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• How does a cell produce a sequence of amino acids from a sequence of DNA bases?
• How is the reliability of protein synthesis ensured?
SL and HL
D1.2.1—Transcription as the synthesis of RNA using a DNA template
Students should understand the roles of RNA polymerase in this process.
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D1.2.2—Role of hydrogen bonding and complementary base pairing in transcription
Include the pairing of adenine (A) on the DNA template strand with uracil (U) on the RNA strand.
D1.2.3—Stability of DNA templates
Single DNA strands can be used as a template for transcribing a base sequence, without the DNA
base sequence changing. In somatic cells that do not divide, such sequences must be conserved
throughout the life of a cell.
D1.2.4—Transcription as a process required for the expression of genes
Limit to understanding that not all genes in a cell are expressed at any given time and that
transcription, being the rst stage of gene expression, is a key stage at which expression of a gene
can be switched on and off.
D1.2.5—Translation as the synthesis of polypeptides from mRNA
The base sequence of mRNA is translated into the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
D1.2.6—Roles of mRNA, ribosomes and tRNA in translation
Students should know that mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome and that two tRNAs
can bind simultaneously to the large subunit.
D1.2.7—Complementary base pairing between tRNA and mRNA
Include the terms “codon” and “anticodon”.
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D1.2.8—Features of the genetic code
Students should understand the reasons for a triplet code. Students should use and understand the
terms “degeneracy” and “universality”.
D1.2.9—Using the genetic code expressed as a table of mRNA codons
Students should be able to deduce the sequence of amino acids coded by an mRNA strand.
D1.2.10—Stepwise movement of the ribosome along mRNA and linkage of amino acids by peptide
bonding to the growing polypeptide chain
Focus on elongation of the polypeptide, rather than on initiation and termination.
D1.2.11—Mutations that change protein structure
Include an example of a point mutation affecting protein structure.
Additional higher level
D1.2.12—Directionality of transcription and translation
Students should understand what is meant by 5' to 3' transcription and 5' to 3' translation.
D1.2.13—Initiation of transcription at the promoter
Consider transcription factors that bind to the promoter as an example. However, students are not
required to name the transcription factors.
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D1.2.14—Non-coding sequences in DNA do not code for polypeptides
Limit examples to regulators of gene expression, introns, telomeres and genes for rRNAs and tRNAs
in eukaryotes.
D1.2.15—Post-transcriptional modication in eukaryotic cells
Include removal of introns and splicing together of exons to form mature mRNA and also the
addition of 5' caps and 3' polyA tails to stabilize mRNA transcripts.
D1.2.16—Alternative splicing of exons to produce variants of a protein from a single gene
Students are only expected to understand that splicing together different combinations of exons
allows one gene to code for different polypeptides. Specic examples are not required.
D1.2.17—Initiation of translation
Include attachment of the small ribosome subunit to the 5' terminal of mRNA, movement to the
start codon, the initiator tRNA and another tRNA, and attachment of the large subunit. Students
should understand the roles of the three binding sites for tRNA on the ribosome (A, P and E) during
elongation.
D1.2.18—Modication of polypeptides into their functional state
Students should appreciate that many polypeptides must be modied before they can function.
The examples chosen should include the two-stage modication of pre-proinsulin to insulin.
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D1.2.19—Recycling of amino acids by proteasomes
Limit to the understanding that sustaining a functional proteome requires constant protein
breakdown and synthesis.
Linking questions
• How does the diversity of proteins produced contribute to the functioning of a cell?
• What biological processes depend on hydrogen bonding?
D1.3 Mutation and gene editing
Continuity and change—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• How do gene mutations occur?
• What are the consequences of gene mutation?
SL and HL
D1.3.1—Gene mutations as structural changes to genes at the molecular level
Distinguish between substitutions, insertions and deletions.
D1.3.2—Consequences of base substitutions
Students should understand that single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the result of base
substitution mutations and that because of the degeneracy of the genetic code they may or may
not change a single amino acid in a polypeptide.
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D1.3.3—Consequences of insertions and deletions
Include the likelihood of polypeptides ceasing to function, either through frameshift changes or
through major insertions or deletions. Specic examples are not required.
D1.3.4—Causes of gene mutation
Students should understand that gene mutation can be caused by mutagens and by errors in DNA
replication or repair. Include examples of chemical mutagens and mutagenic forms of radiation.
D1.3.5—Randomness in mutation
Students should understand that mutations can occur anywhere in the base sequences of a
genome, although some bases have a higher probability of mutating than others. They should also
understand that no natural mechanism is known for making a deliberate change to a particular
base with the purpose of changing a trait.
D1.3.6—Consequences of mutation in germ cells and somatic cells
Include inheritance of mutated genes in germ cells and cancer in somatic cells.
D1.3.7—Mutation as a source of genetic variation
Students should appreciate that gene mutation is the original source of all genetic variation.
Although most mutations are either harmful or neutral for an individual organism, in a species they
are in the long term essential for evolution by natural selection.
NOS: Commercial genetic tests can yield information about potential future health and disease risk.
One possible impact is that, without expert interpretation, this information could be problematic.
