University Institute of

Engineering & Technology

Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak

Database Management System

Practical File

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. RajKumar SWAYAM
CSE-A (3rd Semester)
UIET, MDU
ROLL NO. 2314016

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 INDEX

S.No. Program Page no. Remarks

1. Creation of a database and writing SQL queries to retrieve 2
information from the database
2. 4
Performing Insertion, Deletion, Modifying, Altering,
Updating and viewing records based on conditions
3. 7
Creation of Views, Synonyms, Sequence, Indexes, Save
point
4. 11
Creating an Employee database to set various constraints

5. 14
Creating relationship between the databases

6. 17
Study of PL/SQL block

7. 21
Write a PL/SQL block to satisfy some conditions by
accepting input from the user
8. 31
Write a PL/SQL block that handles all types of exceptions

9. 38
Creation of Procedures

10. 40
Creation of database triggers and functions

11.
Mini project

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 Experiment-1
Aim:

To create a database and writing SQL queries to retrieve information from

the database.
Description:
SQL is a database query language used for storing and managing data in
Relational DBMS. SQL was the first commercial language introduced for
E.F Codd's Relational model of database. SQL is used to perform all types
of data operations in RDBMS.
Creation of database:
“Create Database” statement is used to create a database

Syntax:
Create Database {Database Name};
“Show Databases” statement is used to show all the databases in SQL
Server.
Syntax:
Show Databases;

“Use” statement is used to select a database

Syntax:
Use {Database Name};

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Creation of Table:
Constraints can be specified when the table is created with the “Create
Table” statement, or after the table is created with the “Alter Table”
statement.
The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:
Not Null: Ensures that a column cannot have a null value.
Unique: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each row in a table.
Foreign Key: Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table.
Check: Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition.
Default: Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified.
Index: Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.
Syntax:
Create Table {Table Name}(
Column_1 datatype constraint,
Column_2 datatype constraint,
Column_3 datatype constraint,
.....);
Example:
Create Table cse(
Roll_Number integer primary key,
Full_Name varchar(50) Not NUll,
Phone_Number integer Unique
);
“Show Table” Statement is used to get a list of all the tables in the database
selected.
Syntax:
Show Tables;

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 Experiment 2
Aim:

To Insert, View, Delete, Alter, Modify and Update records based on

conditions.
Description:
Inserting Values into table:
“Insert into” Statement is used to insert values in a table. The values which
are inserted in table are specified with the help of “Values” statement.
Syntax:
Insert into{table_name}(column_1, column_2, column_3...)
Values(value_1, Value_2, Value_3. .. );
Example:
Insert into cse(Roll_Number, Full_Name, Phone_Number)
Values(12345, “Abc Def”, 9876543210);

View records from a table:

“Select” and “from” is used to view records from a table. “where” is used
to specify conditions if we want to see only a particular information
satisfying that condition. “*” is used in case we want to see all the column
instead of only specifying all the columns individually.
Syntax:
Select {Column_Names} From {Table_Name} where {condition};
Example:
Select * from cse;

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Deleting a record from table:
“Delete From” is for delete a record. It is used with “where” which is used
to specify the conditon where we want to delete the record.
Syntax:
Delete from {table name} where {condition};
Example:
Delete from cse where Roll_Number = 12348;

Altering a Table:
Unlike other command up until now this command do not affect records
but it affects the table itself.
“Alter” is used to change the structure of the table.
 Adding a new column:
Used to add a new column in an existing table.
Syntax:
Alter Table {table name}
Add column {column_name datatype};
Example:
Alter table cse add column percentage integer;

 Deleting an existing column:

Used to delete a column in an existing table.
Syntax:
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 Alter table {Table name}
Drop column {column_name};
Example:
Alter table cse drop column percentage;

 Modify a column:
used to modify a column
Syntax:
Alter table {Table_name} Modify column datatype;
Example:
Alter table cse modify Full_Name varchar(100);

Updating a record:
“Update” and “set” statement are used to update records along with the
“where” statement.
Syntax:
Update {table_name} set {column} = {new value}
where {condition};
Example:
Update cse set Full_Name = “Xyz”
where Roll_number = 12348;

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 Experiment 3
Aim:

To create Views, Synonyms, Sequence, Indexes, Save point.

Description:
View:
View is an object which gives the user a logical view of data from an
underlying table. We can restrict what users can view by allowing them to
see only a few columns from a table When a view is created from more
than one table, the user can view data from the view without using join
conditions and complex conditions Views also hide the names of the
underlying tables View is stored as a “Select” statement in the Data
Dictionary View contains no data of its own Any updation of rows in the
table will automatically reflect in the views A query fired on a view will
run slower than a query fired on a base table.

Creation of a view:
Create view {view_name} as
select {column_1}, {column_2}...
from {table_name}
where {condition};
This query help in creatinf a view (i.e., a virrtual table based on result set
of SQL statement it contains rows & columns just like a table) of a table.

Deletion of a view:
Drop view {view_name};

This query is used to delete a view of a table.

To add or remove fields in a view:
create or replace view {view_name} as
select {column_1}, {column_2}.....
from {table_name}
where {condition};
This query is used to modify the structure of view i.e., to add or remove
Fields in a view
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Inserting a row in a view:
insert into {view_name} (column_1, column_2. ...)
values(value_1, value_2. .. );
This query is used to insert a new record in that view and in original table
and also in all other views of that table.
Deleteing a row from a view:
Delete from {view_name} where {condition};
This query is used to delete the record that satisfy the given condition &
that record is deleted from other views also & also from original table.

Updating Views:
Update {view_name} set {column_name} = {new vaue}
where {condition};
There are certain conditions needed to be satisfied to update a view. If any
one of these conditions is not met, then we will not be allowed to update
the view.
 The select statement which is usd to create the view should not include
group by clause or order by clause.
 The select statement should not have the distinct keyword.
 The view should have all not null values.
 The view should not be created using nested quesries or complex
queries.
 The view should be created from single table. If the view is created
using multiple tables than we will not be allowed to update the view.

Synonyms:
Synonyms are used to create alternate names for tables, views, sequences,
etc.

Creating a synonym:
Create synonym {syn_name} for {object_name};
This query creates a synonym for any object i.e., any table, view, etc.

View the details of a user synonyms:

Select {syn_name}, {table_name}, {table_owner} from user_synonyms;
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This query is used to view the deatils of the synonyms.

Droping a synonym:
Drop synonym {syn_name};
This query is used to delete a synonym.

Sequence:
Sequence is used to generate a sequence of numbers. The value generated
can have a maximum of 38 digits.
The minimum information required to generate numbers using a sequence
are:
• The starting number {s}
• The maximum number {m}
• The increment value {n}

Creating a sequence:
Create sequence {seq_name} increment by {n}
Start with {s} maxvalue {m} {cache/ nocache};
This query creates a sequence which increment by value n and starts with s
with maximum value of m.

Currval :Gives the current value in sequence.

Nextval: Gives the next value in sequence.
Select sqn_name.currval from dual;
Select sqn_name.nextval form dual;

Modifying a Sequence:
Modification of a sequence does not allow us to change the “start with”
option. Similarly, the maximum value cannot be set to a number less than
the current number.
Alter sequence {seq_name} increment by {n}
Start with {s} maxvalue {m} {cache/ nocache};

Drop a Sequence:
A sequence can dropped:
Drop sequence {sqn_name};
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Index:
Index is used for faster retrieval of rows from a table. It can be used
implicitly or explicitly.

Creating a Index:
Create index {in_name} on {table_name}(column_1, column_2...);
This query is used to create index on one or more columns.

Rebuilding an index:
Alter index {in_name} Rebuild;
When a table goes through changes, it is advisable to rebuild indexes based
on the table.

Savepoint:
Savepoint is a command in SQL that is used with the rollback command. It
is a command in Transaction Control Language that is used to mark the
transaction in a table.If you made a transaction in a table, you could mark
the transaction as a certain name, and later on, if you want to roll back to
that point, you can do it easily by using the transaction's name.