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Additional higher level
D1.3.8—Gene knockout as a technique for investigating the function of a gene by changing it to
make it inoperative
Students are not required to know details of techniques. Students should appreciate that a library of
knockout organisms is available for some species used as models in research.
D1.3.9—Use of the CRISPR sequences and the enzyme Cas9 in gene editing
Students are not required to know the role of the CRISPR–Cas system in prokaryotes. However,
students should be familiar with an example of the successful use of this technology.
NOS: Certain potential uses of CRISPR raise ethical issues that must be addressed before
implementation. Students should understand that scientists across the world are subject to
different regulatory systems. For this reason, there is an international effort to harmonize regulation
of the application of genome editing technologies such as CRISPR.
D1.3.10—Hypotheses to account for conserved or highly conserved sequences in genes
Conserved sequences are identical or similar across a species or a group of species; highly
conserved sequences are identical or similar over long periods of evolution. One hypothesis for the
mechanism is the functional requirements for the gene products and another hypothesis is slower
rates of mutation.
Linking questions
• How can natural selection lead to both a reduction in variation and an increase in biological
diversity?
• How does variation in subunit composition of polymers contribute to function?
D2.1 Cell and nuclear division
Continuity and change—Cells
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Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 1 hour
Guiding questions
• How can large numbers of genetically identical cells be produced?
• How do eukaryotes produce genetically varied cells that can develop into gametes?
SL and HL
D2.1.1—Generation of new cells in living organisms by cell division
In all living organisms, a parent cell—often referred to as a mother cell—divides to produce two
daughter cells.
D2.1.2—Cytokinesis as splitting of cytoplasm in a parent cell between daughter cells
Students should appreciate that in an animal cell a ring of contractile actin and myosin proteins
pinches a cell membrane together to split the cytoplasm, whereas in a plant cell vesicles assemble
sections of membrane and cell wall to achieve splitting.
D2.1.3—Equal and unequal cytokinesis
Include the idea that division of cytoplasm is usually, but not in all cases, equal and that both
daughter cells must receive at least one mitochondrion and any other organelle that can only be
made by dividing a pre-existing structure. Include oogenesis in humans and budding in yeast as
examples of unequal cytokinesis.
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D2.1.4—Roles of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes
Emphasize that nuclear division is needed before cell division to avoid production of anucleate
cells. Mitosis maintains the chromosome number and genome of cells, whereas meiosis halves the
chromosome number and generates genetic diversity.
D2.1.5—DNA replication as a prerequisite for both mitosis and meiosis
Students should understand that, after replication, each chromosome consists of two elongated
DNA molecules (chromatids) held together until anaphase.
D2.1.6—Condensation and movement of chromosomes as shared features of mitosis and meiosis
Include the role of histones in the condensation of DNA by supercoiling and the use of microtubules
and microtubule motors to move chromosomes.
D2.1.7—Phases of mitosis
Students should know the names of the phases and how the process as a whole produces two
genetically identical daughter cells.
D2.1.8—Identication of phases of mitosis
Application of skills: Students should do this using diagrams as well as with cells viewed with a
microscope or in a micrograph.
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D2.1.9—Meiosis as a reduction division
Students should understand the terms “diploid” and “haploid” and how the two divisions of meiosis
produce four haploid nuclei from one diploid nucleus. They should also understand the need for
meiosis in a sexual life cycle. Students should be able to outline the two rounds of segregation in
meiosis.
D2.1.10—Down syndrome and non-disjunction
Use Down syndrome as an example of an error in meiosis.
D2.1.11—Meiosis as a source of variation
Students should understand how meiosis generates genetic diversity by random orientation of
bivalents and by crossing over.
Additional higher level
D2.1.12—Cell proliferation for growth, cell replacement and tissue repair
Include proliferation for growth within plant meristems and early-stage animal embryos as
examples. Include skin as an example of cell proliferation during routine cell replacement and
during wound healing. Students are not required to know details of the structure of skin.
D2.1.13—Phases of the cell cycle
Students should understand that cell proliferation is achieved using the cell cycle. Students should
understand the sequence of events including G1, S and G2 as the stages of interphase, followed by
mitosis and then cytokinesis.
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D2.1.14—Cell growth during interphase
Students should appreciate that interphase is a metabolically active period and that growth
involves biosynthesis of cell components including proteins and DNA. Numbers of mitochondria
and chloroplasts are increased by growth and division of these organelles.
D2.1.15—Control of the cell cycle using cyclins
Limit to the concentration of different cyclins increasing and decreasing during the cell cycle and
a threshold level of a specic cyclin required to pass each checkpoint in the cycle. Students are not
required to know details of the roles of specic cyclins.
D2.1.16—Consequences of mutations in genes that control the cell cycle
Include mutations in proto-oncogenes that convert them to oncogenes and mutations in tumour
suppressor genes, resulting in uncontrolled cell division.
D2.1.17—Differences between tumours in rates of cell division and growth and in the capacity for
metastasis and invasion of neighbouring tissue
Include the terms “benign”, “malignant”, “primary tumour” and “secondary tumour”, and distinguish
between tumours that do and do not cause cancer.
Application of skills: Students should observe populations of cells to determine the mitotic index.
Linking questions
• What processes support the growth of organisms?
• How does the variation produced by sexual reproduction contribute to evolution?
D2.2 Gene expression
Continuity and change—Cells
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Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• How is gene expression changed in a cell?
• How can patterns of gene expression be conserved through inheritance?
Additional higher level
Note: There is no SL in D2.2.
D2.2.1—Gene expression as the mechanism by which information in genes has effects on the
phenotype
Students should appreciate that the most common stages in this process are transcription,
translation and the function of a protein product, such as an enzyme.
D2.2.2—Regulation of transcription by proteins that bind to specic base sequences in DNA
Include the role of promoters, enhancers and transcription factors.
D2.2.3—Control of the degradation of mRNA as a means of regulating translation
In human cells, mRNA may persist for time periods from minutes up to days, before being broken
down by nucleases.
D2.2.4—Epigenesis as the development of patterns of differentiation in the cells of a multicellular
organism
Emphasize that DNA base sequences are not altered by epigenetic changes, so phenotype but not
genotype is altered.
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D2.2.5—Differences between the genome, transcriptome and proteome of individual cells
No cell expresses all of its genes. The pattern of gene expression in a cell determines how it
differentiates.
D2.2.6—Methylation of the promoter and histones in nucleosomes as examples of epigenetic tags
Methylation of cytosine in the DNA of a promoter represses transcription and therefore expression
of the gene downstream.
Methylation of amino acids in histones can cause transcription to be repressed or activated.
Students are not required to know details of how this is achieved.
D2.2.7—Epigenetic inheritance through heritable changes to gene expression
Limit to the possibility of phenotypic changes in a cell or organism being passed on to daughter
cells or offspring without changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. This can happen if epigenetic
tags, such as DNA methylation or histone modication, remain in place during mitosis or meiosis.
D2.2.8—Examples of environmental effects on gene expression in cells and organisms
Include alteration of methyl tags on DNA in response to air pollution as an example.
D2.2.9—Consequences of removal of most but not all epigenetic tags from the ovum and sperm
Students can show this by outlining the epigenetic origins of phenotypic differences in tigons and
ligers (lion–tiger hybrids).
D2.2.10—Monozygotic twin studies
Limit to investigating the effects of the environment on gene expression.
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D2.2.11—External factors impacting the pattern of gene expression
Limit to one example of a hormone and one example of a biochemical such as lactose or
tryptophan in bacteria.
Linking questions
• What mechanisms are there for inhibition in biological systems?
• In what ways does the environment stimulate diversication?
D2.3 Water potential
Continuity and change—Cells
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What factors affect the movement of water into or out of cells?
• How do plant and animal cells differ in their regulation of water movement?
SL and HL
D2.3.1—Solvation with water as the solvent
Include hydrogen bond formation between solute and water molecules, and attractions between
both positively and negatively charged ions and polar water molecules.
D2.3.2—Water movement from less concentrated to more concentrated solutions
Students should express the direction of movement in terms of solute concentration, not water
concentration. Students should use the terms “hypertonic”, “hypotonic” and “isotonic” to compare
concentration of solutions.
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D2.3.3—Water movement by osmosis into or out of cells
Students should be able to predict the direction of net movement of water if the environment of
a cell is hypotonic or hypertonic. They should understand that in an isotonic environment there is
dynamic equilibrium rather than no movement of water.
D2.3.4—Changes due to water movement in plant tissue bathed in hypotonic and those bathed in
hypertonic solutions
Application of skills: Students should be able to measure changes in tissue length and mass, and
analyse data to deduce isotonic solute concentration. Students should also be able to use standard
deviation and standard error to help in the analysis of data. Students are not required to memorize
formulae for calculating these statistics. Standard deviation and standard error could be determined
for the results of this experiment if there are repeats for each concentration. This would allow the
reliability of length and mass measurements to be compared. Standard error could be shown
graphically as error bars.
D2.3.5—Effects of water movement on cells that lack a cell wall
Include swelling and bursting in a hypotonic medium, and shrinkage and crenation in a hypertonic
medium. Also include the need for removal of water by contractile vacuoles in freshwater
unicellular organisms and the need to maintain isotonic tissue uid in multicellular organisms to
prevent harmful changes.
D2.3.6—Effects of water movement on cells with a cell wall
Include the development of turgor pressure in a hypotonic medium and plasmolysis in a hypertonic
medium.
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D2.3.7—Medical applications of isotonic solutions
Include intravenous uids given as part of medical treatment and bathing of organs ready for
transplantation as examples.
Additional higher level
D2.3.8—Water potential as the potential energy of water per unit volume
Students should understand that it is impossible to measure the absolute quantity of the potential
energy of water, so values relative to pure water at atmospheric pressure and 20°C are used. The
units are usually kilopascals (kPa).
D2.3.9—Movement of water from higher to lower water potential
Students should appreciate the reasons for this movement in terms of potential energy.