Creating a savepoint:
To create a savepoint we first have to start our transaction with begin/start.
Start Transaction;
Savepoint {sp_name};

Rolling back to savepoint:

To roll back to a savepoint we use “Rollback to”.
Rollback to {sp_name};

Deleting a savepoint:
There is no syntax to delete a savepoint. A savepoint gets automatically
deleted when we commit or rollback the trasaction.
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 Experiment-4
Aim:
Creating an Employee database to set various constraints.
Description:
Constraints are the rules that we can apply on the type of data in a table.
That is, we can specify the limit on the type of data that can be stored in a
particular column in a table using constraints.
The available constraints in SQL are:
NOT NULL: This constraint tells that we cannot store a null value in a
column. That is, if a column is specified as NOT NULL then we will not be
able to store null in this particular column any more.
UNIQUE: This constraint when specified with a column, tells that all the
values in the column must be unique. That is, the values in any row of a
column must not be repeated.
PRIMARY KEY: A primary key is a field which can uniquely identify
each row in a table. And this constraint is used to specify a field in a table
as primary key.
FOREIGN KEY: A Foreign key is a field which can uniquely identify
each row in a another table. And this constraint is used to specify a field as
Foreign key.
CHECK: This constraint helps to validate the values of a column to meet a
particular condition. That is, it helps to ensure that the value stored in a
column meets a specific condition.
DEFAULT: This constraint specifies a default value for the column when
no value is specified by the user.

Create table employee with various constraints:

Create table employee (
e_id integer (9) primary key,
f_name varchar (20) not null
m_name varchar (20) default “n/a”,

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 l_name varchar (20) not null,
age integer not null check(age>22),
d_code integer (5),
foreign key (d_code) references department(d_code),
salary_pm integer
);

Create table department:

Create table department(
d_code integer (5) primary key,
project_code varchar(10) unique,
team_members integer check (team_members <= 10)
);

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 Experiment – 5
Aim:
Creating relationship between the databases.
Description:
In sql, we can create a relationsip by creating a foreign key constraint.
More, specifically we have a parent table and a child table. The parent
contains the primary key and the child table contains the foreign key that
references to the primary key of the parent table.
When we use SQL to create a relationship, we can create the relationship at
the time we create the table, or we can create it later by altering the table.
Create a Relationship When Creating the Table:
Here’s an example of creating a relationship within your “Create Table”
statement at the time you create the table.

Syntax:
Create table Parent_Table(
P_column_1 datatype primary key,
P_column_2 datatype
P_column_3 datatype
);
Create table Child_Table(
C_Column_1 datatype primary key,
C_Column_2 datatype
C_column_3 datatype constraint Parent_Child
foreign key (C_Column_3)
References Parent_Table (P_Column_1)
);
Here we created two tables; one called “Parent_Table” and the other called
“Child Table”.
Add a Relationship to an Existing Table:
You can also add a relationship to an existing table, simply by using the
“Alter Table” statement. For Example, let say we didn’t create a foreign
key in the table in previous example of Parent_child relationship and we
want to create a relationship now, after we have created the tables.
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Syntax:
Alter Table Child_Table
Add Constraint Parent_Child
Foreign Key(C_Column_3)
References Parent_Table(P_Column_1);
Note: SQLite Doesn’t support adding foreign keys with the Alter Table
Statement.

Example:
Create table employee (
e_id integer (9) primary key,
f_name varchar (20) not null,
m_name varchar (20) default “n/a”,
l_name varchar (20) not null,
age integer not null check(age>22),
d_code integer (5),
foreign key (d_code) references department(d_code),
salary_pm integer
);

Create table department:

Create table department(
d_code integer (5) primary key,
project_code varchar(10) unique,
team_members integer check (team_members <= 10)
);

Add a Foreign ket to an existing table in SQLite:

By default, SQL Server relationships are created using “on delete no
action” and “on update no action”. Therefore, the previous examples were
created using this setting.
However, different DBMSs may use other default settings.
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Either way, you can explicitly specify this in your code. So we can modify
the previous example to look like this:
Syntax:
Alter Table Child_Table
Add Constraint Parent_Child
Foreign Key (C_Column_3)
References Parent_Table (P_Column_1)
On delete no action
On update no action;

What this actually means is that, if someone was to try to delete or update a
record in the “Primary Key”, an error would occur and the change would
be rolled back. This is SQL Server’s way of preventing any changes that
could break the referential integrity of your system.
Basically, the reason you create a relationship in the first place is to enforce
referential integrity.
However, you do have some options with how you want SQL Server to
deal with these situations.
Specifically, you can use any of the following values:
 No Action: An error is raised and the delete/update action on the row
in the parent table is rolled back.
 Cascade: Corresponding rows are deleted from/ updated in the
referencing table if that row is deleted from/updated in the parent
table.
 Set Null: All the values that make up the foreign key are set to “Null”
if the corresponding row in the parent table is deleted or updated.
This requires that the foreign key columns are nullable.
 Set Default: All the values that make up the foreign key are set to
their default values if the corresponding row in the parent table is
deleted or updated. For this constraint to execute, all foreign key
columns must have default definitions. If a column is nullable, and
there is no explicit default value set, “Null” becomes the implicit
default value of the column.