D2.3.10—Contributions of solute potential and pressure potential to the water potential of cells
with walls
Use the equation . Students should appreciate that solute potentials can range from
zero downwards and that pressure potentials are generally positive inside cells, although negative
pressure potentials occur in xylem vessels where sap is being transported under tension.
D2.3.11—Water potential and water movements in plant tissue
Students should be able to explain in terms of solute and pressure potentials the changes that
occur when plant tissue is bathed in either a hypotonic or hypertonic solution.
Linking questions
• What variables inuence the direction of movement of materials in tissues?
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• What are the implications of solubility differences between chemical substances for living
organisms?
D3.1 Reproduction
Continuity and change—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• How does asexual or sexual reproduction exemplify themes of change or continuity?
• What changes within organisms are required for reproduction?
SL and HL
D3.1.1—Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction
Include these relative advantages: asexual reproduction to produce genetically identical offspring
by individuals that are adapted to an existing environment, sexual reproduction to produce
offspring with new gene combinations and thus variation needed for adaptation to a changed
environment.
D3.1.2—Role of meiosis and fusion of gametes in the sexual life cycle
Students should appreciate that meiosis breaks up parental combinations of alleles, and fusion of
gametes produces new combinations. Fusion of gametes is also known as fertilization.
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D3.1.3—Differences between male and female sexes in sexual reproduction
Include the prime difference that the male gamete travels to the female gamete, so it is smaller, with
less food reserves than the egg. From this follow differences in the numbers of gametes and the
reproductive strategies of males and females.
D3.1.4—Anatomy of the human male and female reproductive systems
Students should be able to draw diagrams of the male-typical and female-typical systems and
annotate them with names of structures and functions.
D3.1.5—Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles and their hormonal regulation
Include the roles of oestradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and both positive and negative feedback. The ovarian and uterine cycles together
constitute the menstrual cycle.
D3.1.6—Fertilization in humans
Include the fusion of a sperm’s cell membrane with an egg cell membrane, entry to the egg of the
sperm nucleus but destruction of the tail and mitochondria. Also include dissolution of nuclear
membranes of sperm and egg nuclei and participation of all the condensed chromosomes in a joint
mitosis to produce two diploid nuclei.
D3.1.7—Use of hormones in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment
The normal secretion of hormones is suspended, and articial doses of hormones induce
superovulation.
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D3.1.8—Sexual reproduction in owering plants
Include production of gametes inside ovules and pollen grains, pollination, pollen development
and fertilization to produce an embryo. Students should understand that reproduction in owering
plants is sexual, even if a plant species is hermaphroditic.
D3.1.9—Features of an insect-pollinated ower
Students should draw diagrams annotated with names of structures and their functions.
D3.1.10—Methods of promoting cross-pollination
Include different maturation times for pollen and stigma, separate male and female owers or male
and female plants. Also include the role of animals or wind in transferring pollen between plants.
D3.1.11—Self-incompatibility mechanisms to increase genetic variation within a species
Students should understand that self-pollination leads to inbreeding, which decreases genetic
diversity and vigour. They should also understand that genetic mechanisms in many plant species
ensure male and female gametes fusing during fertilization are from different plants.
D3.1.12—Dispersal and germination of seeds
Distinguish seed dispersal from pollination. Include the growth and development of the embryo
and the mobilization of food reserves.
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Additional higher level
D3.1.13—Control of the developmental changes of puberty by gonadotropin-releasing hormone
and steroid sex hormones
Limit to the increased release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus
in childhood triggering the onset of increased luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) release. Ultimately the increased sex hormone production leads to the changes
associated with puberty.
D3.1.14—Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans
Include mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. Students should
understand how gametogenesis, in typical male and female bodies, results in different numbers of
sperm and eggs, and different amounts of cytoplasm.
D3.1.15—Mechanisms to prevent polyspermy
The acrosome reaction allows a sperm to penetrate the zona pellucida and the cortical reaction
prevents other sperm from passing through.
D3.1.16—Development of a blastocyst and implantation in the endometrium
Students are not required to know the names of other stages in embryo development.
D3.1.17—Pregnancy testing by detection of human chorionic gonadotropin secretion
Include the production of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the embryo or developing
placenta and the use of monoclonal antibodies that bind to hCG.
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D3.1.18—Role of the placenta in foetal development inside the uterus
Students are not required to know details of placental structure apart from the large surface area
of the placental villi. Students should understand which exchange processes occur in the placenta
and that it allows the foetus to be retained in the uterus to a later stage of development than in
mammals that do not develop a placenta.
D3.1.19—Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth
Emphasize that the continuity of pregnancy is maintained by progesterone secretion initially from
the corpus luteum and then from the placenta, whereas the changes during childbirth are triggered
by a decrease in progesterone levels, allowing increases in oxytocin secretion due to positive
feedback.
D3.1.20—Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of coronary heart disease
NOS: In early epidemiological studies, it was argued that women undergoing hormone
replacement therapy (HRT) had reduced incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) and this was
deemed to be a cause-and-effect relationship. Later randomized controlled trials showed that use of
HRT led to a small increase in the risk of CHD. The correlation between HRT and decreased incidence
of CHD is not actually a cause-and-effect relationship. HRT patients have a higher socioeconomic
status, and this status has a causal relationship with lower risk of CHD.
Linking questions
• How can interspecic relationships assist in the reproductive strategies of living organisms?
• What are the roles of barriers in living systems?
D3.2 Inheritance
Continuity and change—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
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Additional higher level: 3 hours
Guiding questions
• What patterns of inheritance exist in plants and animals?
• What is the molecular basis of inheritance patterns?
SL and HL
D3.2.1—Production of haploid gametes in parents and their fusion to form a diploid zygote as the
means of inheritance
Students should understand that this pattern of inheritance is common to all eukaryotes with a
sexual life cycle. They should also understand that a diploid cell has two copies of each autosomal
gene.
D3.2.2—Methods for conducting genetic crosses in owering plants
Use the terms “P generation”, “F1 generation”, “F2 generation” and “Punnett grid”. Students should
understand that pollen contains male gametes and that female gametes are located in the ovary,
so pollination is needed to carry out a cross. They should also understand that plants such as peas
produce both male and female gametes on the same plant, allowing self-pollination and therefore
self-fertilization. Mention that genetic crosses are widely used to breed new varieties of crop or
ornamental plants.
D3.2.3—Genotype as the combination of alleles inherited by an organism
Students should use and understand the terms “homozygous” and “heterozygous”, and appreciate
the distinction between genes and alleles.
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D3.2.4—Phenotype as the observable traits of an organism resulting from genotype and
environmental factors
Students should be able to suggest examples of traits in humans due to genotype only and due to
environment only, and also traits due to interaction between genotype and environment.
D3.2.5—Effects of dominant and recessive alleles on phenotype
Students should understand the reasons that both a homozygous-dominant genotype and a
heterozygous genotype for a particular trait will produce the same phenotype.
D3.2.6—Phenotypic plasticity as the capacity to develop traits suited to the environment
experienced by an organism, by varying patterns of gene expression
Phenotypic plasticity is not due to changes in genotype, and the changes in traits may be reversible
during the lifetime of an individual.
D3.2.7—Phenylketonuria as an example of a human disease due to a recessive allele
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a recessive genetic condition caused by mutation in an autosomal gene
that codes for the enzyme needed to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine.
D3.2.8—Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and multiple alleles in gene pools
Students should understand that any number of alleles of a gene can exist in the gene pool but an
individual only inherits two.
D3.2.9—ABO blood groups as an example of multiple alleles
Use IA, IB and i to denote the alleles.
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D3.2.10—Incomplete dominance and codominance
Students should understand the differences between these patterns of inheritance at the
phenotypic level. In codominance, heterozygotes have a dual phenotype. Include the AB
blood type (IAIB) as an example. In incomplete dominance, heterozygotes have an intermediate
phenotype. Include four o'clock ower or marvel of Peru (Mirabilis jalapa) as an example.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
D3.2.11—Sex determination in humans and inheritance of genes on sex chromosomes
Students should understand that the sex chromosome in sperm determines whether a zygote
develops certain male-typical or female-typical physical characteristics and that far more genes are
carried by the X chromosome than the Y chromosome.
D3.2.12—Haemophilia as an example of a sex-linked genetic disorder
Show alleles carried on X chromosomes as superscript letters on an uppercase X.
D3.2.13—Pedigree charts to deduce patterns of inheritance of genetic disorders
Students should understand the genetic basis for the prohibition of marriage between close
relatives in many societies.
NOS: Scientists draw general conclusions by inductive reasoning when they base a theory on
observations of some but not all cases. A pattern of inheritance may be deduced from parts of a
pedigree chart and this theory may then allow genotypes of specic individuals in the pedigree to
be deduced. Students should be able to distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.
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D3.2.14—Continuous variation due to polygenic inheritance and/or environmental factors
Use skin colour in humans as an example.
Application of skills: Students should understand the distinction between continuous variables
such as skin colour and discrete variables such as ABO blood group. They should also be able to
apply measures of central tendency such as mean, median and mode.
D3.2.15—Box-and-whisker plots to represent data for a continuous variable such as student height
Application of skills: Students should use a box-and-whisker plot to display six aspects of data:
outliers, minimum, rst quartile, median, third quartile and maximum. A data point is categorized as
an outlier if it is more than 1.5 × IQR (interquartile range) above the third quartile or below the rst
quartile.
Additional higher level
D3.2.16—Segregation and independent assortment of unlinked genes in meiosis
Students should understand the link between the movements of chromosomes in meiosis and the
outcome of dihybrid crosses involving pairs of unlinked genes.
D3.2.17—Punnett grids for predicting genotypic and phenotypic ratios in dihybrid crosses involving
pairs of unlinked autosomal genes
Students should understand how the 9:3:3:1 and 1:1:1:1 ratios are derived.
NOS: 9:3:3:1 and 1:1:1:1 ratios for dihybrid crosses are based on what has been called Mendel’s
second law. This law only applies if genes are on different chromosomes or are far apart enough on
one chromosome for recombination rates to reach 50%. Students should recognize that there are
exceptions to all biological “laws” under certain conditions.