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 Experimnt-6
Aim:
Study of PL/SQL block.
Description:
 PL/SQL:

PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extension of SQL.

PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features
of programming languages.
It was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90‟s to enhance
the capabilities of SQL.
A Simple PL/SQL Block:
Each PL/SQL program consists of SQL and PL/SQL statements which
from a PL/SQL block.

PL/SQL Block consists of three sections:

 The Declaration section (optional).

 The Execution section (mandatory).
 The Exception (or Error) Handling section (optional).
Declaration Section:
The Declaration section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved
keyword DECLARE. This section is optional and is used to declare any
placeholders like variables, constants, records and cursors, which are used
to manipulate data in the execution section. Placeholders may be any of
Variables, Constants and Records, which stores data temporarily. Cursors
are also declared in this section.

Execution Section:
The Execution section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword
BEGIN and ends with END. This is a mandatory section and is the section
where the program logic is written to perform any task. The programmatic
constructs like loops, conditional statement and SQL statements from the
part of execution section.
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Exception Section
The Exception section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword
EXCEPTION. This section is optional. Any errors in the program can be
handled in this section, so that the PL/SQL Blocks terminates gracefully. If
the PL/SQL Block contains exceptions that cannot be handled, the Block
terminates abruptly with errors. Every statement in the above three sections
must end with a semicolon ; . PL/SQL blocks can be nested within other
PL/SQL blocks. Comments can be used to document code.

A Sample PL/SQL Block Looks like:

DECLARE
Variable declaration
BEGIN
Program Execution
EXCEPTION
Exception handling
END;
PL/SQL Block Structure:
DECLARE
v_variable VARCHAR2(5);
BEGIN
SELECT column_name INTO v_variable
FROM table_name;
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
...
END;
Block Types

1. Anonymous
[DECLARE]
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 BEGIN
--statements
[EXCEPTION]
END;
2. Procedure
PROCEDURE name
IS
BEGIN
--statements
[EXCEPTION]
END;
3. Function
PROCEDURE name
FUNCTION name
RETURN datatype
IS
BEGIN
--statements
RETURN value;
[EXCEPTION]
END;
Result:

Thus the PL/SQL blocks are studied.

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 Experiment-7
Aim:

Write a PL/SQL block to satisfy some conditions by accepting input from

the user.

Description:
PL/SQL Control Structure provides conditional tests, loops, flow control
and branches that let to produce well-structured programs.

Syntax:
DECLARE
Variable declaration
BEGIN
Program Execution
EXCEPTION
Exception handling
END;
PL/ SQL General Syntax:
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
<executable statement >;
end;
PL/ SQL General Syntax for if Condition:
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
if(condition) then
<executable statement >;
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 end;
PL/ SQL General Syntax for If and Else Condition:
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
if (test condition) then
<statements>;
else
<statements>;
end if;
end;
PL/ SQL General Syntax for Nested if Condition:
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
if (test condition) then
<statements>;
else if (test condition) then
<statements>;
else
<statements>;
end if;
end;
PL/ SQL General syntax for Looping statement:
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
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 loop
<statement>;
end loop;
<executable statement>;
end;
PL/ SQL General Syntax For Looping Statement:
SQL> declare
<variable declaration>;
begin
while <condition>
loop
<statement>;
end loop;
<executable statement>;
end;
PL/SQL Coding for addition of two numbers:
PROCEDURE:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize the necessary variables.
Step 3: Develop the set of statements with the essential
operational parameters.
Step 4: Specify the Individual operation to be carried out.
Step 5: Execute the statements.
Step 6: Stop.
PROGRAM:
SQL> set serveroutput on
SQL> declare

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 a number;
b number;
c number;
begin
a: =&a;
b: =&b;
c: =a+b;
dbms_output.put_line ('sum of' ||a|| 'and '||b||' is '||c);
end;
/
Input:
Enter value for a: 23
old: a:=&a;
new: a:=23;
Enter value for b: 12
old: b:=&b;
new: b:=12;
Output:

PL/ SQL Program for if Condition:

( Write a PL/SQL Program to find out the maximum value using if
condition)
Procedure:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize the necessary variables.
Step 3: invoke the if condition.
Step 4: Execute the statements.
Step 5: Stop.
Program:
SQL> set serveroutput on
SQL> declare
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 b number;
c number;
BEGIN
B:=10;
C:=20;
if(C>B) THEN
dbms_output.put_line('C is maximum');
end if;
end;
/
Output:

PL/ SQL Program for If Else Condition:

( Write a PL/SQL Program to check whether the value is less than or
greater than 5 using if else condition)
Procedure:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize the necessary variables.
Step 3: invoke the if else condition.
Step 4: Execute the statements.
Step 5: Stop.
Program:
SQL> set serveroutput on
SQL> declare
n number;
begin
dbms_output. put_line('enter a number');
n:=&number;
if n<5 then
dbms_output.put_line('entered number is less than 5');
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 else
dbms_output.put_line('entered number is greater than 5');
end if;
end;
/
Input:

Enter value for number: 2

old 5: n:=&number;
new 5: n:=2;
Output:

PL/ SQL Program for If Else If Condition:

( Write a PL/SQL Program to find the greatest of three numbers using if
else if )
Procedure:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize the necessary variables.
Step 3: invoke the if else if condition.
Step 4: Execute the statements.
Step 5: Stop.
Program:
SQL> set server output on
SQL> declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
c:=&c;
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 if(a>b)and(a>c) then
dbms_output.put_line('A is maximum');
else if(b>a)and(b>c)then
dbms_output.put_line('B is maximum');
else
dbms_output.put_line('C is maximum');
end if;
end;
/
Input:

Enter value for a: 21

old: a:=&a;
new: a:=21;
Enter value for b: 12
old: b:=&b;
new: b:=12;
Enter value for b: 45
old: c:=&b;
new: c:=45;
Output:

PL/ SQL Program for Looping Statement:

( Write a PL/SQL Program to find the summation of odd numbers using for
loop)
Procedure:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize the necessary variables.
Step 3: invoke the for loop condition.
Step 4: Execute the statements.
Step 5: Stop.
Program:
SQL> set server output on
SQL> declare
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 n number;
sum1 number default 0;
end value number;
begin
end value:=&end value;
n:=1;
for n in 1..endvalue
loop
if mod(n,2)=1
then
sum1:=sum1+n;
end if;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('sum ='||sum1);
end;
/
Input:

Enter value for end value: 4

old : end value:=&end value;
new : end value:=4;
Output:

PL/ SQL Program for looping statement:

(Write a PL/SQL Program to find the factorial of given number using for
loop)
Procedure:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Initialize the necessary variables.
Step 3: invoke the for loop condition.
Step 4: Execute the statements.
Step 5: Stop.
Program:
SQL> set server output on
SQL> declare
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 n number;
i number;
p number:=1;
begin
n:=&n;
for i in 1..n loop
p:=p*i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(n ||' ! = '||p);
end;
Input:

Enter value for n: 5

old : n:=&n;
new: n:=5;
Output:

Result:
Thus a PL/SQL block to satisfy some conditions by accepting input from
the user was created using oracle.

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 Experiment-8
Aim:

Write a PL/SQL block that handles all types of exceptions.