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D3.2.18—Loci of human genes and their polypeptide products
Application of skills: Students should explore genes and their polypeptide products in databases.
They should nd pairs of genes with loci on different chromosomes and also in close proximity on
the same chromosome.
D3.2.19—Autosomal gene linkage
In crosses involving linkage, the symbols used to denote alleles should be shown alongside vertical
lines representing homologous chromosomes. Students should understand the reason that alleles
of linked genes can fail to assort independently.
D3.2.20—Recombinants in crosses involving two linked or unlinked genes
Students should understand how to determine the outcomes of crosses between an individual
heterozygous for both genes and an individual homozygous recessive for both genes. Identify
recombinants in gametes, in genotypes of offspring and in phenotypes of offspring.
D3.2.21—Use of a chi-squared test on data from dihybrid crosses
Students should understand the concept of statistical signicance, the level, null/
alternative hypothesis and the idea of observed versus expected results.
NOS: Students should recognize that statistical testing often involves using a sample to represent
a population. In this case the sample is the F2 generation. In many experiments the sample is the
replicated or repeated measurements.
Linking questions
• What are the principles of effective sampling in biological research?
• What biological processes involve doubling and halving?
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D3.3 Homeostasis
Continuity and change—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• How are constant internal conditions maintained in humans?
• What are the benets to organisms of maintaining constant internal conditions?
SL and HL
D3.3.1—Homeostasis as maintenance of the internal environment of an organism
Variables are kept within preset limits, despite uctuations in external environment. Include
body temperature, blood pH, blood glucose concentration and blood osmotic concentration as
homeostatic variables in humans.
D3.3.2—Negative feedback loops in homeostasis
Students should understand the reason for use of negative rather than positive feedback control in
homeostasis and also that negative feedback returns homeostatic variables to the set point from
values above and below the set point.
D3.3.3—Regulation of blood glucose as an example of the role of hormones in homeostasis
Include control of secretion of insulin and glucagon by pancreatic endocrine cells, transport in
blood and the effects on target cells.
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D3.3.4—Physiological changes that form the basis of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Students should understand the physiological changes, together with risk factors and methods of
prevention and treatment.
D3.3.5—Thermoregulation as an example of negative feedback control
Include the roles of peripheral thermoreceptors, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, thyroxin
and also examples of muscle and adipose tissue that act as effectors of temperature change.
D3.3.6—Thermoregulation mechanisms in humans
Students should appreciate that birds and mammals regulate their body temperature by
physiological and behavioural means. Students are only required to understand the details
of thermoregulation for humans. Include vasodilation, vasoconstriction, shivering, sweating,
uncoupled respiration in brown adipose tissue and hair erection.
Additional higher level
D3.3.7—Role of the kidney in osmoregulation and excretion
Students should understand the distinction between excretion and osmoregulation.
Osmoregulation is regulation of osmotic concentration. The units for osmotic concentration are
osmoles per litre (osmol L−1).
D3.3.8—Role of the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule and proximal convoluted tubule in excretion
Students should appreciate how ultraltration remove solutes from blood plasma and how useful
substances are then reabsorbed, to leave toxins and other unwanted solutes in the ltrate, which
are excreted in urine.
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D3.3.9—Role of the loop of Henle
Limit to active transport of sodium ions in the ascending limb to maintain high osmotic
concentrations in the medulla, facilitating water reabsorption in the collecting ducts.
D3.3.10—Osmoregulation by water reabsorption in the collecting ducts
Include the roles of osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, changes to the rate of antidiuretic
hormone secretion by the pituitary gland and the resultant switches in location of aquaporins
between cell membranes and intracellular vesicles in cells of the collecting ducts.
D3.3.11—Changes in blood supply to organs in response to changes in activity
As examples, use the pattern of blood supply to the skeletal muscles, gut, brain and kidneys during
sleep, vigorous physical activity and wakeful rest.
Linking questions
• For what reasons do organisms need to distribute materials and energy?
• What biological systems are sensitive to temperature changes?
D4.1 Natural selection
Continuity and change—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What processes can cause changes in allele frequencies within a population?
• What is the role of reproduction in the process of natural selection?
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SL and HL
D4.1.1—Natural selection as the mechanism driving evolutionary change
Students should appreciate that natural selection operates continuously and over billions of years,
resulting in the biodiversity of life on Earth.
NOS: In Darwin’s time it was widely understood that species evolved, but the mechanism was
not clear. Darwin’s theory provided a convincing mechanism and replaced Lamarckism. This is an
example of a paradigm shift. Students should understand the meaning of the term “paradigm shift”.
D4.1.2—Roles of mutation and sexual reproduction in generating the variation on which natural
selection acts
Mutation generates new alleles and sexual reproduction generates new combinations of alleles.
D4.1.3—Overproduction of offspring and competition for resources as factors that promote natural
selection
Include examples of food and other resources that may limit carrying capacity.
D4.1.4—Abiotic factors as selection pressures
Include examples of density-independent factors such as high or low temperatures that may affect
survival of individuals in a population.