Description:
In PL/SQL, the user can catch certain runtime errors. Exceptions can be
internally defined by Oracle or the user. Exceptions are used to handle
errors that occur in your PL/SQL code. A PL/SQL block contains an
EXCEPTION block to handle exception.
There are three types of exceptions:
1. Predefined Oracle errors
2. Undefined Oracle errors
3. User-defined errors
The different parts of the exception.
1. Declare the exception.
2. Raise an exception.
3. Handle the exception.
An exception has four attributes:
1. Name provides a short description of the problem.
2. Type identifies the area of the error.
3. Exception Code gives a numeric representation of the exception.
4. Error message provides additional information about the exception.
The predefined divide-by-zero exception has the following values for the
attributes:
1. Name = ZERO_DIVIDE
2. Type = ORA (from the Oracle engine)
3. Exception Code = C01476
Error message = divisor is equal to zero
Exception Handling:
PL/SQL provides a feature to handle the Exceptions which occur in a
PL/SQL Block known as exception Handling. Using Exception Handling
we can test the code and avoid it from exiting abruptly.When an exception
occurs messages which explains its cause is received.
PL/SQL Exception message consists of three parts.
Type of Exception 39 | P a g e
 An Error Code
A message
Structure Of Exception Handling
General Syntax For Coding The Exception Section
DECLARE
Declaration section
BEGIN
Exception section
EXCEPTION
WHEN ex_name1 THEN
-Error handling statements
WHEN ex_name2 THEN
-Error handling statements
WHEN Others THEN
-Error handling statements
END;
Types of Exceptions:
There are 2 types of Exceptions.
a) System Exceptions
b) User-defined Exceptions
a) System Exceptions
System exceptions are automatically raised by Oracle, when a program
violates a RDBMS rule. There are some system exceptions which are
raised frequently, so they are pre-defined and given a name in Oracle
which are known as Named System Exceptions.
For example: NO_DATA_FOUND and ZERO_DIVIDE are called Named
System exceptions.
For Example: Suppose a NO_DATA_FOUND exception is raised in a
proc, we can write a code to handle the exception as given below.
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('A SELECT...INTO did not return any row.');
END;
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b) User-defined Exceptions
PL/SQL allows us to define our own exceptions according to the need of
our program. A user-defined exception must be declared and then raised
explicitly, using a RAISE statement. To define an exception we use
EXCEPTION keyword as below:
EXCEPTION_NAME EXCEPTION;
To raise exception that we‟ve defined to use the RAISE statement as
follows:
RAISE EXCEPTION_NAME
Raising Exceptions
Exceptions are raised by the database server automatically whenever there
is any internal database error, but exceptions can be raised explicitly by the
programmer by using the command RAISE. Following is the simple syntax
of raising an exception:
DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF condition THEN
RAISE exception_name;
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
statement;
END;

TYPES OF MORE COMMONLY USED EXCEPTIONS:

NO_DATA_FOUND Singleton Select statement returned
no data.
TOO_MANY_ROWS Singleton Select statement returned
more than one row.
INVALID_CURSOR Illegal cursor operation occured.
VALUE_ERROR Arithmetic, conversion, or truncation
error occured.
INVALID_NUMBER Conversion of a number to a character
string failed.
ZERO_DIVIDE Attempted to divide by zero
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DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX Attempted to insert a duplicate value
into a column that has a unique index.
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN Attempted to open a cursorthat was
previously opened.
NOT_LOGGED_ON A database call eas made without
being logged in.
TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT Usually raised when a remote portion
of a transaction is rolled back.
LOGIN_DENIED Failed to login.
PROGRAM_ERROR If PL/SQL encounters an internal
problem.
STORAGE_ERROR If PL/SQL runs out of memory or if
memory is corrupted.
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE Timeout occured while PL/SQL was
waiting for a resource.
OTHERS For all of the rest.

Program:
ZERO_DIVIDE EXCEPTION
SQL> BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(1 / 0);
END;
/
Output:

BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(1 / 0);
EXCEPTION
WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Division by zero');
END;
/

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Division by zero:

INVALID_NUMBER EXCEPTION
BEGIN
INSERT INTO employees(DEPARTMENT_ID)VALUES('101x');
EXCEPTION
WHEN INVALID_NUMBER THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Conversion of string to number
failed');
end;
/
Output:

Other Exceptions
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(1 / 0);
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('An exception occurred');
END;
/
Output:

First Create A Table Named Customerss Wth Attribute Id, Name,

Address And Then Implement The Following Code:
SQL> declare
c_id customerss.id%type;
c_name customerss.name%type;
c_addr customerss.address%type;
begin
SELECT name,address INTO c_name,c_addr
FROM customerss WHERE id=c_id;
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 dbms_output.put_line('Name: '|| c_name);
dbms_output.put_line('Address: ' || c_addr);
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;
/
Output:

Program:
(The following example illustrates the programmer-defined exceptions. Get
the salary of an employee and check it with the job’s salary range. If the
salary is below the range, an exception BELOW_SALARY_RANGE is
raised. If the salary is above the range, exception
ABOVE_SALARY_RANGE is raised)
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON SIZE 100000;
DECLARE
-- define exceptions
BELOW_SALARY_RANGE EXCEPTION;
ABOVE_SALARY_RANGE EXCEPTION;
-- salary variables
n_salary employees.salary%TYPE;
n_min_salary employees.salary%TYPE;
n_max_salary employees.salary%TYPE;
-- input employee id
n_emp_id employees.employee_id%TYPE := &emp_id;
BEGIN
SELECT salary, min_salary max_salary INTO n_salary,
n_min_salary, n_max_salary
FROM employees
INNER JOIN jobs ON jobs.job_id = employees.job_id
WHERE employee_id = n_emp_id;
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 IF n_salary < n_min_salary THEN
RAISE BELOW_SALARY_RANGE;
ELSIF n_salary > n_max_salary THEN
RAISE ABOVE_SALARY_RANGE;
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line('Employee ' || n_emp_id ||' has salary $' ||
n_salary );
EXCEPTION WHEN BELOW_SALARY_RANGE THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Employee ' || n_emp_id || ' has salary
below the salary range');
WHEN ABOVE_SALARY_RANGE THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Employee ' || n_emp_id || ' has salary
above the salary range');
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee ' ||n_emp_id || ' not
found');
END;
/

Result:
Thus a PL/SQL block that handles all type of exceptions was written,
executed and verified successfully.

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 Experiment-9
Aim:
Creation of Procedures.
Description:
PL/SQL Procedure
The PL/SQL stored procedure or simply a procedure is a PL/SQL block
which performs one or more specific tasks. It is just like procedures in
other programming languages.
The procedure contains a header and a body.
Header: The header contains the name of the procedure and the
parameters or variables passed to the procedure.
Body: The body contains a declaration section, execution section and
exception section similar to a general PL/SQL block.
How to pass parameters in procedure:
When you want to create a procedure or function, you have to define
parameters .There is three ways to pass parameters in procedure:
IN parameters:The IN parameter can be referenced by the procedure or
function. The value of the parameter cannot be overwritten by the
procedure or the function.
OUT parameters: The OUT parameter cannot be referenced by the
procedure or function, but the value of the parameter can be overwritten by
the procedure or function.
INOUT parameters: The INOUT parameter can be referenced by the
procedure or function and the value of the parameter can be overwritten by
the procedure or function.
Creation of Procredure:
Create {or Replace} Procedure {procedure_name} (parameter,
parameter .... )
IS
{decalaration_section}
BEGIN
executable_section
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{EXCEPTION
exception section}
END {procedure_name};
/
Example:
Table:
create table user(id integer(10) primary key,name varchar2(100));
Procedure:
create procedure insert_user (id in number, name in varchar2)
is
begin
insert into user values(id,name);
end;
/

Deleting a procedure:
Drop procedure {procedure_name};
This syntax deletes the procedure.
Example:
Drop procedure insert_user;

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 Experiment-10
Aim:

Creation of database triggers and functions

Description:
Trigger:
A trigger is a stored procedure in database which automatically invokes
whenever a special event in the database occurs. For example, a trigger can
be invoked when a row is inserted into a specified table or when certain
table columns are being updated.
Syntax:
create trigger {trigger_name}
{before / after}
{insert / update / delete}
on {table_name}
{for each row}
{trigger_body}
Explanation of syntax:
1. create trigger {trigger_name}: Creates or replaces an existing trigger
with the trigger_name.
2. {before / after}: This specifies when the trigger will be executed.
3. {insert / update / delete}: This specifies the DML operation.
4. on {table_name}: This specifies the name of the table associated with
the trigger.
5. {for each row}: This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger will be
executed for each row being affected.
6. {trigger_body}: This provides the operation to be performed as trigger
is fired
BEFORE and AFTER of Trigger:
BEFORE triggers run the trigger action before the triggering statement is
run. AFTER triggers run the trigger action after the triggering statement is
run.
Example:
Given Student Report Database, in which student marks assessment is
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recorded. In such schema, create a trigger so that the total and percentage
of specified marks is automatically inserted whenever a record is insert.
Here, as trigger will invoke before record is inserted so, BEFORE Tag can
be used.
create trigger stud_marks
before insert
on
Student
for each row
set Student.total = Student.subj1 + Student.subj2 + Student.subj3,
Student.per = Student.total * 60 / 100;

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