D4.1.5—Differences between individuals in adaptation, survival and reproduction as the basis for
natural selection
Students are required to study natural selection due to intraspecic competition, including the
concept of tness when discussing the survival value and reproductive potential of a genotype.
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D4.1.6—Requirement that traits are heritable for evolutionary change to occur
Students should understand that characteristics acquired during an individual’s life due to
environmental factors are not encoded in the base sequence of genes and so are not heritable.
D4.1.7—Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species
Differences in physical and behavioural traits, which can be used as signs of overall tness, can
affect success in attracting a mate and so drive the evolution of an animal population. Illustrate this
using suitable examples such as the evolution of the plumage of birds of paradise.
D4.1.8—Modelling of sexual and natural selection based on experimental control of selection
pressures
Application of skills: Students should interpret data from John Endler’s experiments with guppies.
Additional higher level
D4.1.9—Concept of the gene pool
A gene pool consists of all the genes and their different alleles, present in a population.
D4.1.10—Allele frequencies of geographically isolated populations
Application of skills: Students should use databases to search allele frequencies. Use at least one
human example.
131
Biology guide
Syllabus
D4.1.11—Changes in allele frequency in the gene pool as a consequence of natural selection
between individuals according to differences in their heritable traits
Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. Biologists subsequently integrated
genetics with natural selection in what is now known as neo-Darwinism.
D4.1.12—Differences between directional, disruptive and stabilizing selection
Students should be aware that all three types result in a change in allele frequency.
D4.1.13—Hardy–Weinberg equation and calculations of allele or genotype frequencies
Use and to denote the two allele frequencies. Students should understand that so
genotype frequencies are predicted by the Hardy–Weinberg equation: .
If one of the genotype frequencies is known, the allele frequencies can be calculated using the
same equations.
D4.1.14—Hardy–Weinberg conditions that must be maintained for a population to be in genetic
equilibrium
Students should understand that if genotype frequencies in a population do not t the Hardy–
Weinberg equation, this indicates that one or more of the conditions is not being met, for example
mating is non-random or survival rates vary between genotypes.
D4.1.15—Articial selection by deliberate choice of traits
Articial selection is carried out in crop plants and domesticated animals by choosing individuals
for breeding that have desirable traits. Unintended consequences of human actions, such as the
evolution of resistance in bacteria when an antibiotic is used, are due to natural rather than articial
selection.
132
Biology guide
Syllabus
Linking questions
• How do intraspecic interactions differ from interspecic interactions?
• What mechanisms minimize competition?
D4.2 Stability and change
Continuity and change—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 4 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours
Guiding questions
• What features of ecosystems allow stability over unlimited time periods?
• What changes caused by humans threaten the stability of ecosystems?
SL and HL
D4.2.1—Stability as a property of natural ecosystems
Illustrate ecosystem stability with evidence of forest, desert or other ecosystems that have shown
continuity over long periods. There is evidence for some ecosystems persisting for millions of years.
D4.2.2—Requirements for stability in ecosystems
Include supply of energy, recycling of nutrients, genetic diversity and climatic variables remaining
within tolerance levels.
133
Biology guide
Syllabus
D4.2.3—Deforestation of Amazon rainforest as an example of a possible tipping point in ecosystem
stability
Include the need for a large area of rainforest for the generation of atmospheric water vapour by
transpiration, with consequent cooling, air ows and rainfall. Include uncertainty over the minimum
area of rainforest that is sufficient to maintain these processes.
Application of skills: Students should be able to calculate percentage change. In this case the
extent of deforestation can be assessed by calculating the percentage change from the original area
of forest.
D4.2.4—Use of a model to investigate the effect of variables on ecosystem stability
Mesocosms can be set up in open tanks but sealed glass vessels are preferable because entry and
exit of matter can be prevented but energy transfer is still possible. Aquatic or microbial ecosystems
are likely to be more successful than terrestrial ones.
NOS: Care and maintenance of the mesocosms should follow IB experimental guidelines.
D4.2.5—Role of keystone species in the stability of ecosystems
Students should appreciate the disproportionate impact on community structure of keystone
species and the risk of ecosystem collapse if they are removed.
D4.2.6—Assessing sustainability of resource harvesting from natural ecosystems
Sustainability depends on the rate of harvesting being lower than the rate of replacement. Include
one terrestrial plant species and one species of marine sh as examples of renewable resources and
how sustainability of harvesting can be assessed.
134
Biology guide
Syllabus
D4.2.7—Factors affecting the sustainability of agriculture
Include the need to consider soil erosion, leaching of nutrients, supply of fertilizers and other inputs,
pollution due to agrochemicals, and carbon footprint.
D4.2.8—Eutrophication of aquatic and marine ecosystems due to leaching
Students should understand the effects of eutrophication resulting from leaching of nitrogen and
phosphate fertilizers, including increased biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
D4.2.9—Biomagnication of pollutants in natural ecosystems
Students should understand how increased levels of toxins accumulate in the tissues of consumers
in higher trophic levels. Include DDT and mercury as examples.
D4.2.10—Effects of microplastic and macroplastic pollution of the oceans
Students should understand that plastics are persistent in the natural environment due to non-
biodegradability. Include examples of the effects of plastic pollution on marine life.
NOS: Scientists can inuence the actions of citizens if they provide clear information about their
research ndings. Popular media coverage of the effects of plastic pollution on marine life changed
public perception globally, which has driven measures to address this problem.
D4.2.11—Restoration of natural processes in ecosystems by rewilding
Methods should include reintroduction of apex predators and other keystone species, re-
establishment of connectivity of habitats over large areas, and minimization of human impact
including by ecological management. Include the example of Hinewai Reserve in New Zealand.
135
Biology guide
Syllabus
Additional higher level
D4.2.12—Ecological succession and its causes
Succession can be triggered by changes in both an abiotic environment and in biotic factors.
D4.2.13—Changes occurring during primary succession
Use any suitable terrestrial example to illustrate these general principles: increases in size of plants,
amount of primary production, species diversity, complexity of food webs and amount of nutrient
cycling.
D4.2.14—Cyclical succession in ecosystems
Students should appreciate that in some ecosystems there is a cycle of communities rather than a
single unchanging climax community. Students should refer to an example.
D4.2.15—Climax communities and arrested succession
Given any specic environmental conditions, ecological succession tends to lead to a particular type
of climax community, but human inuences can prevent this from developing. Use grazing by farm
livestock and drainage of wetlands as examples.
Linking questions
• What is the distinction between articial and natural processes?
• Over what timescales do things change in different biological systems?
D4.3 Climate change
Continuity and change—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
136
Biology guide
Syllabus
Additional higher level: 1 hour
Guiding questions
• What are the drivers of climate change?
• What are the impacts of climate change on ecosystems?
SL and HL
D4.3.1—Anthropogenic causes of climate change
Limit to anthropogenic increases in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane.
D4.3.2—Positive feedback cycles in global warming
Include release of carbon dioxide from deep ocean, increases in absorption of solar radiation
due to loss of reective snow and ice, accelerating rates of decomposition of peat and previously
undecomposed organic matter in permafrost, release of methane from melting permafrost and
increases in droughts and forest res.
D4.3.3—Change from net carbon accumulation to net loss in boreal forests as an example of a
tipping point
Include warmer temperatures and decreased winter snowfall leading to increased incidence of
drought and reductions in primary production in taiga, with forest browning and increases in the
frequency and intensity of forest res, which result in legacy carbon combustion.
137
Biology guide
Syllabus
D4.3.4—Melting of landfast ice and sea ice as examples of polar habitat change
Include potential loss of breeding grounds of the emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) due to
early breakout of landfast ice in the Antarctic and loss of sea ice habitat for walruses in the Arctic.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
D4.3.5—Changes in ocean currents altering the timing and extent of nutrient upwelling
Warmer surface water can prevent nutrient upwelling to the surface, decreasing ocean primary
production and energy ow through marine food chains.
D4.3.6—Poleward and upslope range shifts of temperate species
As evidence-based examples, include upslope range shifts for tropical-zone montane bird species in
New Guinea and range contraction and northward spread in North American tree species.
D4.3.7—Threats to coral reefs as an example of potential ecosystem collapse
Increased carbon dioxide concentrations are the cause of ocean acidication and suppression of
calcication in corals. Increases in water temperature are a cause of coral bleaching. Loss of corals
causes the collapse of reef ecosystems.
D4.3.8—Afforestation, forest regeneration and restoration of peat-forming wetlands as approaches
to carbon sequestration
There is active scientic debate over whether plantations of non-native tree species or rewilding
with native species offer the best approach to carbon sequestration. Peat formation naturally
occurs in waterlogged soils in temperate and boreal zones and also very rapidly in some tropical
ecosystems.
138
Biology guide
Syllabus
Additional higher level
D4.3.9—Phenology as research into the timing of biological events
Students should be aware that photoperiod and temperature patterns are examples of variables
that inuence the timing of biological events such as owering, budburst and bud set in deciduous
trees, bird migration and nesting.
D4.3.10—Disruption to the synchrony of phenological events by climate change
Students should recognize that within an ecosystem temperature may act as the cue in one
population and photoperiod may be the cue in another. Include spring growth of the Arctic mouse-
ear chickweed (Cerastium arcticum) and arrival of migrating reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) as one
example. Also include a suitable local example or use the breeding of the great tit (Parus major) and
peak biomass of caterpillars in north European forests as another.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
D4.3.11—Increases to the number of insect life cycles within a year due to climate change
Use the spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus or Dendroctonus micans) as an example.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
D4.3.12—Evolution as a consequence of climate change
Include changes in the tness of colour variants of the tawny owl (Strix aluco) as a consequence of
changes in snow cover.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the
scientic name is acceptable.
139
Biology guide
Syllabus
Linking questions
• What are the impacts of climate change at each level of biological organization?
• What processes determine the distribution of organisms on Earth?
140
© International Baccalaureate Organization 2023
International Baccalaureate® | Baccalauréat International® | Bachillerato Internacional®
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